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Seminar_Jan_2010.pdf
1. Power Electronics in
Photovoltaic Applications
prof. Giorgio Spiazzi
Dept. of Information Engineering – DEI
University of Padova - ITALY
prof. Simone Buso
Dept. of Technology and Management of
Industrial Systems - DTG
University of Padova - ITALY
2. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 2
Summary
„ Photovoltaic module characteristics
„ Power converters for PV generators
„ Single stage topologies
„ Double or triple stage topologies
„ Control issues:
„ Maximum power point tracking
„ Anti-islanding techniques
3. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 3
Photovoltaic Effect
„ It is based on the generation of electron-hole pairs in a
semiconductor material illuminated by solar light.
„ A typical silicon photovoltaic cell generates an open
circuit voltage around 0.6-0.7 V with a short-circuit
current density in the order of 0.5-0.6 mA/mm2.
„ A photovoltaic module is composed by the series and/or
parallel connection of several photovoltaic cells (e.g. 36,
72)
4. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 4
„ I-V relation:
where:
php
phn
phD
ph I
I
I
I +
+
=
is the sum of the photo-generated currents in three
different semiconductor regions (p- and n-doped
regions as well as depletion region), and n is the
ideality factor (value between 1 and 2).
Mathematical Model of a Photovoltaic
Cell
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
−
−
= 1
e
I
I
I nkT
qV
o
ph
cell
cell
5. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 5
Mathematical Model of a Photovoltaic
Cell
„ The photo-generated current is a function of the
absorption coefficient, α(λ) [m-1], of the semiconductor
material and is given by an integral expression
representing the solution of the charge continuity
equation in a semiconductor region:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
[ ]
∫
∫
+
−
+
−
−
−
−
−
−
=
=
λ
λ
α
λ
α
λ
λ
λ d
e
e
f
r
s
Aq
dx
)
x
(
G
Aq
I n
p
n
n
p
n
W
x
W
x
x
x
phD 1
1
where A is the exposed semiconductor area, s is the
fraction of it that is shaded by the metal contacts, r(λ) is
the surface reflectivity of the semiconductor material
and f(λ) is the photon flux (per unit area and unit
wavelength [s-1m-3]).
6. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 6
Equivalent Electrical Model
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
−
−
= 1
e
I
I
I nkT
qV
o
ph
cell
cell
vcell
+
Iph
icell
-
D
„ The I-V relation:
suggests a simple equivalent electrical model of the
PV cell:
7. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 7
Equivalent Electrical Model
„ Dissipative phenomena:
„ Non negligible resistivity of quasi-neutral regions as well as
of metal contacts (modeled with a series resistance in the
range 2-20 mΩ);
„ Internal recombination of photo-generated hole-electron
pairs (modeled with a shunt resistance in the range 0.5-5
Ω). This effect is often neglected!
Rsc
Rpc
vcell
+
Iph
icell
-
D
8. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 8
„ The I-V relation becomes:
Equivalent Electrical Model
Rsc
Rpc
vcell
+
Iph
icell
-
D
( )
pc
cell
sc
cell
nkT
I
R
V
q
o
ph
cell
R
I
R
V
1
e
I
I
I
cell
sc
cell
+
−
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
−
−
=
+
9. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 9
I-V Characteristics
Icell
Vcell
Iph
VOC
0
Icell
Vcell
Rs
VOC
ISC
0
10. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 10
I-V Characteristics
„ Fundamental parameters:
„ Short circuit current ISC (function of the luminous flux);
„ Open circuit voltage VOC (depends mainly on temperature);
ph
pc
SC
sp
nkT
I
qR
o
ph
0
V
cell
SC I
R
I
R
1
e
I
I
I
I
SC
sc
cell
≈
−
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
−
−
=
=
=
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛ +
≈
=
= o
o
ph
0
I
cell
OC
I
I
I
ln
q
kT
V
V
cell
11. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 11
I-V Characteristics
„ Fundamental parameters:
„ Fill factor;
„ Conversion efficiency (R = radiation, W/m2, A = area, m2);
1
I
V
I
V
FF
SC
OC
MPP
MPP
<
=
A
R
PMPP
⋅
=
η
0
0
IMPP
VMPP VOC
PMPP
vP
iP
12. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 12
Photovoltaic Module
„ A photovoltaic module is, in general, composed by the
series connection of N cells (Rs = Ncells·Rsc, and
Rsh = Ncells·Rpc):
∑
=
=
cells
N
1
i
cell
P V
V
cell
P I
I =
}
Ncells
vp
+
Iph
-
ip
Rsh
Rs
13. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 13
Shadowing
0 Va,b
Va1
Vb1
IP1
IP2
Va2
IP
Regione
di
breakdown
ISCa
ISCb
VP
+
Ipha
IP
-
D
Iphb
D
+
-
Va
+
-
Vb
„ Ipha ≠ Iphb
„ At operating point P2, cell a behaves as a dissipative load
14. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 14
Shadowing: Using Bypass Diodes
„ Ipha ≠ Iphb
0 Va,b,P
Va1
Vb1 VP1
IP
IP2
ISCa
ISCb
IP1
Va2
Dbp
Dbp
VP
+
Ipha
IP
-
D
Iphb
D
15. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 15
Multiple Maxima
0 VP
PP
PMPP1
PMPP2
VMPP2
VMPP1
„ Power to voltage characteristic: multiple maxima
16. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 16
H245 modules (Helios
Technology):
38 or 72 cells
Voc = 20.5 V
Isc = 1.2-2.5 A
Dimensions:
524 mm x 325 mm
690 mm x 430 mm
800 mm x 430 mm
Example of Commercial Photovoltaic
Modules
17. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 17
Sharp 185 W modules:
72 cells series connected
Voc = 44.9 V
Isc = 5.75 A
Dimensions:
1575 mm x 826 mm
Example of Commercial Photovoltaic
Modules
18. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 18
Sanyo HIP210 module
72 cells series connected
Voc = 50.9 V
Isc = 5.57 A
Dimensions: 1570 mm x 798 mm
Example of Commercial Photovoltaic
Module
[A]
[V]
[A]
[V]
19. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 19
Example of Grid-Connected System
„ European Conversion Efficiency:
DC
DC
DC
AC
Inverter
CDC
vpv
-
+
vDC
-
+ LF +
vline
iline
PV
%
100
%
50
%
30
%
20
%
10
%
5
EU
2
.
0
48
.
0
1
.
0
13
.
0
06
.
0
03
.
0
η
+
η
+
η
+
η
+
η
+
η
=
η
hX% = conversion efficiency measured at P = X%·Pnom
20. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 20
Single-Phase Grid Connection
„ The power delivered to the grid has a dc value plus a
sinusoidal term at twice the line frequency
DC
AC
CDC
vDC
-
+ LF +
vline
iline
iDC
PL
pline(θ)
θ=ωlinet
0 π
( ) ( ) t
,
sin
V
2
v line
L
line ω
=
θ
θ
=
θ ( ) ( )
θ
=
θ sin
I
2
i L
line
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
θ
−
=
θ
=
θ
θ
=
θ 2
cos
1
I
V
sin
I
V
2
i
v
p L
L
2
L
L
line
line
line
„ Line voltage and current (unity power factor):
21. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 21
Single-Phase Grid Connection
„ Hp: negligible energy processing at line frequency
DC
AC
CDC
vDC
-
+ LF +
vline
iline
iDC
DC
DC
line
L
DC
DC
line
DC
V
C
2
P
I
C
2
1
V
ω
=
Δ
ω
=
Δ
2
DC
V
line
L
2
DC
DC
DC
line
L
DC
V
r
2
P
V
V
V
2
P
C
DC
ω
=
Δ
ω
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
θ
−
=
θ
−
=
θ
⇒
θ
=
θ 2
cos
I
I
2
cos
1
V
P
i
p
p DC
DC
DC
L
DC
line
DC
22. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 22
Single-Phase Grid Connection
„ Maximum allowed voltage ripple across DC link capacitor
(step-down inverter)
( ) ( )
θ
Δ
+
=
θ 2
sin
V
V
v DC
DC
DC
0 0.52 1.05 1.57 2.09 2.62 3.14
0
100
200
300
400
Vg(θ)
θ=ωlinet
VDC(θ)
θc
[V]
VD
C
ΔVDC
Example:
Vgpk = 390 V
VDC = 400 V
ΔVDC = 45.5 V
23. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 23
System Configuration
For domestic applications:
24. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 24
Example of Single-Stage Solutions
„ Step-down inverter with low-frequency
transformer
„ No DC current injection into the grid
25. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 25
Example of Single-Stage Solutions
„ Non isolated dual boost or dual buck-boost
„ Each converter generates a sinusoidal voltage (180° out
of phase) on top of a DC value that cancels across the
load
„ Capacitive filtering shared between Cs, C1 and C2
26. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 26
Dual-Stage Configurations
„ The DC-DC stage controls the PV string so as to operate at the
MPP and works under a constant output voltage VDC
„ The DC-AC inverter injects a sinusoidal current into the grid at a
unity power factor and controls the DC link voltage VDC
„ The DC link capacitor is located between the two converters (high
voltage means lower capacitor value)
DC
DC
DC
AC
CDC
vpv
-
+
vDC
-
+ LF +
vline
iline
PV
HF
27. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 27
Dual-Stage Configurations
„ The DC-DC stage controls the PV string so as to operate at the
MPP and generates a rectified sinusoidal voltage at its output
„ The maximum instantaneous power delivered by the DC-DC
stage is twice the average value
„ The DC-AC inverter operates at line frequency and unfolds the
rectified sinusoidal voltage into a sine wave
DC
DC
DC
AC
CDC
vpv
-
+
vrect
-
+ LF +
vline
iline
PV
LF
28. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 28
Dual-Stage Configurations
„ The DC-DC stage controls the PV string so as to operate at the
MPP and generates a rectified sinusoidal current at its output
„ The maximum instantaneous power delivered by the DC-DC stage
is twice the average value
„ The DC-AC inverter operates at line frequency and unfolds the
rectified sinusoidal current into a sine wave
DC
DC
DC
AC
LF
CDC
vpv
-
+ LF +
vline
iline
PV
irect
29. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 29
Example of Dual-Stage Solutions
„ Boost or flyback converter plus a PWM modulated
inverter
30. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 30
Example of Dual-Stage Solutions
„ Push-pull converter plus a line-frequency commutated
inverter (Mastervolt Soladin 120 )
31. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 31
Example of Dual-Stage Solutions
„ Boost converters plus a PWM modulated half-bridge
inverter (SMA SunnyBoy 5000TL )
32. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 32
Example of Dual-Stage Solutions
„ Isolated boost converters plus a PWM modulated full-
bridge inverter (Powerlink PV 4.5kW )
33. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 33
Control Implementation
„ Double stage system configuration:
+
-
+
+
+
-
PLL
MPPT
dc
dc
dc
ac
PWM
PWM Gi
Gv
VDC,ref
VDC
D Ir
IrFF
Iref
sin(θ)
vg
VgRMS
εv
εi
ig
ig,ref
vpv
ipv
ppv
PV
array
AC Grid
gRMS
pv
V
p
2
34. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 34
Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT)
„ The photovoltaic module maximum power point changes with time
and operating conditions, like illumination and temperature.
„ All modern photovoltaic systems include a switching converter
aimed to control the photovoltaic module operating point, i.e. that
implements a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) function.
„ The effectiveness of a MPPT technique is defined as the ratio
between the extracted power and the maximum available power,
i.e.:
MPP
P
MPPT
P
P
=
η
35. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 35
MPPT
0
0
IMPP
VMPP VOC
PMPP
vP
iP
0
dv
dp
p
p
> 0
dv
dp
p
p
<
„ ip-vp and pp-vp static characteristics
36. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 36
MPPT
„ P&O (Hill Climbing)
37. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 37
MPPT: P&O (Hill Climbing)
„ Easily implemented in digital form
(microcontroller).
„ Existence of limit cycle oscillations (LCO)
around the MPP
„ Constant or variable perturbation amplitude
(high perturbation amplitude means high
speed of response but lower effectiveness
due to limit cycle oscillations).
38. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 38
MPPT: Incremental Conductance
( )
MPP
MPP
P
P
MPP
MPP
P
P
P
P
MPP
P
P
P
MPP
P
P
I
dv
di
V
i
dv
di
v
dv
i
v
d
dv
dp
+
=
+
=
=
MPP
MPP
MPP
P
P
MPP
P
P
V
I
dv
di
0
dv
dp
−
=
⇒
=
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎧
−
>
−
<
−
=
MPP
of
eft
l
V
I
dv
di
MPP
of
ight
r
V
I
dv
di
MPP
at
V
I
dv
di
MPP
MPP
P
P
MPP
MPP
P
P
MPP
MPP
P
P
39. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 39
MPPT: Incremental Conductance
40. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 40
MPPT: Incremental Conductance
„ Easily implemented in digital form
(microcontroller).
„ Able, in theory, to reach the exact MPP. In
practice, due to quantization and limited
resolution, limit cycle oscillations exist.
„ Constant or variable perturbation amplitude
(high perturbation amplitude means high speed
of response but lower effectiveness due to limit
cycle oscillations).
41. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 41
MPPT: Ripple Correlation
„ Based on correlation between AC components of output
power and voltage (or current) of PV panel
( )
( )
∫ τ
=
t
0
p
d
dx
x
dp
k
t
x
where x stands for vP or iP
42. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 42
Weighting function
Weighting function
MPPT: Ripple Correlation
( )
( )
∫ τ
=
t
0
v d
dv
v
dp
k
t
v
( )
( ) ( )
∫
∫ τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
τ
=
τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
=
t
0
t
0
2
d
d
dv
d
v
dp
k
d
d
dv
dv
v
dp
k
t
v
( )
( )
∫ τ
=
t
0
i d
di
i
dp
k
t
i
„ The use of a positive weighting function allows to
consider time derivatives of variables
43. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 43
MPPT: Ripple Correlation
( )
( ) ( )
∫
∫ τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
τ
=
τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
τ
−
=
t
0
d
t
0
d d
d
di
d
i
dp
k
d
d
dv
d
v
dp
k
t
d
„ If a switching converter is used to process the PV power,
the duty-cycle can be used to control PV voltage or
current ….
( ) ∫
∫ τ
=
τ
−
=
t
0
d
t
0
d d
i
~
p
~
k
d
v
~
p
~
k
t
d
… and the power and voltage derivatives can be
substituted by switching ripple components
44. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 44
MPPT: Ripple Correlation
( ) ∫ =
τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
−
=
t
0
d d
d
dv
sign
d
dp
sign
k
t
d
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∫
∫ τ
=
τ
−
=
t
0
d
t
0
d d
i
~
sign
p
~
sign
k
d
v
~
sign
p
~
sign
k
t
d
„ Alternative approach: only sign information can be used
∫ τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛
τ
=
t
0
d d
d
di
sign
d
dp
sign
k
45. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 45
MPPT: Current Sweep
„ Based on periodical measurement of ip-vp characteristic
through a current sweep
„ Some loss of effectiveness due to the measurement
process
( ) ( )
( )
dt
t
df
k
t
f
t
iP =
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
dt
t
dv
t
f
dt
t
df
t
v
dt
t
dp P
P
P
=
+
=
( )
( )
( ) ( )
0
dt
t
df
dt
t
dv
k
t
v
dt
t
dp P
P
P
=
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎝
⎛ +
= ( )
( )
0
dt
t
dv
k
t
v P
P =
+
( ) ⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
= τ
−
t
SCe
I
t
f
46. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 46
MPPT: Current Sweep
f(t)
generator
(to dc-dc
controller)
Hold VMPP
vp ( ) τ
−
=
t
SC
P e
I
t
i
( )
( )
dt
t
dv
t
v P
P τ
− +
-
+
-
ip
Timing
unit dc-dc converter
disable signal
47. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 47
„ Islanding: a continuous operation of an inverter
(or other generator) connected to the utility grid
when the latter is disconnected.
Anti-islanding
To be avoided because:
„ It can be harmful to people (particularly for the
grid management personnel).
„ It can cause malfunctions and/or failures of
connected loads due to voltage parameters out
of range (RMS value, frequency, etc.).
48. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 48
„ Load matching: the active and reactive power
generated by the inverter should match the load needs
(active and reactive power delivered by the grid should
be zero just before disconnection)
Anti-islanding
Conditions for islanding detection tests:
ΔP=0, ΔQ=0
PV array
vp
+
ip
{
-
DC
AC
+
vline
L C R
S1
P,Q
Inverter
+
-
V
Load represented
by parallel R-L-C
49. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 49
„ In practice, it is not strictly necessary for the active and
reactive power coming from the utility grid to be zero
„ Anti-islanding methods differ in the amplitude and
shape of the Non detection Zone (NDF) in the ΔP-ΔQ
plane
Anti-islanding
ΔP=0, ΔQ=0
PV array
vp
+
ip
{
-
DC
AC
+
vline
L C R
S1
P,Q
Inverter
+
-
V
Load represented
by parallel R-L-C
50. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 50
„ Passive Methods: some grid parameters (voltage
amplitude, frequency, etc.) are monitored at the Point of
Common Coupling (PCC) (no degradation of power
quality, but poor effectiveness)
„ Active Methods: perturbations are introduced so as to
detect the presence of the utility grid (some degradation
of power quality is expected)
„ Methods taken by the utility grid manager
(measurements, communications, etc.)
Anti-islanding Methods
51. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 51
„ Assuming a unity power factor inverter, i.e. Q = 0, if before
disconnection ΔP ≠ 0, the RMS voltage at PCC will vary, thus
triggering the Over/Under Voltage protection circuitry
„ Assuming a unity power factor inverter, i.e. Q = 0, if before
disconnection ΔQ ≠ 0, the current-to-voltage phase shift induced
by the load will force the inverter to move the frequency toward the
load resonant value so as to achieve Q = 0, thus triggering the
Over/Under Frequency protection circuitry
Passive Methods: OUV - OUF
PV array
vp
+
ip
{
-
DC
AC
+
vline
L+ΔL
C+ΔC
R+ΔR
S1
P,Q
Inverter
ΔP≠0, ΔQ≠0
+
-
V
52. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 52
„ Pros:
„ Low cost
„ Easy to implement
„ Cons:
„ Wide Non
Detection Zone
Passive Methods: OUV - OUF
PV array
vp
+
ip
{
-
DC
AC
+
vline
L+ΔL
C+ΔC
R+ΔR
S1
P,Q
Inverter
ΔP≠0, ΔQ≠0
+
-
V
53. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 53
„ Pros:
„ Easy to implement
„ Cons:
„ Difficult to select
the threshold
Passive Methods: Phase Jump
Detection
„ For current-controlled inverters: the internal PLL synchronize the
current with the voltage zero crossing. When the island is formed, the
voltage at PCC undergoes a jump (due to the reactive nature of the
load) that will lead to a different zero crossing that can be detected
54. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 54
„ Pros:
„ Easy to implement
„ Cons:
„ Affected by the line impedance
„ Difficult to select the threshold
„ Effectiveness reduction due to loads with
low-pass characteristics
Passive Methods: Harmonic Detection
„ It is based on the measurement of the Total Harmonic Distortion of
the voltage at PCC (in the presence of the grid, the current
harmonics produced by non linear loads and the inverter itself are
bypassed by the small line impedance)
55. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 55
Active Methods: Active Frequency Drift
„ A current-controlled inverter forces a frequency shift in the
output current: in the presence of the grid, the line
frequency zero crossing of the voltage at PCC reset the
process
t
Tv/2
Ti/2
io(t) io_ideale(t)
tz
t
Tv/2
Ti/2
io(t)
io_ideale(t)
tz
56. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 56
„ Pros:
„ Easy to implement in a microprocessor
„ Cons:
„ Increase of current harmonic distortion
„ Affected by the presence of other inverters
connected to the same PCC
Active Methods: Active Frequency Drift
„ A current-controlled inverter forces a frequency shift in the
output current: in the presence of the grid, the line
frequency zero crossing of the voltage at PCC reset the
process
57. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 57
Active Methods: Sandia Frequency
Shift
„ It is based on a positive feedback on the frequency of the
voltage at PCC
Chopping fraction:
v
z
T
t
2
cf =
t
Tv/2
Ti/2
io(t) io_ideale(t)
tz
( )
n
0 f
f
K
cf
cf −
+
=
cf0 = chopping fraction at zero
frequency error
fn = nominal frequency
K = gain
58. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 58
Active Methods: Sandia Frequency
Shift
„ It is based on a positive feedback on the frequency of the
voltage at PCC
„ Pros:
„ Easy to implement in a microprocessor
„ Good trade-off between effectiveness and power
quality
„ Cons:
„ Slight degradation of power quality
„ NDZ caused by high Q resonant loads
59. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 59
Active Methods: Sandia Voltage Shift
„ It is based on a positive feedback on the RMS value of
the voltage at PCC: if the voltage increases the inverter
increases the injected current (i.e. the power), and
viceversa. If the grid is connected, the power variation is
absorbed by the grid itself.
„ Pros:
„ Easy to implement in a microprocessor
„ Cons:
„ Slight degradation of power quality
„ Slight degradation of system effectiveness because the
variation of the inverter output power moves the PV
operating point out of MPP
60. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 60
Anti-Islanding Methods
„ No one of the proposed anti-islanding
methods can be considered satisfactory in
terms of Non Detection Zone and/or dynamic
response
„ The best approach could be to implement two
or more different methods so as to minimize
the probability of false triggering and/or lack
of intervention
61. S. Buso, G. Spiazzi - Power Electronics in Photovoltaic Applications - CERN, January 2010 61
Thank you for your attention!