3. Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
• Understand the significance of the landlocked location ofUnderstand the significance of the landlocked location of
Central AsiaCentral Asia
• Learn about historical cohesion of Central Asia, along with itsLearn about historical cohesion of Central Asia, along with its
pivotal role in evolution of Eurasiapivotal role in evolution of Eurasia
• This region has become more familiar to U.S. citizens sinceThis region has become more familiar to U.S. citizens since
September 11, 2001September 11, 2001
• Become familiar with the physical, demographic, cultural,Become familiar with the physical, demographic, cultural,
political, and economic characteristics of South Asiapolitical, and economic characteristics of South Asia
• Understand the following concepts and models:Understand the following concepts and models:
-Loess
-Pastoralist
-Theocracy
-Transhumance
-Turkestan
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4. IntroductionIntroduction
• Central Asia is a large, compact, landlocked region within theCentral Asia is a large, compact, landlocked region within the
Eurasian landmassEurasian landmass
• Until 1991, the region contained only two countries, MongoliaUntil 1991, the region contained only two countries, Mongolia
and Afghanistanand Afghanistan
• Soviet Union’s breakup added several more independentSoviet Union’s breakup added several more independent
countries to the regioncountries to the region
• After September 11After September 11thth
, Central Asia became more well-established, Central Asia became more well-established
on the mapon the map
• Historically, Central Asia has been weakly integrated intoHistorically, Central Asia has been weakly integrated into
international trade networksinternational trade networks
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5. Steppes, Deserts, & Threatened LakesSteppes, Deserts, & Threatened Lakes
• Shrinking Aral SeaShrinking Aral Sea
• Use of rivers feeding the sea for agricultural irrigationUse of rivers feeding the sea for agricultural irrigation
• 60% of the sea’s total volume has disappeared60% of the sea’s total volume has disappeared
• Economic and cultural damagesEconomic and cultural damages
• Major Environmental IssuesMajor Environmental Issues
• Relatively clean environment due to low population densityRelatively clean environment due to low population density
• DesertificationDesertification
• The Gobi Desert has gradually spread southwardThe Gobi Desert has gradually spread southward
• Desertification in northern KazakstanDesertification in northern Kazakstan
• Much of the region has been deforestedMuch of the region has been deforested
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8. Environmental Issues in Central AsiaEnvironmental Issues in Central Asia
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9. • Major Environmental Issues (cont.)Major Environmental Issues (cont.)
• Shrinking and Expanding LakesShrinking and Expanding Lakes
• Caspian Sea – world’s largest lake; construction of reservoirsCaspian Sea – world’s largest lake; construction of reservoirs
on the Volga River diverted wateron the Volga River diverted water
• Aral Sea, Lake Balqash shrinkingAral Sea, Lake Balqash shrinking
• Maintenance of their size is dependent on precipitationMaintenance of their size is dependent on precipitation
• Central Asia’s Physical RegionsCentral Asia’s Physical Regions
• The Central Asian HighlandsThe Central Asian Highlands
• Formed by the collision of Indian subcontinent into AsianFormed by the collision of Indian subcontinent into Asian
mainlandmainland
• Himalayas, Karakoram Range, Pamir MountainsHimalayas, Karakoram Range, Pamir Mountains
• Pamir Knot – a tangle of mountains where Pakistan,Pamir Knot – a tangle of mountains where Pakistan,
Afghanistan, China, Tajikistan convergeAfghanistan, China, Tajikistan converge
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11. Roads connecting Tibet and ChinaRoads connecting Tibet and China
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12. • Central Asia’s Physical Regions (cont.)Central Asia’s Physical Regions (cont.)
• The Central Asian Highlands (cont.)The Central Asian Highlands (cont.)
• Hindu Kush, Kunlun Shan, Tien Shan: peaks top 20K ft.Hindu Kush, Kunlun Shan, Tien Shan: peaks top 20K ft.
• Tibetan Plateau – source area of many of Asia’s large riversTibetan Plateau – source area of many of Asia’s large rivers
• The Plains and BasinsThe Plains and Basins
• Central Asia’s desert beltCentral Asia’s desert belt
• Arid plains of the Caspian & Aral seas to the westArid plains of the Caspian & Aral seas to the west
• Kara Kum and Kyzyl Kum DesertsKara Kum and Kyzyl Kum Deserts
• Several deserts in the eastern portion of the beltSeveral deserts in the eastern portion of the belt
• Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim BasinTaklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin
• Steppe (grassland) and taiga (coniferous forest) in the northSteppe (grassland) and taiga (coniferous forest) in the north
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13. Harvesting wheat on the plains ofHarvesting wheat on the plains of
KazakhstanKazakhstan
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17. Densely Settled Oases amid Vacant LandsDensely Settled Oases amid Vacant Lands
• Most of the region is sparsely inhabitedMost of the region is sparsely inhabited
• Too arid or too high in elevation to support human lifeToo arid or too high in elevation to support human life
• Pastoralists:Pastoralists: people who raise livestock for subsistencepeople who raise livestock for subsistence
purposespurposes
• Highlands Population and Subsistence PatternsHighlands Population and Subsistence Patterns
• Only sparse vegetation can survive in this regionOnly sparse vegetation can survive in this region
• Yak pastoralismYak pastoralism
• Sedentary farming in TibetSedentary farming in Tibet
• Isolated valleys in Pamir Range support agriculture andIsolated valleys in Pamir Range support agriculture and
intensive human settlementintensive human settlement
• Transhumance:Transhumance: seasonal movement of flocks from winter toseasonal movement of flocks from winter to
summer pastures/meadowssummer pastures/meadows
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18. Milking a Yak in MongoliaMilking a Yak in Mongolia
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19. Nomad dwelling in KyrgystanNomad dwelling in Kyrgystan
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20. Population Density in Central AsiaPopulation Density in Central Asia
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21. • Lowland Population and Subsistence PatternsLowland Population and Subsistence Patterns
• Most Central Asia’s desert inhabitants live in narrow beltMost Central Asia’s desert inhabitants live in narrow belt
where the mountains meet the basins and plainswhere the mountains meet the basins and plains
• Ring-like settlement pattern in the Tarim BasinRing-like settlement pattern in the Tarim Basin
• Former Soviet Central Asia population concentrated in zoneFormer Soviet Central Asia population concentrated in zone
where highlands meet the plainswhere highlands meet the plains
• Alluvial fans:Alluvial fans: fan-shaped deposits of sediments dropped byfan-shaped deposits of sediments dropped by
streams flowing out of the mountains; a fertile areastreams flowing out of the mountains; a fertile area
• Long been devoted to intensive cultivationLong been devoted to intensive cultivation
• Loess:Loess: silty soil deposited by the wind that provides fertilesilty soil deposited by the wind that provides fertile
agricultural soilagricultural soil
• Fergana Valley of upper Syr Darya River (shared byFergana Valley of upper Syr Darya River (shared by
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) and Azerbaijan’s KuraUzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) and Azerbaijan’s Kura
River Basin have intensive agricultureRiver Basin have intensive agriculture
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22. Population Patterns in Xinjiang’sPopulation Patterns in Xinjiang’s
Tarim BasinTarim Basin
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23. • Lowland Population and Subsistence PatternsLowland Population and Subsistence Patterns
• Gobi Desert has few sources of permanent waterGobi Desert has few sources of permanent water
• Pastoralism a common way of life, but many have been forcedPastoralism a common way of life, but many have been forced
to adopt a sedentary lifestyleto adopt a sedentary lifestyle
• Kazakstan is major producer of spring wheatKazakstan is major producer of spring wheat
• Population IssuesPopulation Issues
• Some portions of the region are growing at a moderate rateSome portions of the region are growing at a moderate rate
• Growth in western China from migration of Han ChineseGrowth in western China from migration of Han Chinese
• Growth in former Soviet zone from high levels of fertilityGrowth in former Soviet zone from high levels of fertility
• Higher fertility because of Islam? Low level ofHigher fertility because of Islam? Low level of
urbanization?urbanization?
• Afghanistan has highest birthrate of the region; Tibet andAfghanistan has highest birthrate of the region; Tibet and
Kazakstan have low birthratesKazakstan have low birthrates
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24. Population and Settlement: Densely SettledPopulation and Settlement: Densely Settled
Oases amid Vacant Lands (cont.)Oases amid Vacant Lands (cont.)
• Urbanization in Central AsiaUrbanization in Central Asia
• River valleys and oases have beenRiver valleys and oases have been
partially urbanized for millenniapartially urbanized for millennia
(e.g., Samarkand and Bukhara,(e.g., Samarkand and Bukhara,
Uzbekistan)Uzbekistan)
• Conquest of the region by theConquest of the region by the
Russian and Chinese empiresRussian and Chinese empires
started a new period ofstarted a new period of
urbanizationurbanization
• Today, urbanization increasingToday, urbanization increasing
northern Kazakstannorthern Kazakstan
• In some areas, cities remain fewIn some areas, cities remain few
and far betweenand far between
Astana, Kazakhstan
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25. A Meeting Ground of DifferentA Meeting Ground of Different
TraditionsTraditions
• Historical Overview: An Indo-European Hearth?Historical Overview: An Indo-European Hearth?
• River valleys and oases were early sites ofRiver valleys and oases were early sites of
sedentary, agricultural communities (8000sedentary, agricultural communities (8000
B.C.)B.C.)
• Domestication of the horse spurred nomadicDomestication of the horse spurred nomadic
pastoralism (4000 B.C.), provided militarypastoralism (4000 B.C.), provided military
advantages over sedentary peoplesadvantages over sedentary peoples
• Earliest languages were Indo-EuropeanEarliest languages were Indo-European
• Replaced by Altaic (Turkish andReplaced by Altaic (Turkish and
Mongolian)Mongolian)
• Tibetan kingdom unified in 700 A.D., but wasTibetan kingdom unified in 700 A.D., but was
short livedshort lived
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26. Linguistic Geography of Central AsiaLinguistic Geography of Central Asia
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27. • Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic GeographyContemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography
• Turkish and Mongolian languages inhabit most of Central AsiaTurkish and Mongolian languages inhabit most of Central Asia
• TibetanTibetan
• In Sino-Tibetan FamilyIn Sino-Tibetan Family
• 1.5 million speakers in Tibet and 3 million more in western1.5 million speakers in Tibet and 3 million more in western
ChinaChina
• MongolianMongolian
• 5 million speakers5 million speakers
• Other dialects: Buryat, KalmykOther dialects: Buryat, Kalmyk
• Turkish LanguagesTurkish Languages
• The most widely spoken language group in the regionThe most widely spoken language group in the region
• Include Uygur, Kazak, Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen, KyrgyzInclude Uygur, Kazak, Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kyrgyz
• Uzbek is the most widely spoken of the Turkish languagesUzbek is the most widely spoken of the Turkish languages
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28. • Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography (cont.)Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography (cont.)
• Linguistic Complexity in the TajikistanLinguistic Complexity in the Tajikistan
• Indo-European Tajik spoken in the Tajikistan (related toIndo-European Tajik spoken in the Tajikistan (related to
Persian)Persian)
• ““Mountain Tajik” spoken in remote mtns. of easternMountain Tajik” spoken in remote mtns. of eastern
TajikistanTajikistan
• Language and Ethnicity in AfghanistanLanguage and Ethnicity in Afghanistan
• Afghanistan never colonized by outside powers; became aAfghanistan never colonized by outside powers; became a
country in 1700s under Pashtun leadershipcountry in 1700s under Pashtun leadership
• Pashtun ethnic group (40% to 60%)Pashtun ethnic group (40% to 60%)
• Dari SpeakersDari Speakers
• Tajiks in west and north; Hazaras: in the central mountainsTajiks in west and north; Hazaras: in the central mountains
• 11% speak Uzbek (Indo-European)11% speak Uzbek (Indo-European)
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30. • Geography of ReligionGeography of Religion
• Islam in Central AsiaIslam in Central Asia
• Pashtuns adopt a stricter interpretation of IslamPashtuns adopt a stricter interpretation of Islam
• Kazaks are more lax in their interpretation of IslamKazaks are more lax in their interpretation of Islam
• Most of the region’s Muslims are SunniMost of the region’s Muslims are Sunni
• Shiism dominant among the Hazaras and the AzerisShiism dominant among the Hazaras and the Azeris
• Communists in China, Soviet Union and Mongolia discouragedCommunists in China, Soviet Union and Mongolia discouraged
all religions (including Islam)all religions (including Islam)
• Islamic revival underway as people return to their cultural rootsIslamic revival underway as people return to their cultural roots
(former Soviet republics)(former Soviet republics)
• Islamic fundamentalismIslamic fundamentalism is a powerful movement inis a powerful movement in
Afghanistan, parts of Tajikistan, and the Fergana ValleyAfghanistan, parts of Tajikistan, and the Fergana Valley
• Taliban in AfghanistanTaliban in Afghanistan
• Extreme fundamentalist Islamic organizationExtreme fundamentalist Islamic organization
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32. • Geography of Religion (cont.)Geography of Religion (cont.)
• Tibetan (Lamaist) BuddhismTibetan (Lamaist) Buddhism
• Found in Mongolia and TibetFound in Mongolia and Tibet
• A blending of Buddhism and the indigenous language BonA blending of Buddhism and the indigenous language Bon
• Dalai Lama and Panchen LamaDalai Lama and Panchen Lama
• Theocracy:Theocracy: religious statereligious state
• Tibet was theocracy with Dalai Lama both the political andTibet was theocracy with Dalai Lama both the political and
religious authority until China conquered itreligious authority until China conquered it
• Persecution of Tibetan Buddhists by the ChinesePersecution of Tibetan Buddhists by the Chinese
• China invaded Tibet in 1959China invaded Tibet in 1959
• Dalai Lama went into exile – Panchen Lama a puppetDalai Lama went into exile – Panchen Lama a puppet
• 6,000 monasteries destroyed, thousands of monks killed6,000 monasteries destroyed, thousands of monks killed
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33. Buddhist Temple in TibetBuddhist Temple in Tibet
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34. • Central Asian Culture in International and Global ContextCentral Asian Culture in International and Global Context
• Western Central Asia’s closest external culturalWestern Central Asia’s closest external cultural
relations are with Russiarelations are with Russia
• Relations of eastern Central Asian countries areRelations of eastern Central Asian countries are
with Chinawith China
• Migration of Han Chinese into the eastern part of theMigration of Han Chinese into the eastern part of the
region is a major issueregion is a major issue
• Russian influence is diminishing in the WestRussian influence is diminishing in the West
• Russian was once the lingua franca in westernRussian was once the lingua franca in western
Central Asia, but its use is decliningCentral Asia, but its use is declining
• Increasing use of English and influence of U.S. cultureIncreasing use of English and influence of U.S. culture
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36. Geopolitical Framework: PoliticalGeopolitical Framework: Political
ReawakeningReawakening
• Partitioning of the SteppesPartitioning of the Steppes
• Before 1500, Central Asia was a power centerBefore 1500, Central Asia was a power center
• Mobile (horseback) armies threatened sedentary statesMobile (horseback) armies threatened sedentary states
• Gunpowder and effective hand weapons changed the balance of powerGunpowder and effective hand weapons changed the balance of power
• Russia & China gained control of the regionRussia & China gained control of the region
• Manchu (Chinese) conquest 1644Manchu (Chinese) conquest 1644
• Russian Empire in 1700sRussian Empire in 1700s
• Concern over British influence in the areaConcern over British influence in the area
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37. • Central Asia Under Communist RuleCentral Asia Under Communist Rule
• Soviet Central AsiaSoviet Central Asia
• Soviets inherited Russian Empire’s domainSoviets inherited Russian Empire’s domain
• United territories together into Soviet UnionUnited territories together into Soviet Union
• Created a series of “union republics” (Kazakhstan,Created a series of “union republics” (Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Azerbaijan)Azerbaijan)
• Sowed the seeds of nationalism, nation-statesSowed the seeds of nationalism, nation-states
• The Chinese Geopolitical OrderThe Chinese Geopolitical Order
• After China reemerged as a unified country in 1949, itAfter China reemerged as a unified country in 1949, it
reclaimed most of its old Central Asian territoriesreclaimed most of its old Central Asian territories
• Movement into Xinjiang and Tibet (Xijiang)Movement into Xinjiang and Tibet (Xijiang)
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38. Uzbekistan – monument from the SovietUzbekistan – monument from the Soviet
period – Soviet Realism school of artperiod – Soviet Realism school of art
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39. Political ReawakeningPolitical Reawakening (cont.)(cont.)
• Current Geopolitical TensionCurrent Geopolitical Tension
• Independence in Former Soviet LandsIndependence in Former Soviet Lands
• It has been difficult for the 6 former Soviet Republics toIt has been difficult for the 6 former Soviet Republics to
become truly independentbecome truly independent
• Cooperation with Russia on security issues necessaryCooperation with Russia on security issues necessary
• Authoritarian leadersAuthoritarian leaders in these nations has made thein these nations has made the
transition to democracy more difficulttransition to democracy more difficult
• These countries have opted to remain part of theThese countries have opted to remain part of the
commonwealth of independent statescommonwealth of independent states
• Ethnic strife is common in these areasEthnic strife is common in these areas
• War in Tajikistan in 1991 over ethnic conflictsWar in Tajikistan in 1991 over ethnic conflicts
• Invasion of Azerbaijan by ArmeniaInvasion of Azerbaijan by Armenia
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40. • Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)
• Strife in Western ChinaStrife in Western China
• Repression of Tibet, and local opposition to Chinese ruleRepression of Tibet, and local opposition to Chinese rule
• Border of China and India still contestedBorder of China and India still contested
• Chinese control of XinjiangChinese control of Xinjiang
• Uygur oppositionUygur opposition
• War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2001War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2001
• 1978: Soviet-supported military “revolutionary council” seized1978: Soviet-supported military “revolutionary council” seized
powerpower
• Marxist government began to suppress religionMarxist government began to suppress religion
• Russian invasionRussian invasion
• U.S. and Saudi support rebelsU.S. and Saudi support rebels
• Soviets withdrew in 1989Soviets withdrew in 1989
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41. • Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)
• War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2002War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2002
• 19951995––1996 rise of the Taliban1996 rise of the Taliban
• Taliban founded by young Muslim religious studentsTaliban founded by young Muslim religious students
• Closely associated with the Pashtun ethnic groupClosely associated with the Pashtun ethnic group
• Imposed an extreme interpretation of Islamic lawImposed an extreme interpretation of Islamic law
consistent with Pashtun cultureconsistent with Pashtun culture
• Other Afghan ethnic groups opposed the TalibanOther Afghan ethnic groups opposed the Taliban
• The Roles of Russia, Iran, Pakistan, and TurkeyThe Roles of Russia, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey
• Russia has armed forces in Tajikistan, and transportation routesRussia has armed forces in Tajikistan, and transportation routes
cross Kazakhstancross Kazakhstan
• Iran is a major trading partner, and offers access to portsIran is a major trading partner, and offers access to ports
• Pakistan supported Taliban; now supports the U.S.Pakistan supported Taliban; now supports the U.S.
• Turkey has close cultural and linguistic connectionsTurkey has close cultural and linguistic connections
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42. Russian space program launching site isRussian space program launching site is
in Kazakhstanin Kazakhstan
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43. • International Dimensions of Central Asian TensionInternational Dimensions of Central Asian Tension
• Islamic Fundamentalism?Islamic Fundamentalism?
• Many other Central Nations were concerned that IslamicMany other Central Nations were concerned that Islamic
fundamentalism could affect their nationsfundamentalism could affect their nations
• Islamic movement rose in Uzbekistan (IMU)Islamic movement rose in Uzbekistan (IMU)
• After September 11After September 11thth
balance of power shiftedbalance of power shifted
• U.S. with British assistance launched a war against al-QaedaU.S. with British assistance launched a war against al-Qaeda
and the Taliban governmentand the Taliban government
• Bombing campaign and support of Northern AllianceBombing campaign and support of Northern Alliance
• Defeated the Taliban and began a process of forming a newDefeated the Taliban and began a process of forming a new
Afghan governmentAfghan government
• Fighting continues, and U.S. forces remain in AfghanistanFighting continues, and U.S. forces remain in Afghanistan
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45. Abundant Resources, Devastated EconomiesAbundant Resources, Devastated Economies
• The Post-Communist EconomiesThe Post-Communist Economies
• Many Central Asian industries relied heavily on subsidies and oilMany Central Asian industries relied heavily on subsidies and oil
from the Soviet Unionfrom the Soviet Union
• Today, no Central Asian country could be considered prosperousToday, no Central Asian country could be considered prosperous
• Kazakstan is most developedKazakstan is most developed
• Uzbekistan has second-largest economyUzbekistan has second-largest economy
• Kyrgyzstan is aggressively privatizing former state-runKyrgyzstan is aggressively privatizing former state-run
industriesindustries
• Turkmenistan has a large agricultural baseTurkmenistan has a large agricultural base
• Tajikistan most troubled of former Soviet republicsTajikistan most troubled of former Soviet republics
• Mongolia, industries not competitive enough in the globalMongolia, industries not competitive enough in the global
market, and it has a meager agricultural basemarket, and it has a meager agricultural base
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47. Uzbekistan – Railroad Bridge overUzbekistan – Railroad Bridge over
the Amu Darya Riverthe Amu Darya River
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48. • The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)
• The Economy of Tibet and Xinjiang in Western ChinaThe Economy of Tibet and Xinjiang in Western China
• Chinese portions of Central Asia have fared better than the restChinese portions of Central Asia have fared better than the rest
of the regionof the region
• Tibet is one of the world’s poorest placesTibet is one of the world’s poorest places
• Tibetans provide for most of their basic needsTibetans provide for most of their basic needs
• Xinjiang has large mineral wealth and oil reservesXinjiang has large mineral wealth and oil reserves
• Productive agriculture sector as wellProductive agriculture sector as well
• Economic Misery in AfghanistanEconomic Misery in Afghanistan
• Is the poorest country in the region and has one of the weakestIs the poorest country in the region and has one of the weakest
economies in the world, with almost no economic developmenteconomies in the world, with almost no economic development
• Suffered nearly continuous war starting in late 1970sSuffered nearly continuous war starting in late 1970s
• By 1999, it was the world’s largest producer of opiumBy 1999, it was the world’s largest producer of opium
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49. • The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)
• Central Asian Economies in Global ContextCentral Asian Economies in Global Context
• Overall, Central Asia is not well connected, but…Overall, Central Asia is not well connected, but…
• Afghanistan is tied to the global economy through its export ofAfghanistan is tied to the global economy through its export of
illegal drugsillegal drugs
• In former Soviet areas, most of the connections remain withIn former Soviet areas, most of the connections remain with
RussiaRussia
• Former Soviet republics are developing ties with Iran,Former Soviet republics are developing ties with Iran,
Pakistan, Turkey, and ChinaPakistan, Turkey, and China
• U.S. and other Western countries are drawn to the region by oilU.S. and other Western countries are drawn to the region by oil
and natural gas deposits, but construction of pipelines isand natural gas deposits, but construction of pipelines is
necessarynecessary
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50. • Social Development in Central Asia
• Social Conditions and the Status of Women in Afghanistan
• Average life expectancy is 45
• High infant and child mortality rates
• High illiteracy (only 15% of women can read)
• Women in traditional Afghani society (especially Pashtun) lead
constrained lives
• Fall of the Taliban improved their situation
• Many are nervous about their new government’s
willingness and ability to uphold their rights
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51. • Social Development in Central AsiaSocial Development in Central Asia
• Social Conditions in the Former Soviet RepublicsSocial Conditions in the Former Soviet Republics
• More autonomy among women of the northern pastoral peoplesMore autonomy among women of the northern pastoral peoples
• In former Soviet republics, women have educational ratesIn former Soviet republics, women have educational rates
comparable to mencomparable to men
• Tajikistan has been relatively socially successfulTajikistan has been relatively socially successful
• Social Conditions in Western ChinaSocial Conditions in Western China
• The conditions in this region of China tend to be worse offThe conditions in this region of China tend to be worse off
socially as compared to China as a wholesocially as compared to China as a whole
• Around 60% of the non-Han people of Xinjiang areAround 60% of the non-Han people of Xinjiang are
illiterateilliterate
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52. ConclusionsConclusions
• Central Asia was dominated for many years by Russia and ChinaCentral Asia was dominated for many years by Russia and China
• This region is now emerging as a separate entityThis region is now emerging as a separate entity
• It has a rugged terrain, and was historically pastoralIt has a rugged terrain, and was historically pastoral
• Today, presence of fossil fuels is generating interest, but constructionToday, presence of fossil fuels is generating interest, but construction
of pipelines is neededof pipelines is needed
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53. Conclusions Cont.
• Experiencing tough timesExperiencing tough times
• Collapse of political and economic systems in earlyCollapse of political and economic systems in early
1990s1990s
• Warfare, armed conflict have damaged economies andWarfare, armed conflict have damaged economies and
infrastructureinfrastructure
• Afghanistan is especially troubled, and emerged as aAfghanistan is especially troubled, and emerged as a
focus of world interest in September 2001focus of world interest in September 2001
• It will take time to bring stability to Central AsiaIt will take time to bring stability to Central Asia
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