African Politics & Challenges since Independence Independence was followed by optimism, great expectations; constitutions were democratic, attempts to forge nation-states, etc. Search for legitimacy, aid from western nations,- Europe, etc. Voluntary Service Overseas from GB, Peace Corps from US, etc. Little from Russia and Easter Europe; not much from China, explain Nkrumah’s united states of Africa- didn’t gain traction OAU established in 1963- objectives, replace by African Union in 2002 Within a few years, most nations moved from multiparty system to one-arty rule; and others to military rule Little attempt to break down linguistic and tribal barriers Boundaries of nations were artificial, people didn’t have a common historical experience, and heritage; and so divisions remained Colonial divisions created to serve colonial interests remained in place; hence conflicts: Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970); Katanga in the Congo (1960-1963); etc. Nigeria: -secession, Lt. Colonel Ojukwu, governor of eastern state, proclaimed new state of Nigeria. Lt. Gen. Gowon, new leader of Nigeria led war to reinstate Biafra—explain context of conflict 1967-70- civil war Congo, Moise Tshombe secession of Katanga from Congo, UN intervention, etc., eventual Mobutu Concentration of political power: explain how many leaders have remained in power; one man rule became the order of the day Soldier-politicians: military stepped in and out of politics, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Ghana, etc, etc 1961-67, military take-overs in Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, etc. Muammar Gadhafi seized power in 1969, explain activities—intervened in several nations including Sudan, Egypt, Morocco, Chad, etc. overthrown in 2011 1970s: some of the worst abuses came to an end; Idi Amin in Uganda, Francisco Macias Nguema in Equatorial Guinea was overthrown in 1979; Jean-Bedel Bokassa (self-proclaimed emperor) was deposed Horn of Africa, many problems. From 1962– Eritreans called for independence from Ethiopia, and was obtained in 1994 1974- Haile Selassie was overthrown and leadership eventually fell into the hands of Mengistu Haile Marian, who was himself ousted in 1991 Somalia– Siad Barre maintained power until country began to disintegrate—he fled from power in 1991, contextualize within events of end of Cold War, etc. Collapse of Berlin Wall, and rising expectations, call for National Conference, collapse of many regimes, Kaunda, Hastings, Mobutu, etc. Economic decline and increasing dependence: countries are heavily dependent on imported goods, limited industrialization translates into heavy importation of manufactured goods By the mid-1980s, economic decline had near crisis proportion—Decade of lost development IMF & WB imposed severe conditions on loans: devalue currency, increase in price of staple foods, freeze wages, etc; focus on programs such as Structural Adjustment Program, etc. Political crises: near anarchy in the 1980s & 1990s, Li.

1. African Politics & Challenges since Independence
Independence was followed by optimism, great expectations;
constitutions were democratic, attempts to forge nation-states,
etc.
Search for legitimacy, aid from western nations,- Europe, etc.
Voluntary Service Overseas from GB, Peace Corps from US,
etc. Little from Russia and Easter Europe; not much from China,
explain
Nkrumah’s united states of Africa- didn’t gain traction
OAU established in 1963- objectives, replace by African Union
in 2002
Within a few years, most nations moved from multiparty system
to one-arty rule; and others to military rule
Little attempt to break down linguistic and tribal barriers
Boundaries of nations were artificial, people didn’t have a
common historical experience, and heritage; and so divisions
remained
Colonial divisions created to serve colonial interests remained
in place; hence conflicts: Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970);
Katanga in the Congo (1960-1963); etc.
Nigeria: -secession, Lt. Colonel Ojukwu, governor of eastern
state, proclaimed new state of Nigeria. Lt. Gen. Gowon, new
leader of Nigeria led war to reinstate Biafra—explain context of
conflict
1967-70- civil war
Congo, Moise Tshombe secession of Katanga from Congo, UN

2. intervention, etc., eventual Mobutu
Concentration of political power: explain how many leaders
have remained in power; one man rule became the order of the
day
Soldier-politicians: military stepped in and out of politics,
Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Ghana, etc, etc
1961-67, military take-overs in Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso,
Central African Republic, etc.
Muammar Gadhafi seized power in 1969, explain activities—
intervened in several nations including Sudan, Egypt, Morocco,
Chad, etc. overthrown in 2011
1970s: some of the worst abuses came to an end; Idi Amin in
Uganda, Francisco Macias Nguema in Equatorial Guinea was
overthrown in 1979; Jean-Bedel Bokassa (self-proclaimed
emperor) was deposed
Horn of Africa, many problems. From 1962– Eritreans called
for independence from Ethiopia, and was obtained in 1994
1974- Haile Selassie was overthrown and leadership eventually
fell into the hands of Mengistu Haile Marian, who was himself
ousted in 1991
Somalia– Siad Barre maintained power until country began to
disintegrate—he fled from power in 1991, contextualize within
events of end of Cold War, etc.
Collapse of Berlin Wall, and rising expectations, call for
National Conference, collapse of many regimes, Kaunda,
Hastings, Mobutu, etc.
Economic decline and increasing dependence: countries are

3. heavily dependent on imported goods, limited industrialization
translates into heavy importation of manufactured goods
By the mid-1980s, economic decline had near crisis
proportion—Decade of lost development
IMF & WB imposed severe conditions on loans: devalue
currency, increase in price of staple foods, freeze wages, etc;
focus on programs such as Structural Adjustment Program, etc.
Political crises: near anarchy in the 1980s & 1990s, Liberia,
Somalia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Angola, Democratic Republic
of Congo, -- to this is also added another class, Chad, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Mozambique, Rwanda
Sudan –Darfur
Popular revolts: consequence of changes including collapse of
Berlin wall; nationalists calling for national conference; explain
impact on regimes, etc
Economic change: by the 1970s more African nations were
collapsing into poverty, dependency theory
Some causes of economic woes: rise in oil prices, civil wars,
corruption, drought, etc
Decline of basic services, infrastructure, health services, etc
Devaluation led to loss of real income
African development crisis: in the 1980s it became clear that
African economies were dropping significantly; explain impact
of structural adjustment program

4. Characteristics of developing African nations:
Low life expectancy, less 50 in many nations; in Nigeria it is
fifty
Medical services; almost non-existent in places; in Chad &
Niger– there is one doctor for 73,000 & 56,000 respectively
Unemployment, very high especially in urban areas, explain
Exports, explain the dilemma of raw materials, etc
Income, real income is low; per capita income for roughly 25
nations less than $500; examples for the year 2006: Mali-$440;
Sierra Leone-- $220; Ethiopia-- $180; Burundi-- $100; Liberia-
- $140; Malawi-- $170, : implications for growth
Economic infrastructure; explain, roads, railways, etc
Capital, in limited,
Brain drain; explain & impact
Institutional failure; political institutions created following
independence have failed the African people
Some hope: rate of literacy is up; many universities have been
created since independence; most governments mandate
attendance of elementary school.
Democracy developing in places: Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana,
etc
Africa continues to need capital and debt reduction
The Crossroads: traditionalism versus modernity? Which
direction?
Emerging Crisis:
Radicalism, etc

5. South Africa’s Apartheid
Introduction: contextualize;
August 12, 1946, major labor strike by mineworkers; Smuts
crushed the strike; used as campaign against his gov’t
Immediate post-war era: two committees
1946: Henry Fagan committee argued that total segregation was
impossible, and called for continuous control of African labor
1948: Paul Sauer committee recommended either complete
equality between blacks and whites or total segregation
(Apartheid)
Era of Apartheid, 1948 - 1994
In the parliamentary election of 1948, National Party won by a
slim margin, 79 to 71 seats; formed a gov’t., and began to
implement Apartheid
May 1948, Daniel Malan took over as PM; and very quickly
moved to consolidate power
The party introduced bilingualism in SA; English and
Afrikaans; implication?
Bedrock legislation
1949: Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act
1950: immorality Act
1950: Population Registration Act
1950: Group Areas Act
1950: Suppression of Communism Act

6. 1951: The Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act
1952: Abolition of Passes Act
1953: Criminal Law Amendment Act
All in all 317 Apartheid laws were put in the book– may were
refinements of previous legislations. Taken together the laws
empowered the Afrikaner gov’t. to: imprison anyone without
trial; banish anyone from any part of the country; forbid anyone
to speak in public; forbid anyone to write for publication; forbid
anyone to travel; ban gathering, meetings, demonstration; ban
any organization; confiscate passport of any citizen without
explanation; and enter the premises without a search warrant
African Response & road to resistance
Ideology of World War II
1943: Congress Youth League was formed; goals, members
included Peter Mda, William Nkomo, Nelson Mandela, Walter
Sisulu
1944: Anton Lembede became leader of CYL; called for mass
mobilization/action; advocated change of tactics; Africans
needed to reassert themselves in their land; criticized the ANC
for being too elitist and not representing the people
1947: Lembede died, but had already advocated a new course
for the youth in ANC
1948: members of the CYL called for the introduction of the
Programme for Action

7. 1951: Pixley Seme died, and the tactic of moderation was
replaced. New activists now were Oliver Tambo, Walter Sisulu,
& Mandela.
1951: Program for Action; strikes, launched in cooperation with
South African Indian Congress (SAIC), Communist Party, and
other colored organizations
1952: Defiance Campaign; gov’t response
1955: congress of the People; out of it emerged the Freedom
Charter
1955: the Treason Trial; activists were arrested, locked up
largely in the same jail; implication?
Conflict over strategy within the ANC led to the founding of
Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) led by Robert Sobukwe in 1959;
ANC remained under the leadership of Albert Luthuli
PAC insisted on “Africa for the Africans.”
PAC planned the status campaign to prevent whites from calling
blacks “Kaffir,” or “native,” but campaign wasn’t successful;
proceeded to plan an anti-pass campaign for 1960 in Sharpeville
March 1960, Sharpeville Massacre: police responded with
violence; scores of blacks were killed, many were wounded.
Consequences were immense: protest all over the world; SA
withdrew from Commonwealth - became a republic; attempts to
impose universal sanctions on SA were blocked by Britain and
the US; SA banned from international sporting competition, etc
South African government declared a state of emergency;
banned the ANC; PAC; Communist Party
ANC & PAC went underground; organized sabotage, etc
1962: Mandela was arrested, later charged with treason
Rivonia Trial: several were tried. Mandela’s main argument:

8. “During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle the
African people. I have fought against white domination, and I
have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal
of a democratic and free society in which all persons live
together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal
which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an
ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
June 1963: UN Security Council called on SA gov’t to end the
trial and release the defendants.
The judge sentenced Mandela and other defendants to life
imprisonment. Mandela will spend most of his prison life in
Robben Island until 1990 when he was released
High noon for Afrikaner nationalism
The boom years: SA’s economy boomed.
1962: trade with England continued: 29.6% of SA imports; and
34% of SA exports
Between 1965 and 1972, West Germany’s investment in SA rose
from R70 million to R1.5 billion
By 1975, West Germany’s investment in SA surpassed Britain’s.
France also increased its commercial relations with SA
Homeland Policy: explain; establishment of ten homelands;
implication for Apartheid, and its survival.
Transkei, Kwazulu, Ciskei, Venda, etc

9. Bantustans, and destruction of black communities; explain
Threats to Apartheid
Lusaka Manifesto: led by Julius Nyerere and Kenneth Kaunda,
the Manifesto warned SA that future relations with African
nations was based on whether or SA ended its policy of separate
development
End of buffer zones: Mozambique, Angola, and later Zimbabwe
SOWETO ( Southwestern Eastern Townships of Johannesburg);
turning point, students rejected use of Afrikaan, and other
policies, sense of black consciousness
Impact of Black Power in the US; independence in Angola &
Mozambique; global condemnation of Apartheid, etc
Protest was brutally put down; students responded with more
determination; swapped books for AK-47s; joined the struggle
Steve Biko: black power & consciousness; born in the eastern
Cape; 1967, he was a medical student at Natal University; 1968
at the National Union of South African Students meeting, he
engaged in conversations with other black students about the
secondary role assigned to blacks
Promoted the idea of black consciousness; 1969- South African
Student’s Organization (SASO) with Biko as president; became
increasingly critical of the liberals in NUSAS
“Do not be a part of your oppression,” Biko noted
Biko’s perception of the role of a white person in the struggle
1977 Biko was killed in prison; explain impact
Turning point?

10. 16
Decline of Apartheid: protests, economic sanctions, reversal of
church policy, collapse of Berlin Wall, etc
F.W de Klerk took over from P.W. Botha, and began talking of
a united SA, one person one vote, elimination of racial
segregation.
Timeline: March 1982, Mandela & some inmates taken from
Robben Island to a prison near Cape Town with better
treatment; 1985: Mandela contacted and asked gov’t to
negotiate for better conditions; December 1988, Mandela was
moved into large house with maids, etc. Botha resigned as
president in August 1989; De Klerk took over and 2 February
announced the impending release of Mandela; also unbanning
the ANC & PAC.
Mandela was released on 11 February, 1990. He concluded the
speech he gave with the Freedom Charter.
NOTICE: THIS IS IMPORTANT BEFORE YOU HELP DO
THIS WORK
You will be given PPT materials to identify & state significance
of the terms listed below in 1-2 sentences. Do not write too
much in a sentence, it is just a word identification part.
1. Identification
Example: Mungo Park-He was a British explorer and a doctor
by profession. In 1795-7, he managed to arrive at Segu in Niger.
He was however, unlucky not to make it back together with his
team since they drowned inside rapids found near Bussa.
Words lists:

11. Darfur
Kenneth Kaunda
Harold McMillan
SOWETO
Steven Biko
F.W. de KlerK
OAU
African Union
Mobutu
Biafra
Rivonia Trial
Sharpeville Massacre
Joseph Knoy
Structural Adjustment Program
Hastings Banda
Desmond Tutu
Robert Mugabe
Boko Haram
Economic Community of West African States
Siad Barre
Tutsi& Hutu
Joseph Kabila
Thabo Mbeki
Thomas Sankara
Structural Adjustment Program
Ian Smith
FOCAC
U.S-African Leadership Summit
Lusaka Manisto
.
1. Essay questions
In the essay below, write about 200-250 words that answer each
question briefly and concisely. Do not write a super long

12. essay!! So the totally is 4 small essays.
1. Select a postcolonial African nation and craft an essay
discussing the domestic and foreign policy of your selection.
Your essay MUST include significant data on politics,
economic, and social triumphs and challenges of this nation.
Conclude your essay with an informed opinion of what you
consider to be the nation’s most significant achievement and
glaring failure in the last twenty years. Append three sources
which may help to provide more information on your selection.
2 Define Apartheid. Comment with specific examples how
this policy was implemented between 1948 and 1980; and
explain why and how the policy eventually collapsed. Append
three sources which may help to provide more information on
the subject.
3. Comment on the legacy of colonialism in post-colonial
Africa. You should focus your attention on the political,
economic, educational, and social aspects of postcolonial
Africa. You must use SUBSTANTIVE EVIDENCE AND
EXAMPLES to support your argument. Suggest three sources
which may help to provide more information on the topic.
4. Assume you are asked to teach History of Modern Africa
from 1900 to the present. List and annotate 10-12 topics on you
will focus. Your topics should be arranged either
chronologically or thematically. Suggest FOUR sources you will
use for the class.