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Chapter 4
(D)esigning Effective Training
Image Source/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Develop effective training objectives.
Choose the appropriate training setting and
delivery method.
List individual trainee differences.
Explain sequence training.
Prepare a lesson plan.
Create learning assessment questions.
Training objectives focus in on the trainee and
training goals focus in on the training.
—Piskurich, 2010
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Introduction
This chapter discusses the second phase of ADDIE
and how fundamental to training design
developing effective training objectives is. Design
is accomplished, in
part, by �irstconsidering the behavior, conditions,
and standards of a training objective. Another
training design technique discussed is the
SMART approach.
Foodfor Thought: Interpreting Instructions: "As Soonas
Possible"
Training and performance objectives can vary when
left up to interpretation by the employee.
Consider, for example, how you might interpret
the meaning of ASAP (as soon as possible) in
thesescenarios:
Someone from another department calls. He needs
somedetailed information ASAP; but you are
already busy. In this situation, you might
interpret "ASAP" as "when I have �inished all of
my own work and have a chance to get to it.
It might be tomorrow or the next day."
A coworker comes to you for help with an
assignment. She needs you ASAP, but you
have another job to �inish before lunch. In
this
situation, you might interpret "ASAP" as "after I
have �inished my own work, I will help out
after lunch."
Yourimmediate supervisor asks you to type a

memo for her ASAP, but you already have a
stackof otherjobs to �inish. In this situation,
you
might interpret "ASAP" as "I'll do this now and
�inish my otherwork afterward."
Source: Adapted from Harris-Small, E. (2013, March).
Communicate to persuade. Conference presentation
at Rutgers University. Retrieved from
http://www.prodevmedia.com/conferences/bursars/presentations
/2013/14_Communicate_to_Persuade.pdf
(http://www.prodevmedia.com/conferences/bursars/presentation
s/2013/14_Communicate_to_Persuade.pdf)
Consider This
1. How would aspects of performance concepts
like quality, leadership, and team be impacted by
varied interpretations by the receiver?
2. How you can protect against performance actions
varying as a function of the sender (that is,
the person who is asking).
3. Is therea context in which varied
interpretation of meaning is advantageous in a
workplaceperformance setting?
Indeed, objectivity of objectives is key to
training, so read on to learnhow to create
effective training and performance objectives within
ADDIE's design phase.
http://www.prodevmedia.com/conferences/bursars/presentations
/2013/14_Communicate_to_Persuade.pdf
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The second step in the ADDIE process is design.
During this phase, training objectives are
developed and a training delivery method is chosen.
4.1 Developing Training Objectives
As discussed in Chapter 3, if a needs
assessment con�irms what we need to train in,
then design, the next step in the ADDIE
process, is how we are going to train
to closeany of the identi�ied performance gaps
from that needs assessment (see Figure 4.1).
The design phase of ADDIE includes the
processes of de�ining the
scope of the training, setting goals, performing
trainee analysis, and establishing time
requirements. Also in the design phase,
decisions are made about the type
of training content and materials needed, the training
delivery methods, the training venue, and the
individuals who will be speci�ically involved.
Figure 4.1: ADDIE model: Design
The �irststep in the design phase is that of
designing effective training objectives. These
describe the intent and desired results of
the training (Gagné, Wager,
Golas, & Keller, 2005). Overall, training
objectives must:
meet trainee needs,

cover content requirements; and
be ef�icient.
However, as you will come to appreciate,
creating effective training objectives is a skill
unto itself.
Consider any of the following training objectives taken
from training workshops:
"Be better in customer service."
"Improve your communication skills."
"Understand web design."
"Operate your smart phone."
If you suspect that thesetraining objectives are
lacking, your instincts are correct. All of the
training objectives suffer from being too vague,
overly subjective, and
not measurable.
To make the objectives of training more tangible
and suitable for operations, Robert Mager, a
renowned expert in training, suggested breaking
performance
objectives into smaller learning dimensions.
Speci�ically, according to Mager (1988), training
objectives must have threecomponents:
Behavior. The behaviors should be speci�ic and
observable.
Conditions. The conditions under which the
behavior is to be completedshould be

documented, including what tools are to be
provided.
Standards. The level of desired performance should
be stated, including an acceptable range of
answers to be considered correct.
So, for example, using this approach, we can convert
the training objective of
"Be better in customer service"
to
"By the next �iscal quarter, Sandra will be able to
achieve a 90% customer service satisfaction by
incorporating the voice in�lection techniques
during
her normal work shift."
This training objective becomes immediately more
effective because observable behavior (use of
voice in�lection techniques) is measurable,
occurs under
conditions (during her normal shift), and has a
standard (90% customer service satisfaction
rating).
Another popular technique to ensure that training
objectives are targeted and focused is the
SMART approach. SMART is an acronym we
can use to ensure that
our training objectives are speci�ic, measurable,
attainable, realistic, and time bound (Hersey &
Blanchard, 1977; Prokopenko, 1998;
Wake�ield, 2011). Here are
the details of SMART:

Speci�ic. What exactly should be done?
Speci�icity makes the objective concrete,
detailed, focused, and well de�ined. The objective
states a speci�ic
outcome or a precise action to be
accomplished and can be stated in numbers,
percentages, frequency, or scienti�ic�indings.
Measurable. Is the objective measurable? If the
objective is measurable, it means that the
measurement source is identi�ied and you
are able to trackthe
actions toward the objective. Measurement enables us
to compare results.
Achievable. Can the employee get the goal
accomplished in the proposed time frame, in
the existing culture, or at his or her current
level of competency?
Objectives need to be achievable. The objective
may stretch the employee,but not so far that he
or she becomes frustrated and losesmotivation.
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Realistic. Will this goal lead to the desired results?
Achievable objectives may not be realistic. If an
objective is realistic, it means that you have
the
resources (such as skills, money, and equipment)
to get it done. Also, whether an

objective is realistic or not many times
depends on if it has ever been
done before.
Timebound. When or how oftendoes the employee
need to meet a particular goal? Being time
bound means setting deadlines for the
achievement of the
objective. Deadlines need to be achievable and
realistic, but the lack of a deadline may reduce
the motivation and urgency required to execute
the tasks.
Here is an example of a SMART objective:
"Rachel will increase her number of widgets by
10% by the end of the year."
Why is this SMART?
S—number of widgets
M—by 10%
A—increase her output
R—this output is realistic
T—by the end of the year
It is important to note, too, that sinceSMART was
originally developed in the early1980s, many
have revised it to accommodate the ever-
changing work
environment. Speci�ically, you may �indthat SMART
has gone to SMARTER, where (E)valuate
and (R)eevaluate are added to ensure, for

example, that goals are
realistic and achievable in light of new
technologies, global competition, and a more
sophisticated economy.
And, �inally, we can evaluate training objectives both
strategically and tactically. That is, like needs
assessments, training objectives are considered at
different
levels. As Chapter 7 will further discuss, with
Kirkpatrick's (2009) four-level hierarchy, we can
use the following perspectives (Blanchard &
Thacker, 2010) to
consider whether the training objectives were met:
Level 1, trainee reaction objectives. Simply
put, "Did they like the training session?" Did the
training meet the attitudinaland subjective expectations
of the
trainee? Using a questionnaire about why they
are attending training and what they hope to
accomplish can con�irm thesetypes of
objectives (Snell &
Bohlander, 2011).
Level 2, learning. "Did they learnanything in the
training session?" The training has measures that
will indicate if a suf�icient level of
learning occurred.
Comparing a pretraining test with a posttraining
test can con�irm this level. For example, if
therewas a training session on blood-borne
pathogens, the
trainer might start the session by �irstasking, "If
you have a bloody nose at work, what do
you do with the tissue afterward?" Priorto
the training,

participants may say, "Throw it away, of
course!" However, after the training, they know
that it must go in a hazardous materials
(HazMat) bag for
disposal.
Level 3, behavior. "Will they apply what they've
learned in the training?" The training must be
transferred from the training to application on
the job.
Chapter 7 will discuss the challenges of training
transfer. Snelland Bohlander(2011) assert that
goal-oriented trainees are more likely to
perceive a link
between effort they put into training and higher
performance on the job. The complexity of
level 3 is that myriad reasons might explain
why an employee
is able to apply the training, but is not
willing—"Oh, I know how to do, but I
am not doing for you!"
Level 4, results. In the �inal analysis, the
training should ultimately lead to positive
organizational outcomes. For example, due to
effective training, an
organization could see improvements such as lower
error rates, fewer workplaceinjuries, or better
customer satisfaction survey scores.
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4.2 Setting and Delivery Method Considerations
Two important aspects to training design are the
training setting and the training delivery
method. In fact, many times the training
delivery method will be
dictated by the training setting. For example,
consider the questions, "Where would on-the-job
training take place? Where would instructor-
led training be
held?" Also, training setting and delivery
sometimes are constrained by the expense or
how quickly the training needs to take place.
If training content requires a
computer, for example, e-learning or computer-based
training may be most appropriate. Likewise, if
travel expenses must be kept to a minimum,
then
teleconferencing or self-directed instruction may be
necessary. Consider, too, that even current events
may help dictate training setting, delivery, and
content. For
example, following Hurricane Katrina and the tsunami in
Japan, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention implemented new disaster response
training to
cover stress and fatigue:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/�lood.html
(http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/�lood.html) .
Another consideration, especially as it relates to
the use of technology and e-learning, is
which generation the trainee belongs to. In
a white paper on overcoming
the generational gap in the workplace(United
Nations, 2013), the United Nations Talent
Management Division pointed out the workplace

preferences of each
generation that must be considered when training
employees (see Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Generational workplacepreferences
Preference category Traditionalist Baby boomers
Generation X Generation Y/Z
Attire Formal Business casual (high end) Business
casual (low end) Whatever feels comfortable
Work environment Of�ice only Longhours—of�ice only
Of�ice, home, desires
�lexible schedule
Of�ice, home—desires
�lexible schedule
Motivators Self-worth Salary Security Maintain personal
life
Mentoring Not necessary Does not handle negative
feedback well
Not necessary to receive
feedback
Constant feedback needed
Retention Loyalty Salary Security and salary Personal
relationships
Client orientation Personal contact Telephone E-mail E-mail,
instant messaging,
and text

Technology Dictatesdocuments, e-mail
only in the of�ice, use of
library instead of web,
limited phone use
Documents prepared by the
associates, e-mail primarily
in the of�ice, uses web to
use Google
Creates own documents;
uses mobile and laptop;
uses web to research,
review, etc.; e-mail and
mobile 24/7
Creates own documents;
creates databases;uses
web to research and
network; use of e-mail,
instant messaging, and
texting 24/7
Career goals Build a legacy, a lifetime
career with one company
Build a perfect career, excel Build a
transferable career,
variety of skills and
experiences
Build several parallel
careers, have several jobs
simultaneously

Source: Reprinted with permisison from the United
Nations Joint Staff Pension Fundfrom Traditionalists,
BabyBoomers, Generation X, Generation Y
(and Generation Z) Working
Together. What Matters and How They Learn? How
they are different? Fact and �iction.
The style of the trainer, too, or his or her
preference, may indicate a preferred setting.
(Many interesting stories from the �ield
can be found in Wacker's and
Silverman's Stories Trainers Tell (Wacker &
Silverman, 2005). However, ultimately, the
decision about which delivery method—and
therefore which setting—to
use should be substantially guided by the
objectives of the training itselfand which KSAs
are to be practiced.
Let us say the objective of the training was to
improve interpersonal skills; in this case in-class
training would be more appropriate than OJT or
job aids. Yet OJT
and job aids would be appropriate if knowledge
retention were the objective. Table 4.2 outlines
the preferred delivery method, dependingon the
trainee KSA
objectives.
Table 4.2: Delivery method per KSA objective
KSA objective Preferred delivery method Adequate
delivery method
Knowledge acquisition Classroom
Self-instruction

Technology-based training
On-the-job training
Problem solving Classroom
Job aids
On-the-job training
Self-instruction
Changing attitudes Classroom On-the-job training
Interpersonal skills Classroom Technology-based training
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emres/flood.html
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Knowledge retention On-the-jobtraining
Self-instruction
Job aids
Rote learning, or learning by repetition
Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid
training development: Developing training courses
fast and right. New York: Wiley.

Additionally, as Table 4.3 illustrates, when it
comes to training design, the venue itself
will be dictated where the domains of time
and place meet.
Table 4.3: Training venue: Timeand place
Time Place In classroom lecture
Same time Different place Teleconferencing or virtual
lab
Different time Same place Library or training lab
Different time Different place CD or correspondence
course
Foodfor Thought: The Two-Dimensional Trainer Versus
the Three-Dimensional Trainer
—Is There a Difference?
If you cannot smell or touch your trainer,
does it matter?
As silly as this might sound, it raises an
issueabout what, if anything, is lost when
your trainer is in the same roomwith you versus
in a different
room, being beamed to you from 1,000 miles
away.
Consider This
1. Does effective learning require that all the senses
be engaged?
Table 4.4 presents somepotential delivery methods

and their advantages and disadvantages.
Table 4.4: Training methods: Advantages and
disadvantages
Training method Type of training Advantages
Disadvantages
Instructor-led training Classroom lecture Revisedeasily
Developed quickly
Face-to-face contact
Dif�icult to schedule
Travel costs
Differences from class to
class
On-the-job training One-on-one Face-to-face contact
Low cost
No travel
Related to trainee's job
Bad habits
May be inconsistent
May be incomplete
Differences from mentor to
mentor and session to
session
Online self-directed training All online training
Consistent training content High development costs
Mobile learning apps Convenient access to training
Trainee sets own pace
Reuse does not require
trainer participation

Lengthy development time
Requires computer
equipment
Web-based training Easy to modify Slow download
times from
limited bandwidth, for
example
CD-ROM and DVD Supports complex
multimedia
Dif�icult to modify
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Effective training is dependent in no small part on
the training venue itself. From proper
lighting to adequate sound and a comfortable
roomtemperature, trainee opinions about the
training venue can dictate the trainees' initial
reaction to the training.
Webinars Easily distributed
Can be costly to develop
May need faster Internet
speed and bandwidth to

reduce buffering
Of�line self-directed training Printed material Portable
Developed quickly
Less interesting
Video DVD, MP3s, or audio CD Consistent
training content
Can share copies
Requires playback
equipment
Can be costly to develop
Source: Adapted from Piskurich, G. M. (2010). Rapid
training development: Developing training courses
fast and right. New York: Wiley.
Did You Know? Training with Technology
Some employersuse the iPod for workplacetraining.
See the advantages and disadvantages here:
http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/technology/advantag
es_and_disadvantages_of_using_ipods_in_the_workplace_02454
4.html
(http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/technology/advantag
4.html)
Train the Trainer

Another training method is known as train the
trainer. With this type of delivery method, an
experienced trainer—sometimes as an external
consultant—trains
a less experienced trainer to deliver the training
(Lawson, 1998; Pike,Pike,Arch, & Solem,
2000). Usually, the new trainer will �irstobserve
a training led by the
course designer or subject matter expert.
Rather than just a single one-on-one event,
sometrain-the-trainer workshops builda pool of
competentinstructors who can then teach training
material to
others as needed (Pike et al., 2000). As a
result, instead of just one instructor teaching
the same course over and over,multiple instructors
teach the same course
at the same time.This approach ensures that employees
get timely training should a needs
assessment determine that training is required.
Preparing YourTraining Environment Room
Beyond all the analyses and theories, thereis also a
practicality associatedwith training; that is, you
should prepare your training environment so it
will be
conducive to learning—from the lighting in the roomto
the colors of the �loors and walls.
According to training expert Elaine Biech
(2011), establishing an
environment for learning is a critical aspect of
starting a training session off on the right
foot. Simply put, trainees need to walk in to a

relaxed atmosphere, an
environment that is welcoming and ready.
Although a welcoming training roomdoes not
guarantee the training session will go well, a
poorly set up training
roomalmost always is linked to poor training
outcomes.
Biech (2011) suggests that several key questions
must be answered before establishing an
environment for a training session:
When. When is the training? What day, date,
and time? Also, do you have enough time to
prepare? Is the amount of time allotted
adequate for the content?
Where. Where is the session? On-site or off-
site? If off-site, is it easy to travel to the
location? How do you get there? What is
the address? Telephone
number? Will you need to make travel
arrangements? Is public transportation available?
How do you get materials to the site?
What. What kind of training is expected? What
resources are required? What facilities are
available? What will you need (for example, Internet
connection, speakers for the computer, whiteboard, a
roomwith electrical outlets for trainee laptops)?
Who. Who is the key planner? Who are the
participants? How many? What is their
background? Why were you chosen to deliver
the training? Who is the
contact person at the training site? How do you
reach that person on-site and off-site?
Similarly, Finkel and Finkel (2007) created a

questionnaire that rates the quality of a training
room(see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Rating the quality of the training
room
http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/technology/advantag
4.html
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(https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/conste
llation/book/AUBUS375.14.1/{�igures}�igure4.2.pdf)
to download a pdf of the training quality
questionnaire. Open with Adobe Acrobat to
access
an editable �ile.
Source: Finkel, C., & Finkel, A. D. Facilities
Planning: Managing the Training Function in Info-
line, Issue
8504, p. 9. Copyright © 1985, 2000 by The
American Society for Training and Development
(ASTD). All
Rights Reserved. For use by permission only.
Training methods review
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Incorporating the principles of adultlearning (andragogy)
in training design can increase the
relevance of training for the trainees, and also
improve its effectiveness for the organization.
1. How, speci�ically, would a training
program incorporate the principle of andragogy
that
states adults are generally intrinsically motivated?
2. Given the above, would it still be
recommended to include extrinsic rewards as
part of
training program outcomes?
4.3 IndividualTrainee Differences
Naturally, trainers do not always have the time or
resources to design training to accommodate
individual trainee learning styles or career

aspirations. However,
trainers can make certain considerations and
accommodations for adultlearners, in general. As
discussed in Chapter 2, according to Wlodkowski
(1993), a
trainer can make certain assumptions about
adulttrainees. For example, trainees want:
Success. They want to be successfullearners.
Volition. They want to have a say or sense of
choice in their learning.
Value. They want to learnsomethingof value.
Enjoyment. They want to have somelevel of enjoyment
while they are being trained.
Likewise, to optimize the relationship between the
trainer and trainee, a trainer must possess
the skill set of EEEC; that is, trainees relate
better to the trainer
when he or she is:
expert,
enthusiastic,
empathic, and
clear.
The late educator Malcolm Knowles—considered the
father of adultlearning principles—also
proposed assumptions about the adultlearner
that are
incorporated in training design today. The
implication to training design is that the
trainer must consider the training relevant and
useful on the job (Knowles,
1973; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2012).

Andragogy: Adult learning principles
Critical Thinking Questions
Table 4.5 outlines all of Knowles's adultlearning
principles and how trainers might use the
principles in training practice.
Table 4.5 Adult learning principles
Principle Practices
1. Autonomous and self-directed Ask what they would
like to get out of the training before
beginning
class and adjust lesson plan.
Discuss what they thinkthey need to accomplish: the
objectives or
do their jobs.
Allow them to skip material they already understand.
Present in a way that caters to a variety of
learning styles.
2. Experienced Ask them to share an example
from their life experiences to help
clarify the lesson.
Approach unlearning of old information gently
before facilitating
learning of new information.
3. Goal-oriented Explain the reasons why competing
the training is important.
Use real-world problems or case studies that call on
expertise of
group members.
Focus on doing somethingwith the information,

rather than simply
knowing the information.
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4. Require relevance Provide them with the objectives
for the class.
Ask them to re�lect on how they may use what they
have learned in
the future.
5. Practical Explain how the training will be useful
on the job.
6. Needto be shown respect Encourage them to
express their thoughts, opinions, and reasoning
on the subject.
Treat them as equals in the subject you are
training.
Appeal to intrinsic motivation by providing
feedback that increases
self-esteem, satisfaction, or quality of life.
Source: Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2012.
Rothwell and Kazanas (2011) suggested that trainees'
learning characteristics could be assessed for
the design phase using a derived
approach or a contrived
approach. That is, the derived approach could be

used when instructional designers are able to
identify relevant learner characteristics of obvious
importance
based on a given performance problem,
instructional need, or organizational constraint.
A contrived approach should be used by the
designer when the learner
characteristics of the trainees cannot be identi�ied
as easily; in this case the designer creates a
list of trainee learning characteristics to be
considered.
Two particular trainee characteristics that instructional
designers must consider are the trainees' readiness
and motivation (Snell & Bohlander, 2011).
According
to Snelland Bohlander(2011), trainee readiness refers
to "both maturity and experience factors in
the trainee's background" (p. 302). The premise
is that
training should be designed with assumptions about
the prospective trainee's starting point. The
entrybehaviors the trainees will need are useful in
prescreening the prospective trainees for these
prerequisite KSAs necessary to absorb what
will be presented to them in the training.
The othertrainee characteristic to consider in training
design is trainee motivation. That is, training
should be designed in a way that motivates
trainees to
learnthe new material (Kozlowski & Salas, 2009;
Krishnaveni, 2008). First, the design must
clearly link the training objectives to the
trainee's workplaceneeds
in order to increase the motivation to succeed

in training programs. For example, if a trainee
sees a new training as a sought-after
competency for advancement
in his or her career path, he or she will be
more motivated to learnthe new material (Snell &
Bohlander, 2011).
Frequently, the state of the trainee's motivation
will also be based on not only his or her
perception of the new learning, but also the
trainee's experiences in
using prior training. As a result, if a trainee,
for example, had a bad experience with
learning new software last time,it is likely
that the trainee will come to the
new training with a negative attitude; contrast this to
another trainee who had success in learning
the prior software (Knowles,1973; Knowles et
al., 2012).
Speci�ically, a trainee's motivation toward the
new training will be impacted if the training is
perceived by the trainees as making them more
effective at their
jobs. In fact, according to 19th-century philosopher
and psychologist William James (as cited in
Baldwin et al., 1906), even a person's self-
esteem would be
linked to successes over pretensions what we today
would call "achievements over attempts." Is the
training assisting in making the employee
con�ident he or she
could do the task well to accomplish work goals?
Consider how the relationship between tasksattempted
and tasksachieved could affect an employee's
self-esteem in the long run:

Workplace self-esteem = Achievements ÷
Attempt
Employee Mario was interviewed and asked how
his �iscal year had gone...
"Well, it was a tough year, and we had a
couple hiccups, but all-and-all, I
accomplished 8 of the 10 major projects
this year."
Now compare that to employee Michele; we also asked
her how her �iscal year went...
"To be honest, everything that could've gone wrong
this year ... did! I, maybe, accomplished 2 of
the 10 major projects we had this year."
Using the performance formula from Chapter 2,
we would have to determine if Michele's poor
performance was due to her ability, poor
training, lack of
motivation, or somethingin the environment. But,
you can see that if this became a chronic
outcome of successes versus failures for
Michele, we would expect to
see a discernible difference between Mario's (8/10)
and Michele's (2/10) (organizational) self-esteem.
In sum, training design must consider these
scenarios of
training's utility.
Self-Directed Trainees
One aspect of how ef�iciently training will become

learning is how self-directed the trainee is
(Durr & Guglielmino (1996)). Speci�ically,
self-directed learning
(SDL) is a learning process whereby individuals
take the initiative in diagnosing their learning
needs, formulating learning goals, identifying
resources for
learning, choosing and implementing appropriate
strategies,and evaluating outcomes (Candy, 1991).
Though one assumption about adultlearners is
that they
are self-directed (Knowles,1973), like otherpersonal
characteristics, the level of self-direction varies
from trainee to trainee. Guglielmino (1977)
developed the
self-directed learning readiness scale, which can
actually measure one'slevel of self-direction.
SDL has two dimensions—self-teaching and autonomy—
and one does not necessarily mean the other.
Although self-direction can mean self-teaching,
being self-
directed also means that an employee can choose
(exercise autonomy) to be taught.
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SDL is a trait that seemingly can become stronger
with certain in�luences (Guglielmino, 1977). In
fact, although teaching self-directed learning seems

like a
contradiction in terms, it is not. According to
Guglielmino (1977) and Brook�ield (1984),
trainers can offer speci�ic tactics for developing
SDL competence within
employees:
Offer training and workshops in speci�ic skill
competence like goal setting, time management,
and self-evaluation.
Ensure that your employee has access to adequate,
comprehensive, and readily available learning
resources such as computer-assisted instruction,
trade
publications, and access to experts.
Give your employees enough personal space and
discretionary power to act on their own behalf.
Some experts suggest that enhancing SDL
competency
within an individual may speci�ically lie in
increasingthe component of personal autonomy.
Underscore the importance of teams and the
virtues of collaboration. This is an important tip
because SDL is not an isolated, solitary
endeavor but is
inevitably tied to and affected by others in the
organization.
Locus of Control
Another concept that a trainer should be mindful
of is locus of control. The concept was
�irstintroduced by Rotter (1954) and
considers where a person gets his
or her energies from. That is, does a person
believe he can control his destiny (internal) or

believe that his decisions and life are controlled by
environmental
factors that he cannot in�luence(external)? Issues
of locus of control are important because a
trainee might be more dependent or less
dependent on the trainer.
Although it might not be practical for trainers to
customize every training session to each and
every trainee's learning style or personality
type, designing
training to recognize and appreciatelearner
characteristics such as level of self-direction, self-
ef�icacy, and locus of control go a long way in
making the training
relevant and enabling it to resonate with each trainee.
Foodfor Thought: Locus of Control
If you want to do somequick analysis, go around
a roomand ask people to draw a capital E
on their foreheads with their �ingers. As they do,
observe whether they are drawing the E with respect
to their audience or themselves (it would
look backward to a viewer).
If they draw the E with respect to you, they have an
external locus of control. If they draw the E
with respect to themselves, they have an internal
locus of control (Hass, 1984).
Consider This
1. How could you incorporate an employee's
locus of control into training design?
2. What type of advantages might therebe in
pairing a trainer who has an external locus

of control with a trainee who has an internal
locus of
control, or vice-versa?
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4.4 Training Design Sequencing
Part of training design includes decisions about
the sequencing of the training topics,
including how you �irstpresent the concepts that
will be covered to
trainees. There are many choices for sequencing,
including chronological, problem solution, known to
unknown, and unknown to known (Rothwell &
Kazanas,
2011). Here is an overview of someof those
design sequence strategies.
Chronological. With chronological sequencing, the training
objectives can be introduced with a history of
the training content sequencedfrom past to
present. So, for example, if we were training newly
hiredemployees at Hewlett-Packard during
orientation, we might use this sequencing by
starting with
how the company was founded: "Hewlett Packard was
started in a garage by Stanford University
classmates Bill Hewlett and DavePackard in
1939."
Problem solution. Introduce the training by explaining

how this training is the solution to a
particular problem. The trainer might start the
session by
explaining that ineffective communication in the
workplacehas resulted in an increase in
con�lict, confusion, and dissatisfaction within
the organization,
and then explain that theseare the reasons for holding
today's effective communication workshop.
Known to unknown. Trainees are introduced to
what they already know and are gradually led
through the training into what they do not know.
In a
computer training, for example, the trainer might
start out with somefamiliar software and then delve
into more complex aspects within that software: "I
know all of you currently use and are familiar
with Excel® for your spreadsheets, but today
we are going to learnhow to create
macros."
Unknown to known. Trainees are deliberately
disoriented at the outset of the training.
Trainers are strategically ambiguous and attempt
to have all
trainees starting at a consciously incompetent
realm, as discussed in Chapter 2. For
example, at the onset of a training session,
the trainer treats the
trainees rudely and dismissively for the �irst10
minutes, until he reveals that it was a role-
play to showthem how customers feel when customer
representatives treat them rudely!
WPW Learning Model in Training Design

Another important design sequence strategy is the
whole-part-whole (WPW) model. The model is
meant to mirror the natural whole-part-whole
rhythm in
adultlearning (Knowles,1973; Knowles et al., 2012;
Swanson, 1995; Swanson & Holton, 2001).
In the WPW model, learning is introduced in
a way that the �irstmajor overarching concept
(�irst whole) is built on by integrating
new learning segments
(parts), resulting in a more knowledgeable learning
framework (second whole). Trainees would be
�irstexposed to the �irst"whole" concept in
which they then
prepare for new training with mental scaffolding
(Wlodkowski, 1993); that is, the learning
objectives and building-block concepts placed within
the larger
framework of the topic.
The training then focuses back onto the "parts," the
details of the KSAs that are required,
including speci�ic expertise and activity. Knowles
and colleagues (2012)
described the process this way:
After learners have mastered the speci�ic, structured
material, it is time to return to the
"whole." The second "whole" helps learners
place their newly-
mastered skills in context. The model is
effective because it encourages training or
instruction that gives learners an overview of
what they are about
to learn, details the speci�ics, and then

integrates the new knowledge or skills into a
broader framework. (pp. 247–249)
Here is an example of how WPW could work
when incorporated into the training design
for a printing pressoperator, for example:
First whole: introduction and overview of systems
and pressequipment
Part: How to start up printer
Part: Operation of printer
Part: Checking for printing defects
Part: Troubleshooting
Part: Shutting down printer
Second whole: competentsolo performance of
printing pressequipment
The premise of the second whole in WPW is
that the trainee is wiser having gone through
not only critical re�lection of the processes,
but also
what leadershipconsultantRobert Staub (2002) called
the walking through the weeds of details.
Did You Know? Perspectives on Employee Training
You will also experience a similar WPW effect
regarding employee training. Consider what you thought
about employee training before this
course. Of course, you understood the term
employee training at an intellectual level;
that is, you knew it meant "howyou train
employees."
However, once you have completedthis course, the term

will take on a deeper, richer meaning for
you because you will have conceptually
stretched and critically re�lected, having gone through
and been challenged with the details of training
and its systems. This learning process will
necessarily lead to you holding a different
perspective on the concept of employee training
from now on.
Now, consider theseexamples of design-sequencing
"hooks" for new hires at the Kopp Dry Erase
Marker company:
Chronological. "Good morning, and welcome to our
organization. Many people don't realize that
the very �irstdry erasemarker was manufactured in
Portugal in 1926 by Dominican monks. Now,
back then, they did not have our Ariastar 120 to
�ill the felt with ink, but we do."
12/28/2017 Print
Chronological
Problem solution
Known to unknown
Unknown to known
Whole part whole
Unknown to known. "Good morning, and welcome

(the trainer is standing in front of two barrels,
one �illed with small black pellets, the
otherwith white
clothstuf�ing). These barrels may look strange to
you, but believe it or not, theseraw materials
are exactly how we make our dry erase
markers (trainer
pulls out a brand-new dry erasemarker from the
package). Speci�ically using the Ariastar 120,
we...."
Problem solution. "Good morning. One of the biggest
criticisms of chalk and blackboards was that
chalk was messy, chronically breaking, and
got
'stubby,' and the blackboard was a pain to clean
up after use. So, in 1982 our company invented a
system of markers that could be used for
instruction for
recording temporary information. No longer were there
just permanent markers; now therewere markers of
more than 16 different colors, whose marks
could easily be cleaned awaywhen complete!
The era of the dry erasemarker began, and
we...."
Foodfor Thought: Design Hook
Take an ordinary item such as a soda can, TV remote
control, or mouse pad and create your own
design hook from the list in this box. Imagine
you have new trainees who have to learnhow to
manufacture that item.
Consider This
1. Choose one ordinary item and compare two of
the design hook approaches that could be

used. Explain the reasons why each would or
would not suit trainees.
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4.5 Preparing Lesson Plan
As part of the training design, a lesson plan is
created that will outline the activities of the
day'straining; this is the training script. Many
of the items, or end
products, of the lesson plan will be produced in
the next phase of ADDIE— development, which
will be discussed in Chapter 5.
The training lesson plan should have activities that
introduce and allow for practice of the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for
the new training outcomes.
Table 4.6 outlines instructional methods to be
included in training design, according to the
National Training and Education Division (Federal
Emergency
Management Agency [FEMA], 2012).
Speci�ically, the lesson plan is the organization of
the material and learning activities based on
your goals and objectives for the training
(Charney & Conway,
2005; Hannum & Hansen, 1989; McArdle, 1999;
Piskurich, 2010; Reed & Signorelli, 2011;

Rothwell & Kazanas, 2011). The lesson plan
should include:
topics you choose to cover (to accomplish
your goals and objectives),
goals and objectives,
types of teaching techniques and learning
activities you will use,
training aids and materials you will use,
length of the training to accomplish your goals
and objectives, and
ways you will check for understanding and get
feedback from employees.
Table 4.6: Instructional methods included in training
design
Training dimension Instructional method
Knowledge Lecture, guided discussion, practical
application, self-study, television, debate,
interview, symposium, panel, group
interview, colloquy, motion picture, slide �ilm,
recording,book-based discussion, reading
Skills Demonstration, practical application, role-playing,
in-basket exercise, games, action mazes,
participative cases,
nonverbal skill practice exercises, drills, coaching
Attitudes Guided discussion, demonstration, television,
lecture, debate, symposium, colloquy, motion
picture, dramatization,
guided discussion, experience-sharing discussion,
role-playing, critical incident, process, games

Source: Federal Emergency Management Agency,
2014.
There are different types of lesson plan
formats. A popular format is the two-column
format, with one side showing content and
containing items such as trainer
notes, activities, and anything else that the trainer
might use to get the content across
(Piskurich, 2010); otherformats get more
complex. For example, the four-
column format includes the following columns: time,
media, content, and testing. According to
Reed and Signorelli (2011), the following components
should be
included in a lesson plan outline:
Introduction—provides an overview of the course, to
include
– The course goal
– A target audience description
– A high-level view of the structure
Modules—possibly the largest unit of instruction
within a course, usually containing
multiple learning objectives and consisting of
– Module introduction
– Objectives
– Lessons
– Module summary
Lessons—a unit of instruction within a course,
consisting of
– Lesson introduction
– Objectives
– Topics
– Content
– Lesson summary

A sample two-column lesson plan appears in
Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Sample lesson plan
Time Activity
Saturday
7:00–8:00 a.m. BREAKFAST
8:00–9:00 a.m. Program introduction and completion of
pre-questionnaires.
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Initial activities—the napkin game. Participants
form groups of equal size. Each group gets a
napkin, and
the task is to fold the napkin as small as
possible, but still largeenough for each group
member to place
a toe on the napkin.
Discuss what happened during the activity and how
the group handled the issues it encountered.
Present Kirkpatrick's learning model; group or
team members should ideally enjoy the activity

and
learnsomethingfrom it that they can apply and that
will improve results.
9:00–10:00 a.m.
Brainstorming session: Haveeach group work on group
goal setting. Groups will share the problems
that they encounter at work and generate an initial
discussion of how to deal with those issues
by
working as a team.
Icebreaker activity—toilet paper go-round. Direct
the group to pass along a roll of toilet
paper within 1
minute and each group member to tear off as
many sheets as possible. When the time is
up, each person
must tell a number of facts about themselves,
and the number of facts must equal the number
of sheets
of toilet paper the person holds.
10:00–10:30 a.m. BREAK
10:30 a.m.–12:00 p.m.
Discuss the earlier task before the break, what
problems they encountered, and how they solved
problems. A focus can be how competitiveness
can back�ire unless you know what you are
competing
for, and on the fact that making assumptions carries
risks. Discussion can continue on how to
solve

someof theseproblems they encounter at work.
GROUP ACTIVITIES
Best day at work. Start out by having every
team member take 20 minutes to writeout what
their best
day at work was and why. Oncethe group has
�inished, start asking for volunteers to
describe the
circumstances of the best day and start writing the
themes on the board. This appreciative inquiry
exercise focuses the group on what is valued
within the group. Group members might be
surprised to
�indthat monetary issues are NOT part of their best
day, but intrinsic themes like recognition,
appreciation, and feeling they made a difference
were themes.
Managing change. Form groups of four to �ive
people from different divisions or departments.
Ask them
to discuss the following questions with their group
members:
1. A recent situation in which sometype of
change was introduced.
2. Whether this change was resisted.
3. Why or why not.
4. What could have been done to make the
change easier.
Ask one representative of each group to present
the discussion.

Havethe groups try each of the activities and do
their own planning for subsequent activities.
12:00–1:00 p.m. LUNCH
1:00–2:00 p.m. Discuss the morning activities and what
needs to be done to make the afternoon
successful.
2:00–3:30 p.m.
More group activities:
Sneak a peak. The instructor will builda small
sculpture with someof the building blocks and
hide it in
an area that is an equal distance from each group.
While group members try to duplicate the
structure,
one member from each group can come up at
the same time to look at the sculpture for 10
seconds and
try to memorize it before returning to his or
her group. After members return to their
group, they have
25 seconds to instruct their group about how to
buildan exact replica of the instructor's
sculpture. After
1 minute of trying to re-create the sculpture,
another member from each group can come up
to "sneak a
peek" before returning to his or her team and
trying to recreate the sculpture. The game
should be
continued in this pattern until one of the groups
successfully duplicates the original sculpture. This

game will teach participants how to problem
solve in a group and communicate
effectively.
Day colors. Explore how mental associations can
colorour worlds differently. Havemembers close
their
eyes and imagine the days of the week, then write
down the colorof each day. Let the group
share and
compare people's different colorassociations and—where
people consciously know and are willing to
share their reasons and associations—review these
differences, too.
3:30–4:00 p.m. BREAK
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4:00–5:00 p.m.
Review and discuss the concept of teamwork and
how the activities of the day have helped the
group
members learnhow effective teams work by
acknowledging individual perspectives, emotional
triggers,
empathy, and respectingpersonal differences. Brie�ly
introduce Johari window.
5:00–7:00 p.m. DINNER

7:00–9:00 p.m.
AFTER-DINNER ACTIVITY
Finalactivity to sum up the concept of teamwork;
working in two largegroups.
The greategg drop. (The groups experience
working together and communicating for the
common goal
of both winning and successfully creating an egg
package.) Split the roominto two largegroups with
the
task of building an egg package that can sustain an
8-foot drop. A variety of tools and other
materials
should be provided to the teams. After the
packages have been built, each team must also present
a 30-
second advertisement for their package, highlighting
why it is unique and how it works. For
the
conclusion of the presentations, each group will
have to drop their egg using their package to
see if it
really works.
Sunday Morning
8:00–9:00 a.m. BREAKFAST
9:00–10:00 a.m. Review and discuss the egg drop
activity, reviewing the program concepts especially on
building
teamwork and communication, and how the activity
was accomplished using the concepts learned.

10:00–12:00 p.m. Closing: Finaldiscussion of
teamwork, focusing on speci�ic issues of
the organization. While the trainer
facilitates the discussion, management can be the
leader in developing the issues.
A key part of the lesson plan includes some
pretraining activities such as icebreakers; these
are intended to help trainees and the trainer
get to know each other
and become more comfortable so they can
communicate and work together during the
training. The HRD in Practice feature box titled
"Two Truths and a Lie"
contains an example of an icebreaker.
HRD in Practice: Icebreakers—Two Truths and a
Lie
Two truths and a lie is a classic get-to-know-
you icebreaker. Trainees tell two truths and one
lie. The object of the game is to
determine which
statement is the false one.
Ask trainees to arrange themselves in a circle.
Instruct each to thinkof threestatements about
themselves. Two must be true statements, and
one must be false. For each person, he or she
shares the threestatements (in any order) to
the group. The goal of the icebreaker game
is to
determine which statement is false. The group
members vote on which statement they thinkis a
lie, and at the end of each round, the person
reveals which one was the lie.

I recently used this exercise in my class. Can
you guess which of the following was the
lie?*
I have a tattoo you cannot see.
I had dinner with Yoko Ono.
I wrote jokes for The Tonight Show with
Jay Leno.
Looking for more icebreakers? http://www.icebreakers.ws
(http://www.icebreakers.ws)
Source: Thiagarajan, S. (2012). More jolts!
Activities to wakeup and engage your participants.
New York: Wiley.
Consider This
1. Why is breaking the ice with trainees important?
2. Is therea certain training subject matter
for which an icebreaker would be
inappropriate?
3. What should you consider in the selection
process in deciding to use one icebreaker
over another?
* Answer at end of chapter.
http://www.icebreakers.ws/
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4.6 Designing Learning Assessment
The design phase not only assists in de�ining
what content will be taught, but also in
de�ining how the learning of that content will be
measured after the
training. The training design should include an
assessment that tests changes in trainees in
the learning posttraining, what Donald Kirkpatrick
(2009) called a
level 2 assessment. This will be discussed in detail
in Chapter 7.
Speci�ically, you can incorporate testing to
measure any dimension—knowledge, skills, and
attitudes—of learning (Dick et al., 2009;
FEMA, 2012; Wick, Pollock,
Jefferson, Flanagan, & Wilde, 2011). The following
are different types of tests that indicate
achievement with regard to knowledge, skill,or
attitudinalobjective
(Table 4.8).
Table 4.8: Types of testing methods
Learning outcome Best method of testing Activities
Knowledge
Discriminations Multiple choice and true or false Detect
similarities or differences
Concrete concepts and de�ined
concepts

Constructed response (labeling, sorting, matching)
Recognize examples or nonexamples
Rule learning Performance of integrated tasksor
constructed
response (short answer)
Apply rule, principle, or procedure
Solve problems
Produce a product
Skills
Behaviorally based Performance tests Perform smooth,
timely, coordinated action
Attitudes
Emotionally based Performance tests Display desired
situated behavior
As previously discussed,in addition to pretests
(used to measure prerequisite entryskills)
and posttests (used after exposure to an
instructional program to
provide a measure of the changes that have
occurred after training), otherspeci�ic types of
tests can be incorporated into the design to
measure otheraspects of
pre- and posttraining learning (Dick et al., 2009;
Wick et al., 2011). These include:
Diagnostic tests. These are used to determine
which knowledge and skills (enabling
objectives) are necessary to master a �inal
objective of the training.

Survey testing. These are used to determine what
prospective learners already know and can do
before receiving training.
Appraisals. These are used to informally assess
retention and or comprehension to provide early
identi�ication of trainees who may need
individualized
assistance and what the learners need to learn.
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Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
Chapter 4 showed how fundamental training design
is to developing effective training objectives.
To accomplish this step, we considered the
behavior,
conditions, and standards of a training objective.
This chapter discussed choosing the appropriate training
setting and delivery method. Sometimes the
delivery method dictates the training setting, as
is
seen in on-the-job training. Attention needs to be
given to the training roomand what a room
conducive to learning looks like.
The chapter considered individual trainee differences,
such as trainee readiness, trainee motivation,
self-direction, and locus of control. Assumptions
about trainees as adultlearners should be

incorporated into the design.
The chapter also introduced design-sequencing
options, which include chronological, problem
solution, and whole part whole. After making
design-
sequencing decisions, a lesson plan must be
developed that breaks down the time sequence of
the day'straining and includes icebreakers to
encourage
trainee participation and trainee group cohesion.
Finally, the chapter explained that training design
must include a learning assessment of how
the learning of that content will be measured
after the
training. Speci�ically, the training design should
include an assessment that tests changes in
trainee in learning posttraining.
*The author has no tattoos.
Assess YourLearning: Critical Re�lection
1. Where conceptually does the ADDIE process
�it into human resource development?
2. How might the characteristics of a job affect
the employee's psychological state?
3. How can an organization's rating philosophy
impact the individual assessment of
performance?
4. Is self-directed learning a characteristic people
are born with,or can it be taught?
5. Why might a subject matter expert not be
the best person to train others on the
subject?
6. Why is it important to prioritize training?
7. The goal of training is not only to get from

competence to expertise, but sometimes from
incompetence to competence. What does this
mean?
Additional Resources
Web Resources
More info on adultlearning principles and andragogy:
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/andragogy.html
(http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/andragogy.ht
ml) .
To explore more on design sequencing with
multiple resources:
http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/236/taking-an-
overlapping-andsequenced-project-approach-to-training-
development/page3
(http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/236/taking-an-
development/page3) .
Actus Consulting has a helpful video on
SMART objective setting:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyxox_amuDY
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyxox_amuDY) .
Further Reading
Biech, E. (2011). Training for dummies. New York:
Wiley.
Charney, C., & Conway, K. (2005). The trainer's
tool kit. New York: AMACOM.

Mager, R. F. (1988). The new Mager six-pack.
Belmont, CA: Lake.
Thiagarajan, S. (2012). More jolts! Activities to
wakeup and engage your participants. New York:
Wiley.
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the de�inition.
achievable
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sectio
ns/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.
1/sections/fm/books/AUBUS375.14.1/section
The quality of being able to be accomplished;
training objectives need to be achievable so
that they stretch the employee,but not so far
that he or she becomes
frustrated and losesmotivation.
behavior
One of the threecomponents that training objectives
need to have; the behaviors should be
speci�ic and observable.
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/andragogy.html
http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/236/taking-an-
development/page3
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyxox_amuDY

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chronological
A training strategy in which the training
objectives can be introduced with a history of
the training content sequencedfrom past to present.
condition
need to have; the conditions under which
the behavior is to be completedshould be
stated, including what
tools or assistance are to be provided.
contrived approach

A learning assessment method designers use when
the learner characteristics of the trainees cannot
be identi�ied easily; designers should create
a list of trainee
learning characteristics to be considered.
derived approach
A method used to assess trainees' learning
characteristics; it is used when instructional
designers can identify relevant learner
characteristics of obvious
importance, based on a given performance
problem, instructional need, or organizational
constraint.
design
The second phase of ADDIE; it concerns how
we are going to train so that we closeany
identi�ied performance gaps from the needs
assessment; it speci�ically
includes the processes of de�ining the scope of
the training, setting goals, performing trainee
analysis, and establishing time requirements.
icebreakers

Pretraining activities that are intended to help trainees
and the trainer get to know each otherand
become more comfortable so they can
communicate and work
together during the training.
instructor-led training
Any kind of training that occurs in a training
room, typically in an of�ice, classroom, or
conference room.
known to unknown
A training strategy in which trainees are
introduced to what they already know and
are gradually led through the training into what
they do not know.
lesson plan
The organization of the material and learning
activities based on the goals and objectives
for the training.

locus of control
A concept that concerns whether a person gets
his or her energies externally or internally;
that is, from the environment or from within
themselves.
measurable
Able to be measured; to ensure that training
objectives are measurable, the measurement source
is identi�ied and you are able to trackthe
actions as the
employee progresses toward the objective; measurement
enables us to compare outputs.
of�line self-directed training
A training method in which trainees use
materials that do not require a computer and
use a self-study process to acquire the desired
knowledge or skill; of�line
self-directed training materials include printed
material (such as workbooks and books),
audio cassettes, and videotapes.
online self-directed training

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A training method in which trainees use
materials on a computer and a self-study process
to acquire the desired knowledge or skill.
on-the-job training (OJT)
The direct instructional method to train a new
employee in the workplace; an experienced
coworker trains the newcomer by demonstrating
the proper way to
perform the job tasks.
problem solution

A training strategy in which the trainer begins
by explaining how this training is the
solution to a particular problem
realistic
Grounded in reality; training objectives need to be
realistic so that they lead to the desired results;
having a realistic objective means that you
have the resources
to get it done, such as skills, money, and
equipment.
script
A list of all spoken lines in a self-instructional
course or media production.
self-directed learning (SDL)
A learning process whereby individuals take the
initiative in diagnosing their learning needs,
formulating learning goals, identifying

resources for learning,
choosing and implementing appropriate strategies,and
evaluating outcomes.
sequencing
Deciding on the order in which to present
the concepts that will be covered to trainees;
choices for sequencing include chronological,
problem solution, known
to unknown, and unknown to known.
SMART approach
One of several popular techniques to ensure
that training objectives are targeted and focused;
SMART is an acronym for "speci�ic,
measurable, attainable,
realistic, and time bound."
speci�ic
The �irstpart of the SMART approach; being
speci�ic means making the training objective
concrete, detailed, focused, and well-de�ined.
standards

need to have; the level of performance that is
desirable should be stated, including an
acceptable range of
answers that are allowable as correct.
time bound
Having deadlines set for the achievement of the
objective. Deadlines need to be both achievable
and realistic.
trainee motivation
The desire of trainees to learnnew material; training
should be designed so that trainees will be
motivated to learnbased on their perception of
the new
learning or their experiences in using prior
training.
trainee readiness

A trainee characteristic that refers to both
maturity and experience factors in the
trainee's background.
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