Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated approach to fire safety assessment, through combining the outcomes of a checklist tailored to the requirements of the International Building Code (IBC), and an evacuation simulation tool (EVACNET4), applied to a student housing facility as case study. Design/methodology/approach – The authors reviewed relevant literature and previous studies pertaining to fire safety assessment and management. An assessment checklist was developed according to the requirements of the IBC. EVACNET4 simulation tool was utilized to model the evacuation of the facility under review. The results derived from the aforementioned steps were correlated to identify potential corroborating or conflicting issues pertaining to the safe evacuation of building occupants in the occurrence of a fire incident. Findings – Fire safety provisions were found to be adequate, and the building can be evacuated safely in about 190 seconds, should a fire occur. The architectural design aspects of the exit doors which might cause potential bottlenecks were identified. Originality/value – A completely fire safe building does not exist, and thus more integrative approaches to fire safety assessment and management will reduce to the least extent possible fire risks. A holistic fire safety management of campus housing is of paramount interest to the campus community, and the building industry at large.

1. Structural Survey
An integrated fire safety assessment of a student housing facility
Muizz O. Sanni-Anibire Mohammad A. Hassanain
Article information:
To cite this document:
Muizz O. Sanni-Anibire Mohammad A. Hassanain , (2015),"An integrated fire safety assessment of a
student housing facility", Structural Survey, Vol. 33 Iss 4/5 pp. 354 - 371
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/SS-03-2015-0017
Downloaded on: 09 December 2015, At: 07:15 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 34 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 15 times since 2015*
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-
srm:409276 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of
download.
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

2. An integrated fire safety
assessment of a student
housing facility
Muizz O. Sanni-Anibire and Mohammad A. Hassanain
Architectural Engineering Department,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated approach to fire safety assessment,
through combining the outcomes of a checklist tailored to the requirements of the International
Building Code (IBC), and an evacuation simulation tool (EVACNET4), applied to a student housing
facility as case study.
Design/methodology/approach – The authors reviewed relevant literature and previous studies
pertaining to fire safety assessment and management. An assessment checklist was developed according
to the requirements of the IBC. EVACNET4 simulation tool was utilized to model the evacuation of the
facility under review. The results derived from the aforementioned steps were correlated to identify
potential corroborating or conflicting issues pertaining to the safe evacuation of building occupants in the
occurrence of a fire incident.
Findings – Fire safety provisions were found to be adequate, and the building can be evacuated safely
in about 190 seconds, should a fire occur. The architectural design aspects of the exit doors which
might cause potential bottlenecks were identified.
Originality/value – A completely fire safe building does not exist, and thus more integrative
approaches to fire safety assessment and management will reduce to the least extent possible fire risks.
A holistic fire safety management of campus housing is of paramount interest to the campus community,
and the building industry at large.
Keywords Checklist, EVACNET4, Evacuation, Fire safety, Student housing
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Fire is regarded as both a curse and a blessing to mankind. Though fire is a major
element and driving force of man’s civilization, its occurrence in buildings could lead to
traumatizing whole communities through the loss of lives and properties (Argueta et al.,
2009). Modern development in structural safety categorizes fire along with overcrowding
and extreme wind loads as risks. Statistical surveys in most parts of the world demonstrate
the frequent occurrences of fires in buildings (Chen et al., 2012). Fatal and non-fatal injuries;
and damages to building materials and its contents are results of the occurrence of a fire.
Yearly statistics in the UK reveal that 800 people lose their lives and 15,000 sustain
non-fatal injuries due to fires, while material damages are averagely estimated to be about
£1,200 million with indirect losses of about £120 million (Ramachandran, 1999).
In general, an absolutely fire safe building does not exist (Ramachandran, 1999).
Student housing in particular is considered as a high risk facility where fire can quickly
rage out of control in the absence of appropriate and sufficient control and suppression
systems. Thus, fire safety in student housing cannot be taken for granted. Though fatal
fires do not occur on a daily basis, however when they do occur lifelong scars are left.Structural Survey
Vol. 33 No. 4/5, 2015
pp. 354-371
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0263-080X
DOI 10.1108/SS-03-2015-0017
Received 14 March 2015
Revised 26 May 2015
11 August 2015
Accepted 28 September 2015
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-080X.htm
The authors thank King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals for the support and facilities
that made this research possible.
354
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

3. Steady commitment, careful planning, implementation and maintenance by the student
housing administrative department is essential to ensure a fire safe student housing
facility (Mowrer, 1999).
A variety of risk assessment approaches have been established to achieve acceptable
levels of fire safety. Some of these approaches are based on compliance with fire code
requirements in the design and operation of a facility, others are based on real life or
computer aided evacuation simulations. These isolated risk assessment approaches to fire
safety assessment create loop holes due to the assumptions made. Some of the built-in
assumptions include fuel load remaining unchanged over time, fire resistant doors
operational at all times, fire detection and signalling systems provide warning at earliest
time and occupants will be ready to evacuate at the sound of the alarm. These
assumptions however, could be wrong or insufficient resulting in an ambiguous design or
assessment. Therefore, there is a need for considering the interaction of the various fire
safety systems and the integration of various approaches to fire safety assessments and
design (Meacham, 1999). The combined outcome derived from two or more
complimentary approaches will fill in the loop created by an isolated approach. Thus,
this paper proposes an integrated approach to fire safety assessment based on the
combination of a checklist tailored to the International Building Code (IBC) (2012)
requirements for the given occupancy type, and an evacuation simulation software
(EVACNET4) applied to a student housing facility as case study. The result is of
importance to architects, builders, fire protection engineers and facility managers in
enhancing the overall safety of the residential environment in student housing facilities.
2. Research methodology
In order to achieve the objective of the study, literature has been reviewed pertaining to
fire safety evaluation, fire safety management objectives and evacuation studies. This
is to serve as a theoretical base for conducting the following activities:
• Development of the assessment checklist: the occupancy type of the facility as
defined by the IBC (2012) was used to tailor the elements of the assessment
checklist. The developed checklist was used to carry out an assessment while
moving from the upper floors to the lower floors and from wing to wing within
the building. A camera was used along with the checklist to record observations.
Relevant interviews were also carried out with maintenance and safety personnel
of the student housing administrative department.
• Modelling and simulation of evacuation: relevant floor plans were used to develop
the model in nodes and arcs, in accordance to EVACNET4 users’ guide (Kisko
et al., 1998). The developed model was executed and the results were obtained.
• Finally, the results derived from the aforementioned steps are correlated to
identify potential corroborating or conflicting issues pertaining to the safe
evacuation of building occupants in the occurrence of a fire incident.
Figure 1 is a pictorial representation of the methodology adopted by this study.
3. Fires in student housing facilities
The IBC (2012) describes student housing facilities as buildings which contain more than
two accommodation units with occupants permanent in nature. Campus housing is an
integral component of the university intended to help students attain intellectual
competence, enliven personal character and aid in forming patterns of behaviour, thought
355
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

4. and imagination which should lead to a fulfilling living experience. The functions usually
accommodated in student rooms are studying, sleeping, dressing and relaxing
(Hassanain, 2008a). For students, campus life represents a period of independence and
an opportunity for juvenile indulgence, which is a potential threat to their personal safety.
The occurrence of campus fires are relatively rare, however when it occurs, it leaves
devastating consequences that can last forever changing lives of not only individuals but
families and communities (Mowrer, 1999).
Fire could develop in student housing facilities because of several reasons, including
ignorance, lack of concern and awareness about fire safety and prevention, students’
pranks and tampering with fire alarms, which results to ignoring the fire alarm when it
goes off (Shan, 2008). Student housing facilities are classified as high risk type facilities
in fire emergencies due to three factors. The first factor relates to the large number of
students potentially exposed at one location. The second relates to the high fire load
attributed to the nature, amount and arrangement of fire fuel that exists in the student
rooms. The third contributing factor is the design configuration of the majority of
student housing facilities. Most of these facilities are multi-storey buildings, occupants
located in upper floors could experience escape problems due to overcrowding and
chaos found at exit routes and while going down stairwells (Hassanain, 2008b).
4. Fire safety management
Fires are preventable by effective management and occupant’s awareness. Fire safety
management has been the subject of research and implementation of numerous fire
safety organizations (Argueta et al., 2009). Fire safety management is concerned with the
reduction of the potential for harm to life and damage to properties due to the occurrence
of fire in buildings. Although the threat to life and property cannot be completely
eliminated, fire safety management is meant to reduce to the least extent possible fire risk
through active and passive design features (Canadian Wood Council (CWC), 2000).
Fire safety has three major objectives. The first objective is to “prevent ignition of
building materials and contents”. Achieving this objective involves three activities,
namely: controlling ignition sources; controlling fuel characteristics; and controlling
fuel/heat interaction by maintaining adequate separation (Watson, 2000). These
prevention activities require an audit of ignition sources and the amount and nature of
fuel. Potential fuel in student housing include upholstered furniture, mattresses and
bedding, draperies, curtains and other free-hanging decorations, combustible wall,
Checklist Assessment Literature Review
Modeling and
simulation of
Evacuation
(EVACNET4)
Acquire relevant floor
plans to create network
model and determine
relevant arcs and areas
distances
Execute model
generated to derive
total evacuation time,
bottlenecks and
evacuation
Evaluate fire safety
provisions in the facility
and carry out relevant
interviews
Develop checklist in
accordance to IBC code
requirements for R2
occupancy
Integrate results
Figure 1.
Pictorial
representation of
the research
methodology
356
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

5. ceiling and floor finishes, desks, dressers and bookcases, books, papers, notebooks
and reports, trash and recycling materials and clothing. Potential ignition sources
include smoking materials such as cigarettes, matches and lighters, candles and
incense, cooking equipment and appliances, electric lamps and appliances
and building services such as electrical and gas distribution and utilization
equipment (Mowrer, 1999). Since fire prevention is never completely assured, the
chances of preventing a fire are increased by ensuring building codes compliance of
the design, construction and operation stages. The building operation stage is the
most significant in preventing the occurrence of fire. Good housekeeping, for
example, ensures that combustible materials are separated from heat sources (CWC,
2002). The second objective is to “control fire development”. This involves detecting
fires by means of heat, smoke and flame detectors, controlling combustion and
limiting the rate of development, spread and severity of fire (Watson, 2000). In smaller
buildings, the provision of a fire extinguisher might suffice. Larger buildings require
more, like the deployment of sprinkler systems (CWC, 2000). The third objective
is to “protect the exposed”. This involves notifying occupants of the building,
providing avenues for egress and protecting in-place occupants (Watson, 2000).
Heat of the fire is not the main reason for injuries and deaths, rather the toxic fumes
from smoke; this makes it extraordinarily important to evacuate occupants from
a building where fire has occurred (CWC, 2000).
Fire safety management is plagued with faulty design issues, due to an ineffective
correlation between design and fire safety management plans. The fire protection
engineer does not consider the operational issues that could take place in the facility,
while the facilities manager does not fully comprehend the design and operation of fire
safety systems. Additionally, issues of human behaviour and occupants characteristics
are usually not considered in designing fire safety systems, in the fire safety
management plan, or in both cases (Meacham, 1999). Thus there is a need to strike a
balance between fire safety design and fire safety management to achieve as minimal
risk as possible (CWC, 2002).
5. Evaluation of fire safety provisions
The overall appraisal of building fire safety has not received enough attention.
The primary focus is usually on the performance of selected fire safety systems.
Frank et al. (2014), for example, focused on the effectiveness of sprinkler systems in
New Zealand. The losses due to a fire are however not exclusively attributed to the
performance of these safety systems, but rather a combination of various factors. Aside
the performance of fire safety systems provided in buildings, issues such as human
behaviour, occupants’ characteristics and the building’s spatial characteristics and
design should be put in the right perspective. The aim of evaluating a building’s
fire safety performance is to assess the building’s compliance with fire safety codes and
ascertaining a satisfactory level of maintenance with building systems (Santos-Reyes
and Beards, 2001).
A key step in this process is to ensure the existence of an effective emergency
management plan to avoid and/or reduce deaths and injuries in the event of occupants’
evacuation of a building on fire. Facility managers and building maintenance
professionals consider the evacuation system as the most important aspect of fire
safety management of buildings; this is because fire risk is probabilistic and thus
cannot be completely eliminated (Lo and Cheng, 2003).
357
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

6. Code provisions however can prove to be too restrictive. This has led to many
countries adopting a performance-based fire safety design approach. Such an approach
uses computer-based evacuation simulation models as quantification tools to help
architects to adjust their building layout at the beginning of the design. It also aids fire
officials, building managers and hazard control officials in taking proper measures to
plan and control the evacuation flow in the case of a fire accident (Yuan et al., 2009).
A comprehensive review of 30 building evacuation models was published by
Kuligowski et al. (2005). Common simulation tools include; EXODUS, SIMULEX,
EGRESS, EXIT, EVACSIM and EVACNET (Yuan et al., 2009).
6. Previous studies
Several studies have been carried out to evaluate fire safety of buildings of various
occupancies. Some of these studies have focused on the comparison of real life
evacuation exercises to results derived from computer simulations. These studies vary
in nature of occupancy such as adult and children occupancies and also in the type of
buildings studied. Klüpfel et al. (2003) and Ulriksen and Dederichs (2014) employed this
comparative method. The objective of these two studies was to validate model
assumptions and simulation results with a real life evacuation exercise that focuses on
children. The specific advantage of such an approach is to identify the extent at which
computer simulations represent real life scenarios and consequently the level of
reliability of such simulations. Though a novel approach, the overall fire safety of a
building depends on other factors other than the total egress time which is the focal
point of these studies. Another weakness of such an approach is that the ideal case is
usually assumed, that is a situation where occupants are fully prepared to evacuate the
building at the sound of the alarm, since they have been informed that it is an exercise,
and all hazards and obstructions have been removed.
Lo et al. (2006) further reinforced the fact that physical movement of people and
boundary geometry are the parameters usually considered in computer simulations,
while behavioural rules are largely ignored. An example of such study was carried out
by Tashrifullahi and Hassanain (2013) with the use of EVACNET4 and FPETool to
determine the optimal evacuation time of a university library facility in Saudi Arabia.
In this study the results of two simulation tools have been compared, this offers the
advantage of having two evacuation times, a minimum and a maximum value. Aside
from not giving consideration to occupants’ behaviour, it is a study of the occupants’
optimal evacuation time, ignoring all other factors that ensures the overall fire safety of
the library, such as the estimate of fire load density in the building to control the
possibility of fire occurrences. Khorasani et al. (2014) presented probabilistic models to
predict the fire load density in office buildings. The study concluded that both fire load
density and maximum temperature probabilistic models are well suited for application
in a probabilistic performance-based approach to fire design. This approach is equally
limited to an aspect of the overall fire safety.
While computer simulations are popular in investigating evacuation patterns and
time, some researchers have relied solely on real life simulations. Chen et al. (2013)
presented the results obtained from a student evacuation experiment performed in
a four-story building at Tsinghua University. The observations were made using digital
videos and CCTV cameras. Considerable density, speed and flow rate data at exits and in
stairwells were obtained, analysed and compared with data from SFPE Handbooks. The
study investigated occupants’ familiarity, distribution and movement within the
building. It can be argued that this study presents a real life understanding of occupants’
358
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

7. behaviour under emergency compared to a computer simulation. It highlights the fact
that human behaviour varies with physical features, cultural backgrounds, habits
and emergency training and thus cannot be assumed to be universal. It can be of great
value if such exercises are repeated and used to form a database of occupants’ behaviour.
The study does not however justify this claim by comparing its results with a computer
simulation. This study like other studies is also limited occupants’ evacuation during
an emergency.
Other researchers have established models for estimating the minimum time for
emergency evacuation. Lo et al. (2006) presented a model that demonstrated that the
interaction of evacuees influences the evacuation pattern and clearance time of a multi-
exit zone. Lin et al. (2008) established a multi-stage time-varying quickest flow
approach to estimate the minimal clearance time for evacuating the occupants of a
building in an emergency situation. Di Gangi (2013) presented a model for the design of
escape routes based on a comparative analysis of the evacuation time of various
alternatives. The model was used to identify critical points for the evacuation from the
building, as well as validate effective evacuation plans. These models, as is the case
with computer simulations, ignore other fire safety management objectives while they
focus on the optimum time for evacuation.
Assessment checklists tailored according to code requirements have been developed
to facilitate fire safety inspections of various facilities. These assessment checklists
include indicators pertaining to causes of fire, fire detection and notification system, fire
suppression and extinguishing systems, egress and evacuation systems and
management and maintenance measures (Hassanain and Hafeez, 2005; Hassanain,
2008b). These checklist assessments are carried out regularly onsite by qualified
evaluators, and thus provide qualitative data of operating performance of fire safety
systems, maintenance and housekeeping and compliance with safety code
requirements. However, these studies ignore practical evaluation of the effectiveness
of occupants’ evacuation in the case of an emergency.
Ranking techniques have been used in several studies as well. Chow (2002) proposed
a fire safety ranking system for assessing the fire safety provisions in existing high-rise
non-residential buildings in Hong Kong. Zhao et al. (2004) also presented a simulation
approach for establishing the ranking of fire safety attributes, which in turn is used to
establish a comparison of different buildings for fire safety. Chen et al. (2012) proposed a
fire management plan by adopting three fire safety strategies for the overall safety of
existing multipurpose hotels, combining the Delphi and AHP methods and concluding
that this technique could help improve the fire safety of buildings. Ranking techniques
present the specific advantage of classifying buildings into different safety categories,
and subsequently recommending the appropriate safety measures. Likewise, checklist
assessments, practical assessments of the occupants’ emergency evacuation are ignored.
In a bid to offer more integrative approaches to fire safety assessment, as is the case
with this paper, Copping (2004) presented a protocol for an integrative assessment of fire
safety for historic buildings. In it, two outcomes are produced: a fire safety assessment for
life safety and an independent assessment of the vulnerability of the property to fire.
Their study is an integration of objectives rather than approaches. Also, Yuan et al. (2009)
presented an integration of two network approaches to emergency evacuation which
provides detailed evacuation information for the critical location of the building. It
identifies potential crowding at exits and thus allows building designers to make the
required modification to their designs for an effective evacuation process. Also,
Rao (2014) presented the model “CUrisk” to investigate how building design conditions
359
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

8. affect evacuation efficiency in a fire emergency. CUrisk has the advantage of providing
four different categories of evacuation times and it also take into consideration all fire
safety strategies. The study assumed which fire suppression systems will be active
rather than an actual onsite evaluation. Park et al. (2015) presented a conceptual
framework to facilitate better incorporation of building fire safety performance options
into the building design process. Moving away from the evaluation of fire protection
measures. Park et al. (2015) took into consideration building design (architectural)
features and occupant characteristics. The study proposed a quantitative model utilizing
the parameter ranking method and weighted sum method as a tool to help evaluate
building fire safety performance and to assist decision-making process of developing fire
safety design solutions.
The above surveyed studies have described several approaches to fire safety
assessment. The strengths and limitations of these studies have been presented. In
general, none of these studies presents an integrative fire safety assessment of the
residential environment through the combination of two or more approaches directed
towards the three fire safety objectives. This study is meant to demonstrate this
concept through a case study.
7. Case study
The use of case studies provides real information and greater depth of qualitative data.
The case study for this research is a student dormitory managed by a university within
its campus in Dhahran, Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. A student dormitory was
selected as a case study due to its being a high risk facility. Also the occurrence of a fire
hazard in a student housing facility is more severe compared to other facilities on
campus. The building selected for this study is relatively new, L-shaped and consists of
three floors with 26 rooms on each floor of double occupancy, 3 washrooms on each
floor, 3 stairwells and 4 exits. The dimensions of each room are 4.8 metres by 5.2 metres
(25 square metres) and floor to floor height of 3.5 metres. The building is classified
according to IBC (2012) as R-2 occupancy: this is a residential occupancy containing
sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the occupants are primarily
permanent in nature, such as boarding houses, dormitories, apartment houses, etc.
The floor plans for the building were obtained from the university’s student housing
administrative department (see Figure 2).
7.1 Assessment checklist design and administration
The IBC (2012) provides minimum requirements to safeguard the public health, safety
and general welfare of the occupants of new and existing buildings and structures. The
IBC applies to all types of buildings and occupancies except exempted. The IBC
classifies buildings based on use and occupancy, thus for this research the residential
group R-2 was referenced. The minimum safety requirements identified were classified
under three categories according to the fire safety management objectives, these are:
preventing the occurrence of fire; controlling the spread of fire; and protecting
occupants. Additional resources have been consulted such as fire safety assessment
checklists and previous literature to identify other potential fire safety requirements.
The results of this exercise formed the basis for a checklist presented in Tables I-III.
The questions for the assessment are presented in the “description” column. IBC code
requirements are also provided to support the questions where applicable.
The developed checklist was thus used to carry out the assessment of the student
housing facility. This was done by moving from the upper floors to the lower floors and
360
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

9. from wing to wing within the building. Whenever safety requirements are fulfilled a
tick was made in the “yes” column, and when not fulfilled in the “no” column. A digital
camera was used to capture still images supporting the checklist assessment. Relevant
interviews were also carried out with maintenance and safety personnel of the student
housing administrative department. The results of the interviews were checked on the
checklist. It was a simple interview to cover issues that could not be observed by the
fire safety assessor, e.g. “Do you have an up to date fire safety policy?”
7.2 Checklist observations and findings
7.2.1 Preventing the occurrence of fire. The checklist assessment for the fire safety
objective “preventing the occurrence of fire” is presented in Table I. Under the section
“control ignition sources”, it is observed that electrical installations were observed to be
properly installed with correctly rated fuses and are kept tidy. Other issues regarding
safe installation, testing and signage of electrical equipment where observed to be
satisfactory. However, the use of temporary wiring, multipoint adaptors and occupants’
smoking in their rooms which are potential risks to fire safety where also observed.
Temporary wiring through the use of exterior cords and multipoint adaptors could
result in friction and ignition if overloaded or handled carelessly, while smoking is one
of the major causes of fires in student housing facilities. Proper signage of switches and
electrical provisions are well observed.
DS03.001
100mm WIDE, 900mm HIGH
PAINTED FAIR FACE CONCRETE CURB
WP04.001
ELECTRONICALLY
OPERATED
SLIDING DOORS
DS01.001
DS02.001
WP11.001
DS04.001
Figure 2.
EVACNET4
network model for
ground floor
361
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

10. As for “controlling fuel characteristics”, it was observed that combustible materials lay
on egress routes and at exits. Although a waste control system is available, it can be
perceived as ineffective. The fire load in rooms is quite substantial, since curtains,
carpets, mattresses and furniture are all made of combustible materials. As regards
controlling fuel/heat interaction by maintaining adequate separation between them, it
is observed that the surrounding area is kept clean; also the students’ housing
Description Yes No Reference
Controlling ignition sources
Do you have an up to date fire safety policy? | IBC (2012)
Has electrical installation been subject to an
insulation test in accordance to regulations?
| Occupational Safety, and Health
Administration (OSHA) (2014)
Are electrical motors kept tidy? | Maintained free from accumulations of oil,
dirt, waste and debris (IBC, 2012)
Is temporary wiring present? | To be attached in an approved manner
(IBC, 2012)
Are all items of electrical equipment working
properly, inspected regularly and fitted with
correctly rated fuses?
| Approved covers shall be provided for all
switch and outlet boxes (IBC, 2012)
Is the use of electrical extension leads and
multipoint adaptors kept to a minimum?
| Except for approved multi-plug extension
cords, each extension cord shall serve only
one portable appliance (IBC, 2012)
Are extension cords in good condition? | Extension cords shall not contain splices or
damage (IBC, 2012)
Are extension cords used to replace permanent
wiring?
| Extension cords shall not be a substitute for
permanent wiring and shall not be affixed to
structures, extended through walls, ceilings
or floors (IBC, 2012)
Are cables and leads run in safe places to protect
tripping hazards and damage to cable and leads?
| OSHA (2014)
Are isolators and mains electricity switches
clearly signed?
| Doors shall be marked with a plainly visible
and legible sign stating “ELECTRICAL
ROOM” (IBC, 2012)
Is smoking prohibited, or is there a smoking
area?
| IBC (2012)
Control fuel characteristics
Is there a waste control system and is it working
to keep the space clear of combustible waste and
rubbish?
| Storage of combustible materials in buildings
shall be maintained in a neat, orderly manner
(IBC, 2012)
Are there combustible materials on exits? | Combustible material shall not be stored in
exits or exit enclosures (IBC, 2012)
Are curtains made of incombustible materials? | Curtains, draperies, hangings and other
decorative material shall be flame resistant or
be non-combustible (IBC, 2012)
Control fuel/Heat interaction by maintaining adequate separation
Are all occupants instructed to keep their space
tidy?
| IBC (2012)
Is there adequate separation between heat
sources and storage/combustibles?
| Storage shall be separated from heaters or
heating devices by distance or shielding so
that ignition cannot occur (IBC, 2012)
Are all areas outside the premises kept clear of
waste and combustible materials?
| IBC (2012)
Are all heaters fitted with suitable guard and
kept away from combustible material?
| IBC (2012)
Table I.
Preventing
occurrence of fire
362
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

11. administrative department requires occupants to keep their rooms tidy. It is also
observed that occupants keep heat sources such as electric kettles and water pipes
which pose risk of a fire hazard considering the amount of fire load in rooms.
7.2.2 Controlling the spread of fire. Table II presents the results for the checklist
assessment of the second fire safety objective “control spread of fire”. In the section
“detect fire through heat, smoke and flame detectors”, observations show that
all requirements are satisfactory. Smoke alarms are available at the middle of
hallways and are in good working condition as indicated by a blinking red light. In
the section “control combustion”, it is observed that there is sufficient fire fighting
appliances in the premises. Though there are no sprinkler systems available in the
building, there is sufficient amount of fire extinguishers, which are easily accessible,
properly colour coded and regularly tested and certified for quality. Stand-pipes, hose
reels and hydrants are also sufficiently provided at desired locations and are
regularly tested and in good condition. Staffs are also well trained on the use of
this equipment.
7.2.3 Protecting occupants. The results for the fire safety assessment for the third
fire safety objective “protect exposed building occupants” is presented in Table III.
Description Yes No Reference
Detect fire (Heat, smoke and flame detectors)
Are there smoke alarms available and are
they operational?
| Smoke alarms shall be installed in existing
dwelling units (IBC, 2012)
Control combustion
Are there sufficient fire fighting
appliances throughout the premises?
| IBC (2012)
Are there sprinkler systems available? | An automatic sprinkler system shall be
provided throughout all buildings with a
group R fire area (IBC, 2012)
Are fire extinguishers positioned properly
and located near to sites of high fire risk?
| One 2A fire extinguisher per 6,000 sq. ft. in
low hazard (offices) and one 2A per 3,000 sq. ft.
in a moderate hazard (R-1, R-2 and R-4 only)
(IBC, 2012)
Are fire extinguishers easily accessible
from any location within the building?
| Maximum travel distance to a fire
extinguisher is 75 feet (IBC, 2012)
Are there portable extinguishers of the
correct type for the fire risk and properly
colour coded?
| IBC (2012)
Are fire extinguishers stored in cabinet or
on hangers?
| Hand-held portable fire extinguishers, not
housed in cabinets, shall be installed on
hangers or brackets supplied (IBC, 2012)
Are all fire fighting appliances certified for
quality, and is the last date of inspection
displayed on the extinguisher?
| Fire extinguishers shall be serviced annually
and shall have a current service tag attached
(IBC, 2012)
Is there sufficient offset of walls from fire
extinguisher?
| A 3-foot clear space shall be maintained
around the circumference of fire hydrants
(IBC, 2012)
Are all fire extinguishers, hose reels and
sprinkler systems regularly tested?
| IBC (2012)
Have employees been instructed on when
to use equipment?
| IBC (2012) Table II.
Control spread of fire
363
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

12. Description Yes No Reference
Notify occupants
Are there fire alarms available and are they
operational?
| To be installed in existing Group R-2
apartment buildings with more than three
stories or with more than 16 dwelling or
sleeping units (IBC, 2012)
Does the building require an electrical or
automatic fire alarm, and does it have back-
up power?
| IBC (2012)
Can the alarm be heard throughout the
building?
| IBC (2012)
Are the fire alarm points clearly visible and
unobstructed?
| IBC (2012)
Is the fire alarm connected to a monitoring
station that contacts the fire brigade?
| IBC (2012)
Are maintenance staffs been trained in how
to operate the fire alarm system?
| IBC (2012)
Provide avenues for egress
Are there sufficient exits of suitable width
for people likely to be present?
| Two exits or exit access doorways from any
space in Group R shall be provided if the
occupant load of the space exceeds
10 persons (IBC, 2012)
Are escape routes and exits, the locations of
fire fighting equipment and emergency fire
telephones indicated by appropriate signs?
| Exit signs are required in rooms or areas
which require two or more exits (IBC, 2012)
Is the visibility of exit signs along corridor
satisfactory?
| Exit sign placement shall be such that no
point in an exit access corridor is more than
100 feet from the nearest visible exit sign
(IBC, 2012)
Is exit sign illumination operational? | Exit signs shall be internally or externally
illuminated at all times. In existing
buildings approved self-luminous signs may
be used (IBC, 2012)
Are there fire, emergency and evacuation
procedures in place which are:
Readily available and displayed?
Approved by fire and rescue service?
Reviewed at least annually or when they
may become invalid?
| In Group R-2 occupancies, each tenant shall
be given a copy of the emergency guide
prior to occupancy (IBC, 2012)
Are exit routes continuous? | Exits shall be continuous from the point of
entry into the exit to the exit discharge
(IBC, 2012)
Are all fire exit routes and the points of exits
(including stairways and corridors) from the
building clear of obstructions?
| Obstruction to exits shall not be placed in
the required width and exits shall not be
obstructed in any manner (IBC, 2012)
Are all floor surfaces and stairs on escape
routes free from tripping and slipping
hazards?
| IBC (2012)
Are all fire resisting self-closing doors on
escape routes clearly labelled, closing fully,
in good state of repair and not wedged open?
| IBC (2012)
(continued)
Table III.
Protect exposed
building occupants
364
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

13. In the section of “notifying occupants” it is observed that fire alarms are tested every
six months and are provided at mid-distances of hallways in every wing of the building
so it can be heard by all occupants within the building and its surroundings. A visit to
the safety department confirmed that fire alarms are connected to a monitoring station
which is in turn connected to the fire brigade office. Pull stations are also located at
exits, clearly visible and unobstructed.
Observations made in the section “provide avenues for egress” show that exit routes
have suitable width, and fire fighting equipment are present and properly signed. Exit
signs are also available, but not illuminated. Also there is no existence of an emergency
evaluation procedure displayed in the building. The exit routes are also observed to be
Description Yes No Reference
Are escape routes adequately lit and is all
lighting on escape routes operational?
| The means of egress, including the exit
discharge, shall be illuminated at all times
the building space served by the means of
egress is occupied (IBC, 2012)
Is the width of the exit route constant? | The required capacity of means of egress
shall not be diminished (reduced) along the
path of egress travel (IBC, 2012)
Is emergency lightning tested regularly and
all test recorded?
| IBC (2012)
Is there back-up power for emergency
lightning?
| In the event of power supply failure, exit
illumination shall be automatically provided
from an emergency system except where the
guest room or living unit has direct access to
the outside at grade level (IBC, 2012)
Do all exits lead to a place of safety? | Exterior exit doors shall lead directly to the
exit discharge or the public way (IBC, 2012)
Are steps and stairs in a good state of repair? | IBC (2012)
Are final exit routes always unlocked when
the premises is in use?
| Entrance doors in Group R-1, R-2
occupancies shall not be secured from the
egress side during period that the building
is open to the general public (IBC, 2012)
Are devices securing final exits capable of
being opened immediately and easily
without a key-push bar?
| Egress doors shall be openable from the
egress side without the use of a key or
special knowledge or effort (IBC, 2012)
Are self-closers on fire doors operating
correctly?
| Door closer shall exert enough force to close
and latch the door from any partially open
position (IBC, 2012)
Do exit doors have sufficient width? | Doorways shall not be less than 32 inch in
clear width (IBC, 2012)
Do the doors on escape routes open in the
direction of travel?
| Doors shall swing in the direction of egress
travel where serving an occupant load of 50
or more persons (IBC, 2012)
Protect occupants in place
Have measures been taken to ensure that
smoke and flames do not spread from one
part of the building to another?
| IBC (2012)
Are there fire doors/smoke barriers
available?
| Fire doors and smoke barrier doors shall not
be blocked or obstructed or otherwise made
inoperable (IBC, 2012) Table III.
365
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

14. continuous with constant width, well light with back-up power for emergency lighting,
though some bulbs are no longer operational. Three of four major exits that lead to a
place of safety have obstructions due to faulty design while fire resisting doors on
egress routes are kept partially open. The main exit is designed with an electronically
operated sliding door that is a potential source of overcrowding and bottlenecks since it
is not connected to the fire alarm. Two other exits at the wings of the building leading
to point of destination DS03.001 and DS04.001 (see Figure 2) have 900 mm high
concrete curbs as shown in the drawing, this is also a potential source of obstruction
during evacuation. The doors on exit routes open in the direction of travel with a push
bar mechanism, the self-closers are operational and they have sufficient widths.
In the section “protect occupants in place”, it is observed that the removal of false
ceiling panels damaged by mould formation due to leakages from the HVAC system is
observed; this will allow smoke and flames to spread from affected areas of the building
in the case of a fire to other areas, jeopardizing compartmentalization and the efficiency
of the fire resistant doors.
7.3 Evacuation simulation using EVACNET4
EVACNET4 is a movement optimization model and has the limitation of not
incorporating occupants’ pre-movement time and occupants’ behaviour. Models that
incorporate occupants’ behaviour do not show areas of congestion and bottlenecks
during an evacuation which are necessary to study the buildings spatial and
architectural influence on fire safety (see Kuligowski, 2004). EVACNET4 was selected
due to it being a user friendly, interactive computer programme, in addition to: its
availability for public use; flexibility to handle any type and size of building; and it
determines the optimal building evacuation plan.
The floor plans acquired from the student housing administrative department were
used to develop a network description model of the building in accordance to
EVACNET4 user’s guide (Kisko et al., 1998). The network model for the ground
floor is presented in Figure 2. A network description model consists of nodes and arcs.
Nodes represent defined spaces containing occupants at the time of evacuation, such as:
rooms (WP); hallways (HA); stairs (SW); lobbies (LO); and evacuation destinations (DS).
Arcs represent passages between nodes on the path of egress. The number of people in a
node at the initiation of evacuation: “initial content” (IC) for each node must be specified
as well as the “node capacity” (NC) which is the upper limit on the number of people that
can be contained in the node. The NC, Dynamic Capacity (DC) and Traversal Times (TT)
are calculated using formulas presented in EVACNET4 user’s guide (Kisko et al., 1998).
The following are the data used to execute the model:
• level of service (nodes and arcs) ¼ Queuing level A;
• IC ¼ 2;
• usable area ¼ 9 m2
(for rooms);
• average pedestrian area occupancy ¼ 1.2 m2
/person or more;
• average inter-person spacing ¼ 1.22 m, or more;
• seconds per time period ¼ 5 seconds;
• TT ¼ varies;
• DC ¼ varies;
366
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

15. • width restriction ¼ Actual width of door way – 0.31 m;
• average flow volume ¼ 2.17 PMM (Persons per metre minute) or less; and
• average speed ¼ 79.25 m/min.
Table IV shows the summary of EVACNET4 simulation results with a total evacuation
time of 190 seconds which is considered as satisfactory since the maximum time
allowed for evacuation is 300 seconds. The table also shows that it takes 76 seconds for
an evacuee to evacuate the facility and 55 seconds for uncongested evacuation.
The evacuation routes at the wings from the lobbies to exit destinations (see Figure 2):
LO02.001-DS03.001; and LO03.001-DS04.001 resulted into bottlenecks which will last for
65 seconds and 95 seconds, respectively. Even more critical is the evacuation route:
LO01.002-SW02.002 which is the passage between the lobby on the first floor to the
stairwell that leads to the major exit (DS01.001) and exit DS02.001 on the ground floor,
the potential bottleneck at this point could last for 170 seconds. The implication of these
results becomes more critical when the number of evacuees that will probably choose
these routes for evacuation is considered. The destination allocation presented in Table V
shows that 92 evacuees (who represent 53 per cent of the total number of evacuees) will
probably evacuate through major exit DS01.001. The next most favourable exit
destination is DS04.01 and then DS04.03 with 42 and 30 probable evacuees, respectively.
Furthermore, these results are based on the assumption that the routes to these exit
destinations will be functional and kept unobstructed. However observations from the
checklist assessment highlight potential obstructions on the routes to these exit
destinations. The major exit (DS01.001) has been designed with a double electronically
operated sliding door that has an isolation chamber, which is a consideration for energy
efficiency. This design however could create delays and potential bottlenecks during an
evacuation process. Though in some cases, electronically operated sliding doors stay
open during a power outage and when the fire alarm triggers. Observations made from
the checklist assessment also show that the wing exits DS03.001 and DS04.001 have
narrow widths and a 900 mm high “painted fair face concrete curb” at the exit door
which is a potential obstruction. Thus these exit routes should be considered as faulty
design from the perspective of fire safety. This should be modified in the current and
avoided in future designs.
Description Time (sec)
Maximum time allowed for evacuation 300
Time to evacuate building 190
Time for uncongested building evacuation 55
Average time for an evacuee to evacuate 76
Table IV.
Summary of
EVACNET4 results
Destination Code No. of evacuees
DS01.001 92
DS02.001 10
DS03.001 30
DS04.001 42
Table V.
EVACNET4
destination
allocaion results
367
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

16. This type of observation of critical locations of the building attained through an
integrative process will help building designers make the required modification to their
designs for an effective evacuation process, and also facility managers validate
effective emergency evacuation plans. Ultimately, the facility manager is able to
manage the facility more effectively through decisions made by integrating two or
more assessment methods.
8. Discussion
Different approaches are employed in evaluating fire safety of facilities. Some of these
include evaluations based on: code requirements; computer simulations of evacuation
times; and ranking techniques. Risk however cannot be totally eliminated and thus a
completely fire safe building does not exist! Previous studies assert that the use of more
integrative processes will enable a holistic view to be considered when deriving fire
safety strategies, these studies however did not take into consideration the combination
of two or more approaches rather a combination of objectives or a focus on one of the
fire safety management objectives is what has been witnessed. The main idea of our
research is to show that having more approaches employed in fire safety assessment,
will reduce the assumptions that are made. An assumption that was avoided in this
study is “fire resistant doors at exit routes being operational and unobstructed at all
times”. This is based on literature that confirms that the design configuration of the
majority of student housing facilities could cause escape problems due to overcrowding
and chaos found at exit routes and while going down stairwells (Hassanain, 2008b).
This research presents a three-storey student housing facility as a case study to
represent an integrated assessment. This assessment employs the use of a checklist
(Tables I-III) tailored according to the minimum requirements of the IBC (2012) for fire
safety. The checklist was used to assess the design and maintenance of fire safety
provisions. Interviews were also conducted with safety and maintenance staff of the
campus housing administrative department. A computer simulation tool EVACNET4
was used to determine the minimum evacuation time and evacuation pattern of the case
study. The evacuation simulation was an ideal case, meaning that all occupants are
able bodied and ready to evacuate the building at the sound of the alarm. The checklist
observations and evacuation simulation are two independent approaches. The results
of both approaches were integrated to identify potential conflicting as well as
corroborating issues.
Major issues in the architectural design, building systems design, housekeeping and
facilities maintenance management where highlighted in the integrated results. The
design of exit doors was considered as a faulty design from the perspective of fire
safety. Exit doors have been designed with obstructions which result in bottlenecks
during evacuation, while waste bins littering passages and exit routes are due to poor
housekeeping. These issues are not assessed with simulation software, and are
identified through physical observations. EVACNET4 destination allocation results in
Table V shows the major exit that would probably be selected by evacuees during an
evacuation process. Egress destination DS01.001 is a critical location in the building
and should be kept unobstructed and fully operational, it was identified to be a source
of potential delays and crowding.
The building fulfils most of the code requirements in its design and maintenance,
except for three of four exit doors that could cause congestion due to its design. Also
issues like waste control and housekeeping in general needs to be more emphasized. The
results of the simulation also show that the building can be evacuated in adequate time.
368
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

17. 9. Conclusions
The evaluation of fire risk is not a new field; studies have been carried out on varying
types of facilities with varying levels of fire load, sources of ignition and occupancy.
These assessments have employed different approaches which highlight different
features and ignore others, issues of human behaviour, mobility, occupancy profile all
need to be put into consideration to achieve the minimal risk possible, since no facility is
completely fire safe. Though fire is not a daily occurrence in student housing facilities, if
it does occur it leaves live long scars and affects the campus community and the nation
as a whole. Therefore to prevent and control the occurrence of fire and thus improve fire
safety, comprehensive and innovative techniques should be employed. An integration of
multiple methods will present holistic results for building design and management.
This study presents relevant literature and previous studies pertaining to fire safety,
especially in student housing facilities. It follows that with the results of a checklist
assessment tailored to the requirements of the IBC (2012) and an evacuation simulation
tool (EVACNET4) applied to a student housing facility as a case study. Though a case
study presents more qualitative information on a subject, its results cannot be
generalized since each case study has its own unique characteristics. Also, this research
is delimited to two approaches: checklist assessment; and evacuation simulation which is
sufficient to show the potential benefits of a combined approach to fire safety assessment.
A real life simulation of evacuation can however be investigated as a follow up paper.
Fire safety provisions were found to be adequate in the student housing facility, and
the building can also be evacuated safely in about 190 seconds should a fire occur.
Issues regarding exit doors that might cause potential overcrowding and bottlenecks
were however identified. Though only two approaches to fire safety has been employed
in this study, it is believed that expanding the scope to cover other approaches would
provide more interesting results. Such integrated methods will reduce the risk and
consequence of a fire hazard to the least extent possible. This is of potential value to all
stakeholders of the built environment.
Thus, this study recommends the adoption of more comprehensive techniques
which takes into consideration two or more approaches to fire safety assessment and
management. Lessons learnt from such assessments should be transferred as feed
forward to improve future design and management of student housing facilities.
Architects, builders and facility managers can use results from such holistic
assessments to enhance the overall safety of the residential environment.
References
Argueta, J., Mittelman, D., Salvatori, R., Brown, N., Renda, B. and Smeal, A. (2009),
“An assessment of fire safety in Australia’s international student housing”, Qualifying
Project report, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA.
Canadian Wood Council (CWC) (2000), “Fire safety in residential buildings”, Building
Performance Series: No. 2, Technical Report, Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa.
Canadian Wood Council (CWC) (2002), “Fire safety and insurance in commercial buildings”,
technical report, Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa.
Chen, T., Pan, L., Zhang, H., Narayanan, S. and Soldner, N. (2013), “Experimental study of
evacuation from a 4-storey building”, Procedia Engineering, Vol. 62, pp. 538-547.
Chen, Y.Y., Chuang, Y.J., Huang, C.H., Lin, C.Y. and Chien, S.W. (2012), “The adoption of fire
safety management for upgrading the fire safety level of existing hotel buildings”, Building
and Environment, Vol. 51, pp. 311-319.
369
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

18. Chow, W.K. (2002), “Proposed fire safety ranking system EB-FSRS for existing high-rise
nonresidential buildings in Hong Kong”, Journal of Architectural Engineering, Vol. 8 No. 4,
pp. 116-124.
Copping, A.G. (2004), “Introducing a protocol for an integrated fire safety evaluation procedure
for historic buildings”, International Journal on Engineering Performance-Based Codes,
Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 72-77.
Di Gangi, M. (2013), “Designing escape routes for buildings through an aggregate approach”,
WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol. 173, pp. 791-802.
Frank, K., Spearpoint, M. and Challands, N. (2014), “Uncertainty in estimating the fire control
effectiveness of sprinklers from New Zealand fire incident reports”, Fire Technology,
Vol. 50 No. 3, pp. 611-632.
Hassanain, M.A. (2008a), “On the performance evaluation of sustainable student housing
facilities”, Journal of Facilities Management, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 212-225.
Hassanain, M.A. (2008b), “Fire safety in the design and operation of student housing facilities”,
Structural Survey, Vol. 26 No. 1, pp. 55-62.
Hassanain, M.A. and Hafeez, M.A. (2005), “Fire safety evaluation of restaurant facilities”,
Structural Survey, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 298-309.
International Building Code (IBC) (2012), International Building Code, International Code Council,
Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.
Khorasani, N.E., Garlock, M. and Gardoni, P. (2014), “Fire load: survey data, recent standards,
and probabilistic models for office buildings”, Engineering Structures, Vol. 58,
pp. 152-165.
Kisko, T.M., Francis, R.L. and Nobel, C.R. (1998), EVACNET4 User’s Guide, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL, available at: www-old.ise.ufl.edu/kisko/files/evacnet/ (accessed 1 February 2011).
Klüpfel, H., Meyer-König, T. and Schreckenberg, M. (2003), “Comparison of an evacuation
exercise in a primary school to simulation results”, in Fukui, M., Sugiyama, Y.,
Schreckenberg, M. and Wolf, D.E. (Eds), Traffic and Granular Flow’01, Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, pp. 549-554.
Kuligowski, E.D. (2004), “Review of 28 egress models”, NIST SP No. 1032, Gaithersburg, MD.
Kuligowski, E.D., Peacock, R.D. and Hoskins, B.L. (2005), A Review of Building Evacuation
Models, National Institute of Standards and Technology, US Department of Commerce,
Gaithersburg, MD.
Lin, P., Lo, S.M., Huang, H.C. and Yuen, K.K. (2008), “On the use of multi-stage time-varying
quickest time approach for optimization of evacuation planning”, Fire Safety Journal,
Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 282-290.
Lo, S.M. and Cheng, W.Y. (2003), “Issues of site inspections for fire safety ranking of multi-storey
buildings”, Structural Survey, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 79-86.
Lo, S.M., Huang, H.C., Wang, P. and Yuen, K.K. (2006), “A game theory based exit selection model
for evacuation”, Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 41 No. 5, pp. 364-369.
Meacham, B.J. (1999), “Integrating human behavior and response issues into fire safety
management of facilities”, Facilities, Vol. 17 Nos 9/10, pp. 303-312.
Mowrer, F.W. (1999), Fire Safe Student Housing: A Guide for Campus Housing Administrators,
United States Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency,
College Park, MD.
Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA) (2014), “Electrical safety participant
guide”, Construction Safety and Health, Focus 4, US Dept. of Labor, Washington, DC.
370
SS
33,4/5
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)

19. Park, H., Meacham, B.J., Dembsey, N.A. and Goulthorpe, M. (2015), “Conceptual model
development for holistic building fire safety performance analysis”, Fire Technology,
Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 173-193.
Ramachandran, G. (1999), “Fire safety management and risk assessment”, Facilities, Vol. 17
Nos 9/10, pp. 363-377.
Rao, P. (2014), “Fire risk analysis of combustible and non-combustible mid-rise residential
buildings using Curisk”, doctoral dissertation, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa.
Santos-Reyes, J. and Beard, A.N. (2001), “A systemic approach to fire safety management”,
Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 36 No. 4, pp. 359-390.
Shan, M.A.H.U. (2008), “A risk assessment approach to fire safety ranking of student housing
facilities”, master thesis, Architectural Engineering Department, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran.
Tashrifullahi, S.A. and Hassanain, M.A. (2013), “A simulation model for emergency evacuation
time of a library facility using EVACNET4”, Structural Survey, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 75-92.
Ulriksen, L. and Dederichs, A.S. (2014), “Evacuation of day care centres for children 0-6 years:
simulation using simulex”, in Weidmann, U., Kirsch, U. and Schreckenberg, M. (Eds),
Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics 2012, Springer International Publishing, pp. 959-969.
Watson, D. (2000), Detection Devices, Time-Saver Standards for Building Materials and Systems:
Design Criteria and Selection Data, D4-1-7, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Yuan, J.P., Fang, Z., Wang, Y.C., Lo, S.M. and Wang, P. (2009), “Integrated network approach
of evacuation simulation for large complex buildings”, Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 44 No. 2,
pp. 266-275.
Zhao, C.M., Lo, S.M., Lu, J.A. and Fang, Z. (2004), “A simulation approach for ranking of fire
safety attributes of existing buildings”, Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 39 No. 7, pp. 557-579.
Corresponding author
Dr Mohammad A. Hassanain can be contacted at: mohhas@kfupm.edu.sa
For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
371
An integrated
fire safety
assessment
DownloadedbyKingFahdUniversityofPetroleumandMineralsAt07:1509December2015(PT)