Toxicity Of Melamine And Its Effects On Animal And Humans

Toxicity Of Melamine And Its Effects On Animal And Humans
Toxicity of Melamine and its effect on animal and human." Melamine (2,4,6–triamino–1, 2,5–triazine) is an organic base an important and widely used
industrial chemical. The chemical properties of Melamine is described by appearance at room temperature whitish crystalline solid, solubility
partially soluble in water at 20 , 50 and boiling point 3.1,13.4 and 25 g/l receptive, although it is insoluble in diethyl ether. Melting point of melamine
is 357C and specific gravity is 1.573g/cm3. Also molecule weight of this organic molecule is 126.12 g/ mol that %66 of this molecule weight is
nitrogen. Melamine is synthesized from urea with an intermediate step producing cyanic acid. The reaction also results in the formation of other
byproducts, including cyanutic acid, ammeline, and ammelide. Melamine can be used in any human or animal food preparation as an illegal additive
such as milk powder contamination scandal occurred in China in 2008. Nevertheless, Melamine can be used in food packaging material and in
feedstuffs for poultry and livestock at low levels, but this amount of melamine can extraction from compression moulds by acidic foods, such as lemon
or orange juice or curdled milk, at high temperature. According to this account, the amount of melamine take oral uptake of melamine was estimated
around 0.007 mg melamine/kg/day. (OECD 1998). Absorption of melamine in human and animal can happen in different ways ; direct contacts of
melamine cause irritation of skin,
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Genetic And Non Genetic Mechanisms Of Inheritance Essay
Regina Noel
10/19/2016
Epigenetics: Genetic and Non–Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance When discussing the topic of genetics, it is typically viewed from the perspective of
Mendelian inheritance in which genes are transmitted from parent to offspring solely through the use of genetic alleles, which are the alternative form
of genes that have varying DNA sequences and chromosomes that affect the phenotype, visual gene trait (Toth. 2015). If and how a genetic trait is
expressed is whether the alleles for that trait are dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles are genes that have a higher probability of being expressed
in the offspring than a recessive allele. In the case of dominate alleles; there are two possible combinations that its gene can still be expressed with,
homozygous (which contains two dominant alleles) and heterozygous (which contains a dominant and recessive allele). On the other hand, recessive
alleles can only be expressive if it is homozygous (which contains two recessive alleles) (Reece et al. 2013). Since Gregor Mendel's discovery of
alleles and genetic inheritance, there has been research shows that there are more mechanisms of inheriting traits which do not include changing the
nucleotide sequence of DNA. This form of non–genetic inheritance is called epigenetic modification. One example of epigenetic modification is DNA
methylation. DNA methylation is when methyl groups, which are chemical groups that contain one carbon bound to three hydrogen atoms,

Expression and Purification of Recombinant Linker Histone...
Two restriction enzymes, Nde1 and Xho1, enabled the gene coding for the H1a21c protein to be successfully inserted into the pET22b plasmid.
However, since the pET22b vector contains a His– tag sequence, it was important that the Xho1 enzyme to introduce a stop codon that prevented a
His– tag to be attached to the H1 protein.
The SP FF 'fast S' column was used to purify the H1 protein based on the ionisation state of the protein. Referring to the structure of H1 proteins, they
contain a high level of lysine residues (compared to core histones), thus making them relatively basic (Johns, 1971; Cole, 1984). The cysteine residue
increased this positive nature of the H1 protein, allowing the isolation of this protein using a cation exchange column.
The strong anion ligand, Sulphopropyl, allowed the protein to stick to it via ionic interactions during the low salt concentrated elution process. Most
unbound proteins eluted, however, proteins containing positive charges eluted simultaneously with the H1a21c protein during the high salt
concentrated elution process. Gradient elution (increasing salt concentration) was used and this is seen by an increase in conductance as the proteins
eluted (figure 3). A consistent increase in conductance confirmed that the elution process was correct.
The H1 proteins, as shown in figure 3, eluted in the last peak which showed a low absorbance due to a lack of reactivity. The eluted H1 protein was
applied to an SDS gel in order to confirm the

Essay On Epigenetic Resetting In Plants
Embryonic epigenetic reprogramming by a transcription factor in plants
Abstract: Epigenetic modifications have important roles in flowering which requires vernalization (cold winder) for many plants. Epigenetic marks that
accumulated during vernalization need to be removed to ensure proper development of the offspring. However, the knowledge about the key gene
required for such resetting and the underlying mechanism is limited. Here, the author demonstrated that LEAFY COTYLEDONI (LEC1) could de
novo activate FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) expression in the pre–embryo by establishment of active chromatin, thus reversing the silenced state at
FLC. Besides, the active chromatin state can be transmitted to post–embryonic life. Taken together, these... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To understand the timing of FLC activation in embryogenesis, the author first examine when FLC is reactivated using an FLC:: GUS reporter line.
They found that FLC expression was activated in pro–embryo within 1 day after pollination and onwards from both non–vernalized parental plants and
vernalized parental plants, despite that FLC expression is lower from vernalized plants than that from none–vernalized plants. These results were
further confirmed by in situ mRNA hybridization. Then the author postulated that LEC1, a master embryo transcription factor and expressed in the
pro–embryo and throughout embryogenesis, is a good candidate required for embryonic de novo FLC activation. To support their hypothesis, the
author first introduced loss of function null lec1 allele in FRI–Col and found that this FLC–dependent later flowering phenotype was suppressed. Next,
they crossed lec1 with FLC:: GUS line and found that FLC expression was suppressed in the pro–embryo stage and onwards. These results suggest that
LEC1 reactivate FLC expression in early embryogenesis and onwards in non–vernalized plants. To explore whether LEC1 could reactivate FLC
expression after parental vernalization, the FLC expression was traced for two generations in LEC1/lec1 seedlings by FLC–GUS reporter. FLC was
fully activated in LEC1/lec1 before cold and silenced after vernalization, and the

Histone Proteins Relationship
The DNA and Histone Proteins Relationship
To begin with, a nucleic acid is a macromolecule that is made of nucleotides units, in which each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base,
5–carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. The nucleic acid can be in a DNA or RNA form and both contain all the genetic information an organism
needs to function. On the other hand, a protein is a macromolecule composed of many amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Even though
both nucleic acids and protein are mostly composed of Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen, they greatly differ in their functions. Nucleic acids
basically give cells the instructions to make a protein, however; the opposite is impossible. This process is called the central dogma. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Histones are proteins found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cell, and are positively charged. The positive charge is what allows them to bind tightly to DNA
(that are negatively charged because of the phosphate group). DNA needs histones, during the initiation of DNA replication, to allow the DNA
polymerase move along the DNA and replicate the right amount of genetic material required for a daughter cell. However, as all proteins, histones
need DNA and has to go through the process of transcription and translation to be formed. Histones are responsible for the packaging of DNA and play
an important role in the regulation of gene expression. As mentioned earlier, the opposite charges allow histones and DNA to bind tightly, therefore;
reducing the positive charge makes DNA more open to the gene expression. Histones induce gene expression by altering chromatin structure. Each
histone type has an N–terminal tail that emerges from the histone core and plays a significant role in determining the gene influence [2]. The tail
allows different modifications that alter gene expression, such as methylation and acetylation. The methylation process, for example, regulates gene
expression by reducing the chemical interaction between the tail and DNA, which increases the transcription of genes

Examples Of Epigenetics
Example of epigenetics...Epigenetics play a large role in the expression of certain genes. Through particular changes in the environment and genetic
information, similar genomes can result in different organisms with very diverse features. Chromatin modification involves the regulation of genes by
alterations, or specific additions, to chromatin. Unlike mutations, these modifications do not directly involve the nucleotide sequence and can be easily
reversed. The presence of certain modifications can impact chromatin configuration and the recruitment of enzyme complexes to control DNA.
Regulation of chromatin structure is a fundamental process that largely influences epigenetic inheritance through histone modifications, DNA
methylation, and nucleosome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During methylation, methyl groups (CH3) are attached to histone tails with the aid of histone methyltransferases (HMTs). These proteins transfer one,
two, or three methyl groups from S–adenosyl–L–methionine to lysine or arginine residues. Lysine methylation involves a lysine methyltransferase that
specifically targets and methylates lysine within the N–terminal tails. Similarly, arginine methylation occurs through the transfer of methyl groups from
SAM to the ЙЇ–guanidino group of arginine. Although histone methylation does not change the charge of residues and does not greatly impact
nucleosome interactions for chromatin folding, it results in binding sites for certain enzymes, which enables the regulation of chromatin condensation
and nucleosome mobility. Methylation can also block the binding of proteins that interact with unmethylated histones and inhibit other modifications.
Therefore, histone methylation regulates genes by promoting the binding of positive transcription factors and by blocking the attachment of negative
transcription factors. However, some methylations can prevent gene transcription by mediating heterochromatin formation. For example, H3–K9 and
H3–K27 methylation silences gene expression at certain euchromatic

Epigenetics: The Hidden Life Of Our Genes
Epigenetics Epigenetics is a study that entails the heritage changes in gene expressions, which includes both the active and the inactive genes; the
changes do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence. Meaning, it is a change in phenotypes without the differences in genotypes and
consequently, affect how the cells read the genes. The epigenetic modification is a natural occurrence but apparently can be influenced by other
several factors, including diseases, the environment, and age. Epigenetic changes can result in adverse damages and can end up causing infections
such as cancer (Barton et al, 2016). This paper looks at what epigenetics entails, the hidden life of our genes, how food affects genes and how one can
elongate life by improving health status.
The Hidden Life of Our Genes The human body carries trillions of cells, and each cell is specialized for particular functions in bones, brain, and the
muscles. The difference in each cell is determined when each set of genes are controlled by each cell. The epigenome takes full control of how these
changes take place in the cells to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nutritionists also add that what one eats affect the entire family including the children and the unborn. Evidently, diet is significant sources of
epigenetic signals that determine how the chemical groups that are attached to a gene. It is evident that when a pregnant mother takes food rich in high
fats, the likelihood of giving birth to an obese child is high, therefore evidence that how our genes make changes in the cells is determined by the
nutritional intake (Vickers, 2014). On the other hand, a mother using alcoholic drinks and drugs are likely to produce children with disabilities as the
genes copying process is adversely affected. Additionally, some people are allergic to some foods and consequently when they take the specific food,
the genes respond and bring about adverse reactions (Barton et al.,

Apicidin Against Babesia
4. Discussion
The emergence of drug–resistant Babesia parasites has indicated the importance of developing novel chemotherapeutic agents. Our recent studies on
bovine and murine
Babesia parasites showed that HDAC is indispensable for the survival of Babesia, as the growth of these parasites was severely inhibited by an HDAC
inhibitor, apicidin
(Munkhjargal et al., 2009). Inhibition of HDAC results in histone hyperacetylation, which leads to impaired metabolism (Allred, 2001; Allred and
Al–Khedery, 2006;
Bounchain and Delorme, 2003). Apicidin might kill Babesia parasites through the suppression of parasite metabolism.
The lower IC50 values of apicidin against apicomplexan parasites than toxic doses to mammalian cells (Han et al.,
2000) have suggested HDAC as an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, apicidin inhibited transcription of mRNAs of the BbHDAC3 gene but DMSO could not inhibit the mRNAs of the BbHDAC3 gene by
RT–PCR. The mRNA transcript of the B. bovis profilin gene was not affected by both treatments. This result is in agreement with those of
Keles et al. (2011), who reported the interaction of apicidin with 17–hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases enzymes and the suppression of
17–hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (HSD1B71) gene at the transcript and protein levels in endometrial adenocarcinoma cells. DЛ›ebicki and
Jagodzinski (2009) reported that apicidin reduced the phospholipase C gamma–1 (PLC1) transcript and protein contents in Hut–78 T lymphoma cells,
they suggested that apicidin may activate an RNase(s) component(s) contributing to the degradation of PLC1 transcripts or to down–regulation of the
expression of protein(s) involved in this transcript's stability. Taken together, our results showed that rBbHDAC3 hadhistone deacetylase activity in B.
bovis.
The current findings show that the previously reported apicidin–mediated growth inhibition of Babesia parasites was due to the inhibition of HDAC, as
the rBbHDAC3

Three Main Pathways Of Epigenetic Modification
Epigenetic Modifications in Cancer Scientists have known for several decades that cancer may be caused by mutations in the DNA of cells. These
mutations may result from exposure to certain substances (e.g. radiation, benzene) or they may occur spontaneously in the process of cell division,
especially in the context of aging. Recently, researchers have discovered another level of inherited cellular information separate from the genes
themselves. Epigenetics is the study of modifications to genes that change their patterns of expression. Epigenetic processes can silence a gene or even
an entire chromosome. They can cause normally silent genes to be expressed, and can change the process of transcription so that the nucleotides are
transcribed in a different order. Normally, epigenetic information is stabilized early in development and is maintained as cells divide. However, over
time, mutations or epigenetic drift may change the inherited pattern. This type of event often results in disease such as cancer (Jones & Baylin 2002).
There are three main pathways of epigenetic modification. The first pathway involves methylation of the cytosine in CpG dinucleotides, a process
which is catalyzed by DNA methyl transferases (DNMT). Second, modifications can be made in the histone proteins which give DNA its structure.
Third, small, noncoding micro–RNAs (miRNA) can alter the messenger RNAs so that they degrade and cannot produce the proteins coded by the
corresponding DNA. Although

Esigenetic Stress Memories
1. Background
Organisms are exposed to different kinds of environmental stresses during their life cycle. To cope up with environment assaults, plants and animals
undergo some homeostasis alterations during somatic growth and heritable (transgenerational) gene expression modifications. The heritable changes
can occur without any changes in base sequences and is commonly known as epigenetics. Molecular mechanisms of epigenetic modification includes
DNA methylation, histone modification (methylation, acetylation, uniquitination, phosphorylation, ribosylation, and biotinylation), small RNA
mediated regulation and chromatin remodeling (Wagner, 2003; Vanyushin, 2006). All of these mechanisms may be regulated by different
environmental stresses. Studies have revealed altered gene expression in plants, in response to stress conditions that can be fixed epigenetically and
inherited to next generation, forming epigenetic stress memories.
2. Molecular Basis
2.1 DNA methylation
The modification at fifth carbon position of a cytosine ring (addition of methyl group to the 5` position of cytosine, thus converting cytosine to
5–methylcytosine (5mC)) is called as DNA methylation. In plants, DNA methylation has usually found in three contexts, methylation at CG, CHG (H
replacing A, C or T) and at CHH sites (Chen et al., 2010; Zemach et al., 2010). This DNA methylation accumulated during vegetative phase under
influence of environment will be transmitted to next generation through germline

Promising Treatment for Alzheimer's Disease Essay
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder(1–3) causing progressive loss of cognitive functions leading to dementia and death.(4) Older
age is the highest risk factor for AD (3, 5) and the prevalence of AD rises from 3% among those 65–74years to almost 50% among those >85year(2).
An estimated 5.2 million Americans of all ages had AD in 2013(1). It currently affects more than 33.9million people worldwide(4) and is predicted to
be affecting more than 80million people worldwide by 2040(3) which makes treating AD a pertinent issue to be dealt with at present.
Epigenetic (defined as reversible regulation of various genome functions, occurring without change in DNA sequence)(6, 7) , modification has recently
emerged as one of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Among them the HDACs linked to cognitive impairment in AD pathology are thought to be Class 1, HDAC 2 associated with associative and spatial
memory impairment.(8) Either activating HAT or inhibiting HDAC can defendhistone deacetylation but latter has proven more achievable than
former(15)
HDAC inhibitors are classified into 4 main chemical families. 1. Carboxylic acids– eg Sodium butyrate, valporic acid, 4phenylbutyrate acts on Class 1
HDAC. 2. Hydroxamic acid– eg: Trichosatin, SAHA acts on Class 1 and 2 HDCA. 3. Benzamide group– eg: MS275 acts on Class 1 HDAC and 4.
Cyclic tetrapeptides– Tapoxin.(15) Researches have focused mainly on class 1 and class 2 HDACi as treatment option for cognitive enhancement in
AD.(21–23) The studies conducted on mouse models with AD related neurodegeneration treated by sodium butyrate(24) (Class 1 HDACi) showed
rescue of cognitive functions, by acting through HDAC2 inhibition. The same models treated with SAHA, TSA (Class 2HDACi) and valporic acid
(22, 23)(Class 1 HDACi) showed contextual fear and memory loss abolished.(15, 25) Also studies have shown HDACis successfully used as cognitive
enhancers in invertebrates. (15)
Together these researches shows that targeting histone modifications and HDAC inhibitors can have a promising therapeutic role as cognitive enhancer
in AD(11, 12, 19, 26).HDAC inhibitors are also currently researched as treatment option for many disease conditions(27–31). Epigenetics in AD can be

Epigenetics
ONE of biology's hottest topics is epigenetics. The term itself covers a multitude of sins. Strictly speaking, it refers to the regulation of gene
expression by the chemical modification of DNA, or of the histone proteins in which DNA is usually wrapped. This modification is either the addition
of methyl groups (a carbon atom and three hydrogens) to the DNA or of acetyl groups (two carbons, three hydrogens and an oxygen) to the histones.
Methylation switches genes off. Acetylation switches them on. Since, in a multicellular organism, different cells need different genes to be active, such
regulation is vital.
What has got a lot of people excited, though, is the idea that epigenetic switches might be transmitted down the generations. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The term itself covers a multitude of sins. Strictly speaking, it refers to the regulation of gene expression by the chemical modification of DNA, or of the
histone proteins in which DNA is usually wrapped. This modification is either the addition of methyl groups (a carbon atom and three hydrogens) to the
DNA or of acetyl groups (two carbons, three hydrogens and an oxygen) to the histones. Methylation switches genes off. Acetylation switches them on.
Since, in a multicellular organism, different cells need different genes to be active, such regulation is vital.
What has got a lot of people excited, though, is the idea that epigenetic switches might be transmitted down the generations. Some see this as contrary
to Darwinism, since it would permit characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime to be passed on to its offspring, as suggested by a rival
theory of evolution put forward by Jean–Baptiste Lamarck. This is an exaggeration. The DNA sequence itself is not being permanently altered. Even
those epigenetic changes that are inherited seem to be subsequently reversible. But the idea that acquired characteristics can be inherited at all is still an
important and novel one, and a worrying example of the phenomenon has been published this week in BioMed Central Medicine.
In this section * Lake monsters * A third–world dimension *

Analysis Of The Article ' Epigenetics And Human Disease '
Introduction
How is it that two identical twins with the exact same DNA and the same environment can be very different? (Coutney Griffin 2012) Cortney Griffin
elaborated on how her journey of having twins lead her to a deeper understanding of what epigenetics truly is. This talk, although vastly viewed in
biochemistry classes including at the University of Texas of El Paso, differs from the scholarly article "Epigenetics and human disease: translating basic
biology into clinical applications" by David Rodenhiser and Mellissa Mann. Their most prominent similarities and differences can be separated into
audience and purpose, rhetorical appeals, and structure and delivery.
Summary of Speech Courtney Griffin begins her speech by saying that nine years ago, she was told that she was going to have twins. This got her
interested in how much of people's mental health and physical health has to do with nature and nurture. She took the stage to describe her journey at
TEDX OU, is an independently Organized TED event at the University of Oklahoma. She had been trained as a geneticist. She was not expecting
twins so she joked, what would happen if she put one kid in daycare and one kid in a drawer. This got her interested in epigenetics. Even though twins
could have identical DNA and grow up relatively the same they are radically different people, to the point that there are health differences between the
children. When DNA gets wrapped to fit into the nucleolus, some parts are able to

The Importance Of Epigenetic Mechanisms In Eukaryotes
In eukaryotes, in addition to proven roles of regulatory components, epigenetic mechanisms have emerged as significant factors in conferring
environmental adaptability. In spite of the clear role of chromatin structure in controlling gene expression in eukaryotes (Haig, 2004), the relevant
mechanisms involved in regulating Pi transcriptional networks has not been fully investigated. In response to environmental signals, epigenetic
mechanisms can affect the chromatin landscape by altering its biochemical properties and promote rapid reactivation of numerous stress response
genes. An understanding of chromatin structure and the epigenetic mechanisms that modulate DNA and chromatin may help to elucidate the impacts of
chromatin level changes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, mutation in two Arabidopsis genes that encode flowering time regulators, FCA and FPA, exhibited defects in flower development due to
RNA–mediated chromatin silencing of a range of loci in the genome including the Phytoene Desaturase (PDS) gene. This suppression was accompanied
by the asymmetric methylation of the endogenous PDS locus. These data suggest that FCA and FPA regulate chromatin silencing through interaction
in a locus–dependent manner with the siRNA–directed DNA methylation pathway to regulate common targets (BГ¤urle et al., 2007).
Figure 4. Overview of possible epigenetic modifications. These epigenetic modifications can all influence the accessibility of the chromatin structure to
the transcriptional machinery. This image was taken from a previous publication (GrГ¤ff et al., 2011).
DNA methylation
Cytosine DNA methylation is a major epigenetic mark in both plants and animals that tends to generate heterochromatin structure, which leads to gene
repression. DNA methylation is not evenly distributed across the genome but rather is enriched at repetitive DNA elements like transposons, whereas
most genes have limited methylation or are unmethylated (Zilberman et al., 2007). In plants, three distinct types of methylation occur based on
sequence context. These include CG, CHG and CHH site classes, which are established and maintained by separate enzymatic pathways (Bewick et al.,
2016). Several studies have

An Interesting And Informative Video
This was an interesting and informative video, which talks about epigenetic. I would define epigenetic as a change in the observable physical traits
of an organism without a change in the inherited genetic of a cell. In the video, there were people (twins) and rats as an example just to show and
explain how epigenetic works, which is amazing. The twins' participants in the video, look alike. Even though, their spotting image are incredible,
they also have their differences. Like one of the twin asked an important question, which was if one of them has a disease, will it be possible for the
other one to have the same disease and actually, there might be a chance for the other twin to develop the same disease, which shows me how
mysterious epigenetic is.
There are two articles that I found, which gave a lot of informations about epigenetic and explained how the process of epigenetic works and how
weird it can be. The process of epigenetic works by chemical tags, which is known as epigenetic marks that are tied to the deoxyribonucleic acid and
which permit to either use or ignore specific gene. The most important epigenetic mark is a methyl group and it was said that in the midst of each
generation there is a cell called primordial gene cell, where the epigenetic marks are removed from. The deoxyribonucleic acid methylation is also
removed in primordial gene cell, which are changed to hydroxymethylation and it also restarts the gene of each generation.
From the second article

Mixed Lineage Leukemia ( Mll )
Introduction Mixed lineage leukemia (Mll) are a family of catalytic enzymes in humans which contain a highly conserved SET domain required for
their full catalytic activity (Dehe et al 2015). These family of proteins are involved in regulating gene expression by methylation of the 4th Lysine
residue on H3 histones. So far, 6 different types of Mll family proteins have been identified in humans one of which is Mll1 (Morgan and Shilatifard
2013). The high number of Mll subunits observed in higher Eukaryotes is believed to be the result of high demand for regulating H3K4 methylation at
chromatins (Zhang et al 2015). Mll1, the most studied member of these Mll family, is an enzyme in humans coded by KMT2A gene located on
chromosome 11 (Zhang et... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This demonstrates the urgency and need to study these family of proteins in effort to treat mixed lineage leukemia better. However, the large
number of subunits and higher complexity of these family of proteins hinder the direct study of these proteins. Set1 is a yeast enzyme that is part
of a large protein complex called COMPASS which also include Mll1 (Roguev et al 2001). Like Mll1, it also consist a highly conserved SET domain
which 2 as catalytic role (Stassen et al., 1995; Laible et al., 1997). Moreover, these proteins share a similar function of regulating gene expression by
mono–, di–, and tri–methylation of H3K4 (Amanika et al 2008). Thus, there exists a remarkable homology between Set1 and Mll1 proteins which
allows indirect studies of Mll1 proteins. This is more ideal as Set1 is the only H3K4 methyl transferase in S.cerevisae which tremendously eliminate
the complexity (Briggs et al 2001). In addition, loss of H3K4 methylation in S.cerevisae triggers apoptosis which allows better visualization of
phenotypic growth differences (Walter et al 2014). Thus, studying Set1 can give important insight about Mll1 proteins and their mechanisms of action
in causing leukemia. Set1 methyltransferases play an important role in gene silencing at silent chromatin regions of S.cerevisae. Silent chromatin
regions are found at telomeres, HM loci (HML and HMR), and rDNA which are associated with low levels of transcription (Smith et al 1997). In
previous

The Community Of Micro Organisms Within A Host Individuals...
The majority of cells in the human body are not human at all. The 100 trillion prokaryotic cells that make up our microbiota constitute 90% of the
cells in our bodies and are derived from more than 40,000 bacterial strains (Forsythe & Kunze, 2012). Bacterial cells reside in animal hosts as
commensals, symbionts, or as pathogenic parasites and form a veneer over almost all body surfaces (Stilling et al., 2014). Increasingly, research is
showing the importance of host microbiota composition and the bidirectional signaling pathways between the brain and the gut (some of which are
epigenetic). These studies elucidate the profound effects this signaling can have on behavior and cognition, and will be the focus of this review
(Sommer & Backhed, 2013). The community of micro–organisms within a host individuals gastrointestinal tract, or microbiota, is primarily made up
of four bacterial phyla in most mammals – Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria (Costello et al., 2012). Similarly, the microbiome
of an organism is the combined genetic material present in all of the various micro–organisms residing in a host. Since 2011, numerous studies have
indicated that an altered microbiota in germ free mice (GF) lead to behavioral changes, notably advancing the idea of a microbiota–gut–brain axis
(Stilling et al., 2014). It is now clear that certain specific pathologies, neurodevelopment disorders and depression are linked to an altered microbiome
(Grenham et al.,

In September 1944, World War II was close to an end, and...
In September 1944, World War II was close to an end, and the German troops were retiring from their conquered countries throughout Europe. The
Netherlands was the last country retained by the Nazis which around this time was stricken by the Allied Forces, to which the exiled Dutch
government responded with a railway strike. The intents of the Allied Forces with the help of the strike were futile, which gave the German
government the opportunity to order a food embargo to the Netherlands as a lesson for their disobedience. The embargo coincided with a cruel winter
which rendered poor crops starting a season of famine in the region. The daily calorie intake went from 2,300–2,900 to 1,000 initially, 580 calories for
the crude winter months.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By the time these people reached their 50's researchers focused on cardiovascular and physiological functions, they found high levels of obesity,
cholesterol and type II diabetes. The study continues until present day. Epigenetics is the study of reactions that switch part of the genome at specific
locations and time, and what factors influence them. A cell has a sum of signals that help on stabilizing thegene expression; these are epigenetics tags
that are accumulated through cell development. While for decades scientists thought the new embryo's epigenome was made from scratch it is now
know that parents' epigenetic tags play an important role in the life of the new creature. Most of the epigenetic tags are erased during the process of
development in a process called "reprogramming" leaving the majority of the cell in a blank state though a few genes make it through the process
without successful removal of the tags. The study greatly helped in understanding the mechanism of nutrition and epigenetic inheritance to the child
while in the womb. It has been shown through animal studies that a methyl rich diet of the mother gives a progeny with a highly methylated DNA.
Specifically, studies in mice have shown that diet affects the Agoutigene (present in all mammals) when the gene is not methylated the mice shows a
yellow coat, a fatter complexion and is likely to develop diabetes and cancer. Unlike the healthy mice

The Effects Of Epigenetics Studies Genetic Effects On...
Epigenetics studies genetic effects not encoded in the DNA sequence of an organism, hence the prefix epi– . Such effects on cellular and physiological
phenotypic traits may result from external or environmental factors that switch genes on and off and affect how cells express genes. These alterations
may or may not be heritable, although the use of the term epigenetic to describe processes that are heritable is controversial. instead, non–genetic
factors cause the organism 's genes to behave differently.
One example of an epigenetic change in eukaryotic biology is the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells
become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. In other words, as a single fertilized egg cell –
the zygote – continues to divide, the resulting daughter cells change into all the different cell types in an organism, including neurons, muscle cells,
epithelium, endothelium of blood vessels, etc., by activating some genes while inhibiting the expression of others.
Definitions
The term epigenetics in its contemporary usage emerged in the 1990s, but for some years has been used in somewhat variable meanings.
From this, and the associated adjective epigenetic, the term epigenetics was coined by C. H. Waddington in 1942 as pertaining to epigenesis in parallel
to Valentin Haecker 's 'phenogenetics ' .
Epigenesis in the context of biology refers to the differentiation of

A Study Of Dynamic Regulation Of Gene Expression Essay
The majority of cells in the human body are not human at all. The 100 trillion prokaryotic cells that make up our microbiota, constitute 90% of the
cells in our bodies, and are derived from more than 40,000 bacterial strains (Forsythe & Kunze, 2012). Bacterial cells reside in animal hosts as
commensals, symbionts, or as pathogenic parasites, forming a veneer over almost all body surfaces (Dave et al., 2012). Increasingly, research is
showing the importance of host microbiota composition and the bidirectional signaling pathways between the brain and the gut, some of which are
epigenetic. These studies elucidate the profound impacts that signaling pathways, such as short–chain fatty acid mediated effects, nucleomodulins, and
other bacterial metabolites, can have on health, behavior and cognition (Sommer & Backhed, 2013). 'Epigenetics,' derived from the Greek root 'epi '
meaning on top of, is the study of dynamic regulation of gene expression due to factors that act on chromatin structure, nuclear architecture and other
molecular events that do not change the DNA sequence (Stilling et al., 2014). In addition, epigenetics has sometimes been defined as sequence–
independent heritable changes in gene expression (Holliday, 1987). Epigenetic processes include post–translational histone modification, as well as
cytosine methylation and interactions of non–coding RNAs (Jaenisch & Bird, 2003; Landry et al., 2013). Post–translational histone acetylation results
in a decreased

ING5 Case Study
The ING (INhibitor of Growth) family of genes and proteins (ING1–ING5) was identified in 1996, from PCR–mediated subtractive hybridization
between a normal mammary epithelial cell strain and several transformed breast cancer cell–lines, followed by an in vivo functional screen for
tumourigenesis1. The ING proteins target histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) complexes to the H3K4me3 mark, altering
histone acetylation and gene expression2. ING4 was identified by computational analysis and is expressed in various tissues; also several splice
variants and transcripts were described for this protein3–5. The ING5 protein of the ING family, was described by computational homology search and
shares a high amino acid ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also, due to the presence of the LID in all INGs, we will study if ING5 and ING4 are capable of interacting with Lamin A in differentiating stem cells
and the importance of this interaction to stem cell differentiation.
To achieve these objectives, we will use three different mouse embryonic stem (ES) cell lines (R1, D3, E14), already present in the lab. In ongoing
studies, it was noted that these cells presented all five of the ING genes with altered expression when they were induced to differentiate. We will first
study if altering ING5 and ING4 expression using siING5 and siING4 to decrease it and pCI–ING5, pCI–ING4 to increase levels, will affect
differentiation and the self–renewal rate of these lines. We will use sphere formation assays to assess self–renewal. We will also induce differentiation
with these different expression constructs, thus measuring the influence of these proteins in the process. To determine the degree of differentiation
with varying expression of the ING genes, we will use flow cytometry to follow changes in stem cells markers, such as OCT4, OLIG2 and Nestin16.
Previous studies from our group already described the LID and the interaction of several ING proteins with Lamin A12. In the conditions used in this
study, ING4 was co–precipitated with Lamin A. However, even though ING5 presents the LID, it was not co–precipitated12. In this work we aim to
evaluate the effects of the possible interaction between the ING4 and

Essay about What is Epigenetics and How Can It Effect Me?
Before conducting research and watching numerous informational videos on epigenetics, I would have never believed that when my grandmother was
my age, she made dietary decisions that have affected me. Technically speaking, epigenetics simply means above genetics. In other words, epigenetics
is the traits that you and I inherit, but do not necessarily necessitate the sequence of genes. I took me a while to actually grasp the concept until I
thought of it from a musical perspective. Imagine our DNA helix strands as a musical score. There are different music notes as there are genes. If
someone were to play Beethoven's Symphony Number 5 correctly, it would sound the same every time. Basically, if one note is changed, the whole
musical piece ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Instead they go through a process of change overtime, or sometimes they're hereditary. While watching the video, the host Neil deGrasse Tyson stated
that our epigenomes tend to change during crucial times in our lives such as puberty and pregnancy. While our mothers were carrying us in their
wombs for 9 months, they were passing on these epigenomes that we may pass on to our children. "Just as the genome is passed along from parents to
their offspring, the epigenome can also be inherited. The chemical tags found on the DNA and histones of eggs and sperm can be conveyed to the next
generation" ("Epigenomics," 2012).
I also learned that these epigenomes change because of environmental factors which include what we do, what we eat, what we drink, or what we
smoke. This has been said to be one of the pivotal contraries amongst epigenetics and genetics. I found the groundbreaking study identical twins very
interesting. The point of this experiment was to discover if twins were epigenetically identical or not. After obtaining DNA from 40 sets of twins,
researchers were able to conclude that as twins age, the chance of epigenetic differences increases.
I conducted an intriguing research on the relationship between epigenetics and psychiatric disorders. It is known that epigenomes are affected by
environmental surroundings which can cause life changing results as we age. Also, a mother's maternal behavior inspires the stress

Epigenetic Examples
Epigenetics is mentioned in less than 3% of comparative physiological papers. Unexplained variation among data has always been seen by scientists.
How scientists interpret this data has problems. Confounding variation is a hard problem to control. When reviewing similar articles, the data is seen
as mine vs. yours. Variations in results in similar areas of research are attributed to human or systematic error. Primary physiological processes that are
passed on to offspring are difficult to assess epigenetically. Zebrafish and some mammals are examples where this was shown. Changes in the zebrafish
diet resulted in non–genetic transfer of cardiac parameters. In pregnant mice, a low protein diet changes the offsprings response to certain vasodilators.

Yeast Lab Report
His– Mutant Search in Yeast Abstract: Many people use enrichment to grow cultures for mutant colonies. In this specific experiment we selected to kill
the non–auxotrophic cells and find any auxotrophs that did not die during an enrichment process. We Introduction: Throughout time we have used
mutant searches in haploid organisms because they're known to be much easier to find than in diploid organisms. In this experiment we used
enrichment to grow the culture for mutants that are defective in histidine. During the enrichment process we add a mutation (ino–) for a few hours
because it causes the membranes to weaken and kill any other growing cells. This additive of ino– causes the phe– cells to survive and the normal
growing cells to be selected and killed. What we selected for in this experiment was the non–growing and slow–growing cells under our specific
conditions. There are many advantages to EMS mutagenesis such as how it generates mutants that are at a loss of function and also generates
phenotypes that are dominant in order to alter themselves to the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
cerevisiae was used because this is the mating type strain. The strain used had a defect in uracil biosynthesis and in inositol synthesis so it was required
to add uracil to all media before starting this experiment. A culture of the yeast TD28 strain was then grown overnight to around 5*10^8 cells/ml in log
phase. The culture was then split into two and washed twice through centrifugation to check contamination. After suspending it in 5ml of 0.2 M
phosphate buffer ethyl methanesulfonate was added to one mutagenized culture, which was then incubated at 30 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes. The
tubes of mutagenized and unmutagenized cultures then were washed three times with SD medium that contained histidine, uracil and inositol. These
tubes were then incubated overnight, which prevented the growth of yeast cells without desired his– auxotrophies to

Structure And Functions Of Sirt6
Dennis Nguyen
Dr. Ann H. West
CHEM 4923 – 001
16 November 2014
SIRT6 Structure and Function
Introduction
SIRT6 is one of seven proteins belonging to a family of human silence information regulatory proteins. These proteins are more commonly known by
the name sirtuins or by the abbreviation 'SIR '. Sirtuins have been studied in a number of different model organisms including yeast, drosophila, and
mice. In yeast, the SIR2 gene frequently associated with expanding the lifespan through metabolic regulation. More specifically, SIR2 plays a role in
DNA repair, chromosome connections during meiosis, and silencing of chromatin (Blander 2004). In Drosophila, a similar relationship can be seen
between SIR2 and overall organism lifespan. The collaborative knowledge from SIR research successfully links the protein family to organism
longevity, however the details in involvement with the underlying biological pathways are far from well–established facts. In the "Structure and
Functions of SIRT6," the authors contribute their findings on the human SIRT6 protein in order to gain further understanding of this invaluable
protein. Human sirtuins are often characterized as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)–dependent histone deacetylases (Michan 2007). Sirtuins
remove acetyl groups (O=C–CH3) from the lysine residues of histone proteins. The primary ramification of this reaction is a tighter binding between
DNA and histones. When DNA binds tightly to the histones, less nucleotides are

Common Genomic Variation Alone Cannot Account for Complex...
Since the first genome–wide association study (GWAS) in 2005, it has become increasingly evident that common genomic variation alone cannot
account for complex traits (3). While GWAS' have helped understand certain traits and diseases, most studies have linked sequence–variation to only
1.1–1.5 fold increase in risk (3–5). Pursuit of the "missing heritability" has taken the form of both utilization of next–generation sequencing to uncover
rare variation and more recently, studies of epigenetic regulation (4, 6).
Epigenetics stems from the observation that genotypically identical cells can exhibit alternative and stably heritable phenotypes. These traits, along
with the chromosomal mechanisms that produce them and ensure their propagation without alterations in the primary DNA sequence, are referred to as
"epigenetic."(7–9). Alternatively, regions in the genome where the epigenetic state varies and results in alternative phenotypes are referred to as
"epialleles" (10).
Epigenetic variation adds a regulatory layer to genome function (11). This environment–dependent regulation is implicated in many fundamental
biological processes including developmental cell differentiation (9), stem cell function, aging (12) and disease progression and relapse (11, 13–15).
Furthermore, understanding epigenetics paves the way for pharmaceutically targeting maladaptive variation (13, 16, 17).
At a molecular level, epigenetics variation manifests itself in the way DNA is packaged in the

Epigenetic Research Paper
Epigenetic characteristics are the process by which your genetic information is changed by environmental influences without an alteration in DNA.
Some epigenetic effects occur at the beginning of life as biochemical elements silence methylation, which is the ephemeral of the chemical fragment
call methyl group. The details of methylation are not clear to biologist as they are still trying to figure out how it develops and why it modifies gene
expression. One interesting discovery to developmentalist is that the known diseases to be genetic (including cancer, schizophrenia and autism) are
known to be epigenetic. One example of epigenetics is histone modification, which is increasing or confiscating chemical groups to or from histones.
Multifactorial

Epigenetic Research Paper
What is Epigenetics? It is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the DNA sequence. Epigenetics is the change
in phenotype without a change in genotype, which in turn affects how cells read genes. Its change can be influenced by several factors including age,
the environment or lifestyle, and disease state. Epigenetic can also have damaging affects that can result in diseases like cancer. The results show that
changes will occur to the function and/or regulation of these molecules, without altering their primary sequences. Epigenetics modifications are stable
and passed on to future generations and they are dynamic and change in response to environmental stimuli. DNA methylation, Histone modifications,

The Admissions Committee Is Doing Gaining More Insight...
1. The admissions committee is interested in gaining more insight into you as a person. Please describe a significant personal challenge you have
faced, one which you feel has helped to shape you as a person. Examples may include a moral or ethical dilemma, a situation of personal adversity,
or a hurdle in your life that you worked hard to overcome. Please include how you got through the experience and what you may have learned
about yourself as a result. (3500 char) "I don't know" I can still distinctly recall my eleven year old self repeatedly saying to anyone who tried to
talk to me. It was my first day of school in America and that was the only sentence I could put together in English. I was born in in China and lived
there my whole life until my mother decided to move to New York. I thought I was just visiting her for winter break, but she dropped me off at
school just a week after my arrival. As my new classmates tried to talk to me, I can see their mouth moving but they might as well be speaking
gibberish. For the rest of the day, I felt like I was dropped off on an alien planet where my only means of communication were hand gestures. When
my parents told me that my move to America was permanent, I knew I need to learn English as quickly as possible. While I soon picked out words
that I recognize when spoken to, I still couldn't comprehend a whole conversation. And before speaking any phrase, I thought of what to say first in
Chinese and then translated into

The Medicinal Properties Of Aloe Vera
Introduction
Aloe vera is one of the endemic plants found in southern Iran and had been utilized in Persian medicine practices for over 2,500 years (Avijgan,
2016). Aloe vera has also played an important role in clinical research (Marharjan and Nampoothiri, 2015). It is a succulent, cactus–like plant which
belongs to the Aloe cease family which contains more than 400 Aloe vera species (Vangipuram et al., 2016). Aloe barbadensis Miller
(Asphodelaceae) and Aloe aborescens are the more extensively known species to use for cosmetic, medicinal, and pharmaceutical purposes (Grindlay
and Reynolds, 1986). Aloe vera consists of 75 different ingredients: enzymes, minerals, sugars, sterols, amino acids, and salicylic acid, just to name a
few (Gottlieb, 1980). The leaves of Aloe vera contain 0.0013% protein and 99.5% water (Reynolds and Dweck, 1999). These features have made Aloe
vera known for its medicinal assets which lead to its use in pharmacological actions like antibacterial, antifungal, anti–inflammatory, antioxidant,
antitumor, and immune boosting (Nair, 2016). Studies have also shown anti–microbial potential against Streptococcus pyrogenes, Streptococcus
faecalis, and other infectious diseases caused by bacteria (Heggers et al., 1979). Therefore, it has been used traditionally as nutritional drinks, vitamins,
moisturizers, healing agent in cosmetics, diabetic patients, sun burn, wounds and digestive tract disorders with no adverse effects (Yagi, 2002; and Im,
2010). With the

Ethropoietic Porphyria Research Paper
Erythropoietic Protoporphyria better known as EPP, comes from a type of porphyria; a group of rare inherited or acquired disorders of certain
enzymes that usually aid in the production of porphyrins and heme.This disease is a hereditary metabolic disorder of porphyrin metabolism, then
resulting an enzyme deficiency, particularly the enzyme: ferrochelatase. This deficiency causes unusually high levels of protoporphyrin; a
biochemical compound needed for the body. Everyone has two genes for ferrochelatase in each cell in their body (one inherited from their mother and
one from their father). In over 90% of families, EPP comes from the affected individuals inheriting a gene for a severely under active ferrochelatase
enzyme from one parent, and... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Symptoms usually include skin lesions paired with pain described as a burning sensation, along with itchiness and prickling sensations as well. One
common symptom is very painful photosensitivity. This then manifests itself as a burning and itching sensation on the epidermal layer of the skin. At
certain times, the itching sensations are completely unbearable. Rubbing the itchy spots with ice can be the only relief, and the relief only lasts for a
short period of time. Regular anti–itch remedies, including cortisone anti–histamine topical preparations, and Calamine lotion generally provide little to
no relief. Even exposal to surgical lights can trigger this itchy reaction. Prolonged exposure to the sun can lead to oedema of the hands, face
(sometimes occurring on the lips), and feet; which rarely leads to blistering and petechiae (small red or purple spots appearing on the skin either in
particular areas or widespread throughout the surface of the body). Also, skin thickening may occur, depending on the severity of EPP in the specific
patient. When a person has EPP, their skin may appear red, dry and scaly. It looks as though the skin is raw but dry at the same time. The skin may
also be scabbed

The Bottleneck Effects: The Bottleneck Effect
Genetif Drift3,4 A certain characteristic could vanish within a population. A generation could miss a few genes into their descendants, and only
certain genes is kept. This phenomena is called genetic drift. Genetic drift is the fluctuation/ alteration of gene frequency. Like in the population of
wildflower, if the allele Cw is decreasing than CR allelle , there may be two possibilities. One, an animal may stepped on the plant containing Cw
allele and reducing its chance to pass it to the next generation, or in fertilization it simply have few offspring, that by chance contain more CR allele
than Cw. there are 2 known concepts of genetic drift the bottleneck effect and the founder effect. The Bottleneck Effect The bottleneck effect is the
...
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But these slight changes will accumulate overtime to produce a new strains of viral genetic information that could not be recognized by the host
antibodies. That is why we could develop flu symptoms every time we catch a flu. Because their antigenic properties changes all the time, that is why
different flu vaccines is needed and flu vaccines is developed and changed each year. If a virus can originally infect one species and then infect another,
antigenic shift usually play a part in that process. Antigenic shift occurs if there is a major changes in the genetic sequence of a virus in a short amount
of time, not accumulation of mutation overtime like in antigenic drift. Antigenic shift cause the change in the hemagglutinin and/or the hemagglutinin
and neuraminidase The example is in the virus H1N1, that originally infect birds. The mechanism of antigenic shift happen in 3 ways: Theory 1 1.if
the animal (chicken/ duck) are infected by Influenza A virus from birds and also from human viral strain 2.the genes from both virus can combined and
produced a new strains of virus Theory 2 The bird strain of influenza A can directly passes the influenza virus to humans without changing the genetic

Epigenetic Regulation
Backgrounds
Epigenetic changes can be defined as functional, heritable changes in DNA, that do not involve a change in the nucleotide sequence[1]. Transcriptional
regulation can be controlled through epigenetic modification and thereby can affect gene expression (44). Epigenetic modifications are important
regulators of numerous biological processes like spermatogenesis. Nowadays there is a lot of attention to epigenetic changes as a role in identifying
genetic causes of male infertility. In fact epigenetic regulations play an important role in proper spermatogenesis and fertility preservation (45).
Unlike somatic cell, sperm chromatin is highly organized compact structure. This specific packaging occurs by histone to protamine transition. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After overnight incubation and washing, the wells were treated with blocking solution. After a second incubation and washing step, the wells were
incubated with ani–H2B.W antibody. After a third incubation and washing step, the wells were incubated with secondary anti–H2B.W antibody,
streptavidin–horseradish peroxidase (HRP). After last incubation and washing step, the wells were incubated with the substrate tetramethylbenzidine
(TMB). An acidic stopping solution was then added and the degree of enzymatic turnover of the substrate was determined by dual wavelength
absorbance measurement at 450

Nicotine And Epigenetic Analysis
In this article, nicotine is utilized to figure out whether it causes emotional distress, for example, anxiety and depression. These emotional symptoms
might be brought about because of epigenetic mechanisms or alterations, for example, histone acetylation. Nicotine is a profoundly addictive part of
tobacco. The chronic utilization of nicotine is believed to increment emotional side effects such as anxiety and depression. Anxiety and depression is
seen in dependent smokers as withdrawal indications. Epigenetics is the study of alteration of gene expression which causes changes in an organism.
Mechanisms can be methylation, histone acetylation and alteration in microRNAs. Studies recommend that epigenetic changes, for example, histone
acetylation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The outcomes utilizing histone deacetylase inhibitors demonstrate the inclusion of epigenetic histone acetylation in the weakening of nicotine and
additionally immobilization stress induced anxiety and depression like behavioral modifications. The selective CB1 agonist AC, similar to histone
deacetylase inhibitors, gave anxiolytic and antidepressant like impacts against these behavioral adjustments, which recommends the association of the
endocannabinoid system, and the selective CB1 antagonist SR antagonized the impacts of AC. Some weakening impact of SR was seen on the
anxiolytic and antidepressant like impacts of histone deacetylase inhibitor–induced histone acetylation, at the same time connected with both function
of the endocannabinoid system, one of the targets for histone deacetylase inhibitors, and stressor induced emotion related behaviors. Be that as it may,
against the antidepressant like impacts of histone deacetylase inhibitors, the lessening impact of SR was restricted in the nicotine treatment

WhatВґs Epigenetic Landscape?
For 70+ years now we have been working on our Epigenome but not really understood what it is or what it can do for us but, thanks to the works of
Dr. Conrad H. Waddington "Epigenetic Landscape" 1939, which was followed up and expanded on by Dr. Adrian Bird and Danny Reinberg (1975~)
we know that it does exist and it has far reaching implications for future development in medical research and biological development fields.
п‚§Risk assessment
п‚§Prevention
п‚§Progression analysis
п‚§Prognosis and biomarker development
Epigenetics ~ is the term coined to explain a variety of "bizarre" phenotypic phenomena in different organisms that can't be elucidated by Mendelian
Genetics. It is like a bridge between geno and phenotypes ~ giving explanation to how cells carrying identical DNA differentiate into different cell
types and how this differentiated state remains stable; o More recently it has evolved to mean "modifications" to DNA that affectgene expression but do
not involve base changes
п‚§These changes are regular and naturally occurring but can be heavily influenced by several factors such as;
Age
Environment & life style
Or disease state.
"According to Dr. Lipton, the true secret to life does not lie within your DNA, but rather within the mechanisms of your cell membrane."
"If Genetics was the recipe then Epigenetics would be the Chef who would create his own idea of how to present the dish", ~ Eliza Hazlerigg
There are 4 main mechanisms of modification and regulation

Assisted Reproductive Technology ( Vitro Fertilisation )
A successful fertilisation event refers to a sperm and an oocyte meet at a right place and a right time. Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)
includes IVF (in vitro fertilisation) or ICSI (intracytoplasmic sperm injection) treatments have helped xxx of women got pregnant and deliver around
xx of newborns to couples in the UK every year. However, the overall pregnancy rate is remain low. Only a minority (15–30%) of embryos implanted in
the uterus result in a successful pregnancy. It is approximately xx%, it means xx of embryos fail to develop, implant or form a baby. The first
selection point in the clinic is xx hours post IVF/ICSI. Embryologists examine and select the "normal" zygotes that indicate two pronuclei (one
derived from the mother: female pronucleus; and the other derived from the father: male pronucleus). Unfortunately, not every single oocyte can be
"normal fertilised." Based on the literature, it ranges from 2.7 to 17% of ICSI or IVF procedures produce zygote with only one pronucleus in the
clinics worldwide, but the causes remain elusive. We have very recently reported molecules named Hira and H3.3 involving the central role for a
successful fertilisation event. Lack of Hira/H3.3 molecule in mouse results in abnormal "one pronucleus" zygotes which provides a link to the cause
and effect of one pronucleus phenotype in human IVF clinic.
In this study, we would like to investigate the occasion and dissect the mechanisms based on our previous animal model as

Diet Mediated Epigenetic Effects On The Microbiota Gut...
Diet Mediated Epigenetic Effects on the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis The Future of Epigenetic Drugs The Oxford English Dictionary defines a drug
as, "a substance which has a physiological effect when ingested or otherwise introduced into the body" ("Drug," 2016). Most would consider this
definition too broad since simply ingesting food causes physiological changes in the body. However, most do not consider the multifarious ways in
which the food that we eat affects our epigenetic gene expression, or the bi–directional signaling between our gut and our brains. The food that we eat
is metabolized in the gut by micro–organisms which collectively form our microbiota. The 100 trillion prokaryotic cells that make up our microbiota,
constitute 90% of the cells in our bodies, and are derived from more than 40,000 bacterial strains (Forsythe & Kunze, 2012). Increasingly, research is
showing the importance of host microbiota composition and the bidirectional signaling pathways between the brain and the gut: some of which are
epigenetic. These studies elucidate the profound impacts that signaling pathways, such as short–chain fatty acid mediated effects, nucleomodulins, and
other bacterial metabolites, can have on health, behavior and cognition (Sommer & Backhed, 2013). It is now clear that diet–mediated epigenetic
effects are important mechanisms in the etiology of numerous diseases (Choi & Friso, 2010). Furthermore, artificial drugs that can act on these
epigenetic pathways could

Profiling Of Lbh589 : Initial Pharmacokinetic Studies Essay
Pharmacokinetic profiling of LBH589: Initial pharmacokinetic studies were performed using C57/BL6 mice. Mice were given a single ip injection of
10 mg/kg LBH589, sacrificed at 0.08, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 24 hr post–dosing (n=3 at each time point) and brain and plasma levels were analyzed by
LC–MS/MS (LOQ= 1–6 pmol/mL in plasma, 23 pmol/g in brain). The compound was rapidly eliminated from the systemic circulation (Fig 1A).
Although brain penetration was limited early, the brain to plasma ratio increased favorably with time, from 0.04 at five minutes to 0.59 at 2 hours to
3.66 at 24 hours post injection. The half–life of the compound was 7.6 hr in plasma and 15 hr in brain. Brain and plasma levels in R6/2 HD mice were
comparable to wild–type mice. Two hours after injection, the average plasma and brain levels in R6/2 mice (n=5) were 319 + 85 pmoles/ml and 110 +
51 pmoles/g respectively (Fig 1B).
LBH589 increases histone acetylation in HD mice: We assessed histone H3 acetylation as a pharmacodynamic marker of HDAC inhibition in R6/2
mice. LBH589 has been previously demonstrated to rapidly induce histone acetylation in various tumor tissues [18]. R6/2 mice were treated with
either vehicle or LBH589 at the dose rate of 20 mg/kg/three times per week for 3 weeks and the acetylation of histone H3 was determined in brain
and muscle tissue by western blotting. When assessed in R6/2 mice sacrificed 2 hr after the last dose, total H3 acetylation significantly increased in
brain (2.8

Histones In Research Paper
Histones are proteins that are found in the nucleus of the Eukaryotic cells. Histone proteins function is to condense and package DNA in units called
nucleosome. There are four core histones known as H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Core histones can be paired up with each other to form H2A–H2B dimers
and two copies of each H3 and H4 histones can paired up to form a H3–H4 tetramer. The histone octamer is form when a H3–H4 tetramer is combined
with 2 H2A–H2B dimers.
Aside from the four core histone proteins, there is also histone H1 and H5. Histone H1 serve as a linker protein and keep the piece of DNA that is
wrapped around a nucleosome in place. Furthermore, histone H1 also help in condensing and maintaining the chain of nucleosomes into higher order ...
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Exon are regions that contain that can code for proteins, on the other hand, intron are non–coding regions of an RNA. From 5' to the 3' direction on a
premRNA there are GU and AG regions respectively that signal where the beginning and end of an intron are. The 5' end of an intron is also known
as the donor site and the 3' end of the intron is known as the acceptor site. At the beginning of the splicing process, snRNPs and other RNA–proteins
combine to form a spliceosome at the donor site or 5' GU region. The spliceosome folds the premRNA so that the exons are closer together, then
the 5' GU region between the intron and exon is cleave, then the guanine locate on the cleaved 5' end of the intron will get attracted to a hydroxyl
group on the adenine group at the 3' end of the intron. This will cause the intron to form a loop with itself called the Lariat loop. The point where
the intron is connected to itself is call the branching site. Once a Lariat loop is formed, the 3' end of the intron is cleaved and the two exons is join
together, both process is done by a spliceosome. The final product is an

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