Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy
Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. He used fluorescent minerals to
study the properties of x–rays. He had photographic plates, which had been wrapped around in black
paper with potassium uranyl sulfate that had been exposed to sunlight on top. This had been
believed that uranium had absorbed the sun's energy, then released to create an x–ray. His first
experiment had failed due to an overcast over in Paris, but this didn't stop Becquerel from
developing his photographic plates. Although Becquerel was the one to discover radiation, the term
radioactivity was formed by Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre. This was a little after the
phenomenon that had recently been discovered by Becquerel. Extracting uranium from ... Show
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Some forms of radiation can be man–made or found naturally, but both are pretty harmful. When
radiation merges with molecules in living cells, it can severely damage them. This cell may become
cancerous if the DNA has been damaged. This will mean that it can't repair itself. The cell will go
out of control, causing serious health issues, meaning it can increase the risk of both animals and to
ourselves in getting cancer. Although radiation is harmful to living cells, too much of it being
merged into a living cell will more likely die completely. Sunlight, which is one of the most
essential forms of radiation can be extremely harmful in large quantities.
Overall, radioactivity has both positive and negative effects on people and the environment.
Radioactivity is used in modern day medical equipment and radiotherapy. But alongside this,
radioactivity can be really harmful to the environment and to people through UV rays (from the
sun), which can then lead to killing enzymes in our bodies, or even lead cancer. Although
radioactivity can be harmful towards people and the environment, I believe that radioactivity is
more of a blessing then a curse as it's really important concerning doctors and a lot of people rely on
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Electron Radiation
Atoms are the microscopic building blocks of all matter in the universe. Everything around us are
made of atoms, including radiation. The centre of an atom is called the nucleus, it is made of two
particles: protons, which carry a positive charge and neutrons, which have no charge. Electron carry
a negative charge and it is outside of a nucleus. The attraction of these negative electrons to the
positive nucleus is what keep the atom together. All the atom of the given elements has a specific
number of protons and neutrons, but sometimes it will have too many of those and become
radioactive and an unstable atom is called a radioisotope. When radioactive want to be stable again,
they must release energy until they get back to a balanced state. ... Show more content on
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Firstly, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant leaks radioactive water into underground and to
sea. The effect cause earthquake in 2011. After the earth quake on June 2011, scientists measured
that 5,000 to 15,000 terabecquerels of radioactive material was reaching the ocean. Since the
incident in 2011, scientists measured levels of radioactivity in fish and other sea life. Several species
of fish from this area had caesium levels that exceeded Japan's regulatory limit for seafood.
Scientists say the groundwater leaks could become worse, but warn against drawing conclusions
about the impacts on sea life before peer–reviewed studies are completed. Secondly, gamma rays
can be used in medical treatment to kill cancer cell. However gamma can be extremely dangerous
because they are a very powerful source of power, if they delivered in an unmonitored and
uncontrolled way they can kill humans, animals and plants. Gamma rays however can also disrupt
the physical properties of materials. They can cause plastics and steel to become brittle and to
eventually break.
In conclusion, radioactivity has both negative and positive aspects. Negative impacts include the
radiation leaking and damage healthy organism or cell during treatment while positive aspects
consist of many different uses in medical science, security and daily life items. I support the uses of
radioactivity because the positive aspects outweigh the negative aspects and I believe that in the
future the radioactivity can be used positively in many other

Essay about Cancer and Terry Tempest Williams' Refuge
Cancer and Terry Tempest Williams' Refuge
"I cannot prove my mother, my grandmothers, along with my aunts developed cancer from nuclear
fallout in Utah. But I can't prove they didn't." Epilogue, Refuge
In Terry Tempest Williams's Refuge, death slowly claimed almost all of the women of her family.
Death took Williams' family members one by one just one or two years apart. In every case, the
cause was cancer. Williams insisted in the epilogue that fall–out from the 1951–62 nuclear testing in
Utah brought cancer to her family. Because there are many other causes of cancer, such as genetic
and environmental factors, it is hard for one to insist that nuclear fall–out causes cancer. Therefore,
it is important to find out how and why ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, Iodine 131 causes thyroid cancer. It is a substance that dissolves into liquid such as
water and milk. Other chemicals such as Strontium–90 and Cesium 147 as well get into water, milk,
soil, food and vegetables that we eat and cause bone, skin cancer and leukemia. Chemicals like
Strontium–90 and Cesium–147 remain for up to 200 to 300 years in the atmosphere (CancerSource.)
The United States tested nuclear bombs, "215 A– and H–bombs" (www.nukewatch.com) above
ground between 1951 and 1963 in the Nevada Test Site. Fifty years later, the U.S government
studies stated that over 80,000 people who lived or were born in the U.S suffered from cancer
caused by radioactive fall–out from nuclear testing. Over 15,000 of them died. Many of whom were
from the states close to the testing sites, called the "downwinders," Utah, Idaho and other states.
From the Nevada Test Site the winds carried nuclear radiation fallout, filled with "iodine–131"
which caused "75,000 thyroid cancers, ten percent of which are estimated to have been fatal, and
strontium–90 and cesium–137, which are dangerous for between 280 and 300 years," (nukewatch)
likely causes of bone and skin cancer and leukemia. Therefore, there is some strong evidence that
nuclear fall–out in the 1950s did cause cancer.
"Downwinders" and people from the states close to the test site were severely exposed to the fallout
and have suffered from all kind of cancers. The Center for Disease

Nuclear Waste Muller Summary
Nuclear Waste
The essay "Nuclear Waste" by Ricard A. Muller talks about the controversial matter of the disposure
of radioactive waste. Despite the overwhelming concerns of citizens, Richard Muller believes the
dangers associated with the transportation and deposit of nuclear waste is not as paramount as the
issue may seem. The concepts that seems most alarming to the public are the number of year it takes
for the radioactivity of the waste to subside and where it will be stored in the mean time that will not
affect their safety. As Muller explains, "Even after 100,000 years the radiation will still be above
10% of the level it had when it left the reactor."(Muller 254) As a solution, the US government has
created a prototype of a nuclear waste ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition to that, it cost hundreds of billions of dollars to build and operate this facility. Scientists
have even tried to develop new alternative such as sending the waste to the sun or sinking it to the
bottom of the ocean. Although this is a problem that needs to be addressed, are the effect as
considerably high as one might think? According to Richard Muller the risk of not depositing the
waste is higher the not doing so. He explains "When I work out the numbers, I find the dangers of
storing waste at Yucca Mountain to be smaller compared to the dangers of not doing so, and
significantly smaller than the dangers we ignore."(Muller 254) Regardless of the ideas from the
politicians and scientists that more research is need, Richard Muller argues that will be of no use.
Just the fusion fragments will take about 10,000 years to become as radioactive as the uranium
mined from the grounds. There in no amount of research that can predict were our society and planet
will be like in 10,000 years. Muller emphasizes how "Ten thousand years ago humans had just
discovered agriculture. Writing wouldn't be invented for another 5,000 years."(Muller 256) Many
people do not study the number or the actually effect of radioactivity already found on our earth
before making

The Long Term Health Risk For The General Population...
Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 PURPOSE OF PROJECT To quantify the long term health risk for the
general population exposed to radiation by the Fukushima–Daiichi Nuclear disaster in the aftermath
of the 2011 Great Eastern Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. 1.2 BACKGROUND On the 11th March
2011, following a magnitude 9 earthquake in the Pacific, a fifteen meter tsunami hit Honshu, the
main island of Japan, killing over 19,000 people and damaging the Fukushima–Daiichi Nuclear
Power Plant. Over the following days while workers worked to contain the accident days the
crippled Nuclear Power Plant released dangerous nuclear isotopes into the atmosphere resulting in
the biggest nuclear disaster since Chernobyl in April 1986. Experience from the ... Show more
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The exposure to the radiation released will not only result in heightened risks for cancer in
populations, but may also result in other, non–cancer related health problems such as thyroid
diseases, visual impairment, circulatory diseases, hereditary disorders and teratogenic defects
(developmental defects in fetuses). It is important that exposure to radiation be estimated so that
cancer risks can be estimated and appropriate responses and health measures can be implemented by
governments to deal with future development in health problems related to the release of radiation
from Fukushima. In 2013 the World Health Organization released its health risk assessment for the
Fukushima–Daiichi Nuclear disaster concluding that for the general population "the lifetime risk for
some cancers may be somewhat elevated above baseline rates for certain age and sex groups that
were in the areas most affected" and that disease attributable to the disaster is likely to remain below
detectable levels. In 2012 Ten Hoeve and Jacobson provided the first estimates of the health impact
of the Fukushima nuclear accident, estimating an additional 15 to 1100 (most likely 130) cancer
related mortalities for the general population. Both Sophisticated modeling to come to these
conclusions. This work to attempts to independently without reference to either's methodology

Fukushima Argumentative Essay
Since some countries in the region have already embarked on the nuclear energy option and some
others are planning to do so, an increased attention in the country has been given to protective
measures in case of a nuclear/radiological emergency. Experience from nuclear accidents at
Chernobyl and recently, in Fukushima showed a lack of sufficient capacity for screening internal
contamination of the public and pointed out the necessity for its development [1]. Additionally,
increasing the national applications of nuclear technology in industry, nuclear medicine and
researches involved radioisotopes utilization, resulted in legal and technical provisions adopted on
the national level supporting protection of the public and radiation workers against

Carrie Curie Discovery
Marie Curie was born in Warsaw, Poland on November 7, 1867. In her earlier years of research was
able to develop methods for separating radium from radioactive. Marie and Pierre her husband did
many studies that examined many substances and minerals in order to find signs of radioactivity.
From studies done, they learned that the materials that they examine contained known radioactivity.
The major elements that they studied were uranium and thorium, which were found to have intensity
radiation. Marie also discovered that because these elements were able to emit radiation it did not
depend on the arrangements of the atom, but it could also be linked to the interior of the atom itself.
From this discovered she find two new radioactive elements radium and polonium. ... Show more
He was able to find this discovery because of studying uranium salt, which was affected by light. By
accident, he was able to discover that uranium salt was able to spontaneously emit a penetrating
radiation that can show on a photographic plate this is how he discovered radiation. He also studies
the physical properties of cobalt, nickel, and ozone and on now crystals absorbs light, and
researched the polarization of light. And lastly, Becquerel was able to discover beta particles.
Wilhelm Roentgen was the first person to discover a type of radiation because of his investigation of
cathode rays. From his studies, he was able to discover the x–ray, which was a powerful tool for
physical experiments and examining the interior of the body. In his discoveries, he found out that
fluorescence was caused by an agent that infiltrate, which is impermeable to visible or ultraviolet
radiation. This how he was able to termed the known agent as an x–ray. He was also greatly
involved with the physics and medicine

Marie Cure Essay
What does the word radiation bring to mind? Some picture nuclear bombs, others a nuclear power
plant producing radioactive waste. However, one of the first uses of radiation was for medical
treatment, not destruction or energy. The scientist who discovered this potential was Maria Salomea
Sklodowska, also know as Marie Curie. Michael Hart, in his book The 100, stated, "It seems to me,
however, that her great fame is based not so much upon the importance of the scientific work she
did as upon the fact that a woman did it." (Hart 515). Some people would argue that Marie Curie's
research was influential because she grew up in Russian controlled areas of Poland, where learning
about certain things was not allowed, she isolated the elements polonium and radium in pitchblende,
and that her work helped advance the development of nuclear technologies. Growing up, Marie
Curie was not in the best of situations, however this gave her the hunger to learn more. She was
born in the Russian controlled Kingdom of Poland on November 7, 1867 (Britannica). Her mother
was a principal at a local school, and her father a physics teacher. When Marie was only five her
mother developed tuberculosis, separating her from her family until the time of her death. Despite
this Marie learned incredibly well, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"This work prepared the way for the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick and, above all,
for the discovery in 1934 by Irene and Frederic Joliot–Curie of artificial radioactivity" (Britannica).
Marie Curie had stockpiled enough radium so that her daughter, Irene Curie, and her husband
discovered artificial radioactivity. This led to ease of locating tumors using radioactive isotopes of
certain elements and to the discovery of the neutron in nucleus of atoms. It solved many occurrences
that scientists couldn't explain, such as what happened during alpha decay and atomic masses of

Analogy Essay
What do Kingda Ka and the discoverer of radioactivity, Marie Curie, have in common? Actually,
there is a lot more than you would think. You might say to yourself that they are completely
different, which is correct, yet incorrect. One thing is a rollercoaster and the other is a famous
scientist, but when you look past just their physical descriptions, you will see how much they
actually are alike. They both follow similar paths and they both faced many hardships, but also
many great things. Firstly, they both start off slowly. Marie was just an average girl who was born in
Poland in 1867. Kingda Ka was just a rollercoaster when construction began. They weren't anything
special. Marie grew up like all other girls in Poland did at that ... Show more content on
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Much like Kingda Ka, Marie was struck down by the fact that after a while, Marie had learned all
she could. If she wanted further education, she would have to wait a while to save up enough money
to keep going. As they had before, they didn't let this obstacle stop them. Kingda Ka was eventually
repaired and it continued working as it had before, even though it had many more light breakdowns
than it had before. Marie and her sister had worked out a plan as well. First, they would save up
enough money between them to send Marie's sister to college in France first. Then, they would send
Marie when they had enough money. Of course, there was a small issue. Since the college was in
France, all of the lectures were in French, so Marie would have to learn French in order to
understand what was being taught. But this was only a small issue because Marie did know some
French, so it was easy for her to learn the rest of the language. But after these early issues, things
seemed to be going well. There was nothing major that stopped them. Kingda Ka ran smoothly for
quite some time and Marie's interest in science really grew. This part in their lives seemed like the
initial hill on Kingda Ka. It was a huge obstacle and it seemed difficult to make it all the way up, but
they found a way to make it work. Of course, though, it didn't stay this way. Marie was a very
intelligent person. She had made many huge impacts on science, such as

Marie Skëodowska Research Paper
This is about a scientist who has succeeded in Chemistry and Physics, won two Nobel prizes, and
done many other achievements. This scientist is the famous Marie Skłodowska Curie. She has done
many things in her lifetime. She was poor and didn't have a really good education but soon after she
became the first scientist to find out about radioactivity and other things. She has even done good
things that benefited the world. This all started on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland because
this was day when Marie Skłodowska was born. She lived in a family with two parents who are
teachers and she had five older siblings. She took after her father who was a physics and math
teacher and she was really smart in school, but something horrible happened

Informative Essay On Radiation
I have found that radiation can either be very helpful or very dangerous, this all depends on the
amount and how it's used.The definition of radiation is the process by which energy is emitted as
either particles or waves(mirion 2010).Radiation is measured in waves or curies. Curies is named
after one of the radiation founders Marie Curie. Radiation was discovered by many different people.
Radiation is used in many helpful ways such as medical and home use. It can also used to kill
bacteria and parasites in food to make them last longer.
Henri Becquerel was the scientist that discovered radioactivity in 1896. Becquerel found
radioactivity when he was experimenting with x– rays on a cloudy day in Paris. He found
radioactivity without ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By using radiation you can kill bacteria and parasites in food. If they parasites and bacteria weren't
killed they would cause food borne illnesses. By killing these germs you extend the freshness and
quality of food. One example of using irradiation is the pasteurization of milk. Some may believe
that doing this may cause the food to become radioactive or unsafe. You many also think that using
irradiation could cause the nutritional value to decrease or become lesser. Many studies have been
done to prove that irradiation has no effect on the food itself. Along with it having no effect on the
food it has no effect on the person or animal consuming the treated

Dealing with Radioactive Waste
Radioactive Waste
"Regardless of the future of nuclear power, the need to control and manage radioactive waste will
persist for many decades. The objective of any radioactive waste management programme must be
that undue burdens on future generations are avoided." – Nuclear Energy Agency
Radioactive Waste
Have you seen or heard the news lately? Radioactive waste water contamination... Contracts for the
disposal of radioactive waste... Nuclear sites and dumps leaking... Cancer and Death by Radiation...
What is all this? More importantly what is radioactive waste?
Radioactive waste. What is it? Radioactive waste is what the name says it is; radioactive and waste.
Basically, it is anything that has been exposed to a radioactive nuclear substance and is not in use of
anyone anymore so it is declared as trash. Also bear in mind that any definitions or information
varies in different countries. Now, there are many different types of waste, ranging from the least
amount of hazard to the greatest amount of hazard. The ones with the least amount of radioactivity
tend to have shorter lives. They decay in less than 30 years and are called, "short–lived". The ones
with a greater amount of radioactivity perish in more than 30 years and are called, "long–lived".
Let's break these types of wastes into three parts. Low–level waste (LLW), Intermediate–level waste
(ILW), and High–level waste (HLW).
Low–level waste are objects that we deem 'small' or 'unimportant' and have been infected with

Should Yucca Mountain Be A Nuclear Waste Disposal Site?
Introduction:
The task we are in charge with is determining if Yucca Mountain is a suitable long term nuclear
waste disposal site, if it is a suitable short term nuclear waste site until other sites are found or other
scientific ways to dispose of the waste are found, and lastly if Yucca Mountain is not determined to
be a long or short term option for nuclear waste disposal. Option one would be to go ahead with the
Yucca Mountain plan of long term storage since it is the only answer we have currently for nuclear
waste. Option two would be to use Yucca Mountain as a short term storage unit until we find another
more stable site or if we find a way to deactivate the radioactivity in the waste. The last option is to
not use Yucca Mountain as a short or long term storage unit because the site is shown to have water
leakage and would therefore contaminate the surrounding area.
Option One:
In 1987 Congress amended the Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA) which made the department of
energy (DOE) responsible for investigation and determination of the Yucca Mountain site. For more
than twenty years the DOE has investigated and come up with preliminary designs for the mountain.
Option one is to continue with the plan to use Yucca Mountain as the permanent storage site for
nuclear waste. Yucca Mountain would function by Receiving spent nuclear fuel and high–level
radioactive waste in shipping casks certified by the NRC, then unloading, handling, and packaging
spent nuclear fuel and

Henri Becquerel Research Paper
Henri Becquerel was a Physicist, while doing some research, he found radioactivity. Henri was born
in Paris in 1853, he was born into a family of scientists. Alexander Becquerel, Aurelie Quenard, and
Antoine Céasar were his family. His father and grandfather were scientists as well. His father was an
expert on solar radiation and his grandfather had invented an electrolytic method for extracting
metals from their ores. He learned about physics and chemistry through his university and joined the
government department in 1874. He was appointed professor of profiled physics in the department
of natural history at the Paris museum. His discovery to radioactivity helped a lot of other scientists.
If Henri hadn't discovered it Ernest Rutherford

Female Scientists In The 1800's Essay
During the 1800's, there were not a lot of female scientists. Marie Curie became the first woman to
receive a nobel prize, and also the first to receive two of them. She was a Polish–French physicist
and chemist who discovered two elements and was famous for her work with radioactivity. She got
her love of science from her father, a physics and mathematics teacher. She moved to Paris to further
her education and there met her future husband, Pierre Curie, and took his place at Sorbonne when
he passed away as the first women to hold that position. Those were not the only thing she
accomplished as a female scientist in the 1800's. Marie paved the way for many more female
scientists in the future. Marie Curie was extremely intelligent as a child. ... Show more content on
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When Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896, it inspired Marie and Pierre to investigate it
further. They researched a lot of substances for any signs of radioactivity, and discovered something
that was more radioactive than uranium. They discovered radium, an element that damaged tissue,
so they used that to fight against cancer. "They found that the mineral pitchblende was more
radioactive than uranium and concluded that it must contain other radioactive substances. From it
they managed to extract two previously unknown elements, polonium and radium, both more
radioactive than uranium" (Nobel Media). These discoveries led to radium being used to treat cancer
and other diseases, and them getting their first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. After Pierre passed
away, she continued with her own studies. Marie successfully isolated radium and proved its
existence. She also studied the properties and compounds of these radioactive elements. "She also
documented the properties of the radioactive elements and their compounds. Radioactive
compounds became important as sources of radiation in both scientific experiments and in the field
of medicine, where they are used to treat tumors" (Nobel Media). This discovery led to the further
development of X–rays and her receiving her second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. Marie Curie
was the first woman ever to win two Nobel Prizes in two fields and in multiple sciences, two
incredible

Radioactivity Lab Report
Objective
Radioactivity is present all throughout the environments on earth, which relates to the unstable
atomic nuclei. Going into detail, radioactivity occurs in unstable atomic nuclei and is caused by the
spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. Radiation is used in numerous ways that are used in
experiments and medical procedures. In this article, radioactivity will be defined, the three types of
radioactivity will be explained, and the different methods of radiation will be illustrated.
Introduction Nuclei are formed with a higher stability after unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously
decompose, and this process is called radioactivity. Therefore, radioactivity refers to the particles
that are released from nuclei due to nuclear ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The alpha particles have an atomic mass of 4 and a charge of +2. When an alpha particle is released
from the nucleus, the mass number of the particle decreases by four units and the atomic number
decreases by two units. An example of this would be where the helium nucleus is the alpha particle.
The energy is a collection of stable nucleons, and those heavier nuclei that can be perceived as
collections of alpha particles, such as carbon–12.01 or oxygen–16.00 are also stable. Beta radiation
is a stream of electrons that are called beta particles. When the beta particle is released, a neutron is
transformed to a proton in the nucleus, thus maintaining the mass number of the nucleus. Although,
the atomic number increases by one unit. An example of this occurring is when the electron is the
beta particle. Pursuing this further, gamma rays are high–energy photons with a very short
wavelength of 0.0005 to 0.1 nm. The emission of gamma radiation results from an energy change
within the atomic nucleus. Gamma emission changes neither the atomic number nor the atomic
mass. Alpha and beta emission are often accompanied by gamma emission, as an excited nucleus
drops to a lower and more stable energy

The Natural Radioactivity Of Soil Samples
Abstract The concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are measured in the material collected from
two locations. The collected materials are tested using gamma ray spectrometry. The activity
concentration of the naturally occurring radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in building material it
varies from 12.6 to 121.4, 13.6 to 142 and from 69.5 to 620.6 Bqkg_1, respectively. The radium
equivalent activity, the absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose and hazard index is also calculated
Keywords Radionuclides, radiological hazard, building material radioactive 1. Introduction Natural
sources exist in several geological formations such as soils, rocks, sediments, vegetation, water and
air emit radiation. While 4% is of artificial origin (Chougan–kar et al., 2003; El–Daly and Hussein,
2008) [1]. The natural radioactivity of soil samples determined from the 226Ra, 232Th and40K
contents. Rocks and soils contribute considerably to indoor and outdoor exposure to the
environmental radioactivity by gamma radiation emitting mainly from 226Ra, 232Th and 40K
contents, and beta radiation. The soil radioactivity is a good indicator of the distribution and
accumulation of radioactivity in the environment and knowledge of these concentrations provides
useful information in the monitoring of environment radioactivity (kessaratikoon and Awaekechi,
2008) [2]. Even though these radionuclides are extensively distributed, their concentrations have
been proven to depend on the local geological

Nuclear Chemistry Essay
Types of Radiation: List the three types of Radiation and describe conditions under which each case
occurs. Alpha, Beta, Gamma. Alpha radiation/emission – Alpha particles are the nuclei of a Helium
atom 42He. Consisting of two protons and two neutrons, positively charged. The nuclei are ejected
from heavy, unstable nuclei so as to remove excess protons and neutrons. However, the formed
nuclei may still be radioactive in which even further decay will occur. Alpha emissions occur in
nuclei with atomic numbers greater than 83. E.g 23892U  42He + 23490Th (both mass and No. of
protons are conserved during the reaction) Beta radiation/emission – Beta particles are electrons (0–
1e) that have been released from the nucleus of a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Transuranic Elements – are elements that have been artificially synthesised, and have atomic
numbers greater than 92 Neutron Bombardment: Neptunium (Z = 93) can be made in nuclear
reactors by neutron bombardment of uranium–238, achieved in 1940 by Glenn Seaborg. 23892U +
10n  23992U  23993NP + 0–1e Alpha Bombardment – Alpha particles are able to produce
transuranic elements. E.g. when plutonium–239 is bombarded with alpha particles an isotope of
Curium (Z = 96) is formed. 23994Pu + 42H  24296Cm +10n Ion accelerators – To produce
elements with higher atomic numbers, the approach of firing accelerated particles into a target is
used. The accelerated particles, usually ions produced in a linear accelerator, are fired towards the
target element at velocities near the speed of light. Nuclear reactions occur in the target elements
nuclei and are then analysed, velocity filters using electrical and magnetic fields separate the
products of the reaction and determines their mass. E.g Roentgenium (Rg, Z = 111) was synthesised
in 1944 as nickel–64 ions were accelerated towards bismuth–209, Rg was formed and rapidly
decayed. 6428Ni + 20983Bi  272111Rg + 10n Commercial Radioactive Isotopes: What are
commercial radioisotopes and explain how they are produced Commercial radioactive isotopes
(radioisotopes) are radioisotopes used for commercial/industrial use such as medicine, e.g.

Y9 Radioactivity Research Assessment
Medicine
Y9 Radioactivity Research Assessment
Diagnosis– Radiation in medicine helps medical tests allow doctors to see inside the body, so
doctors can diagnose, and treat conditions for humans and animals. Some tests expose ionizing
radiation which put patients at risk, could cause death.
Sterilising– Gamma rays which are high energy electromagnetic waves that can only be stopped by
thick lead, this means they can pass through medical equipment because they aren't made of lead,
such as syringes. When gamma rays pass through packaging they inactivate viruses and kill bacteria.
If the equipment stays in a sealed plastic bag it will remain sterile.
Treatment– Radiation treatment is the most common therapy/treatment for cancer. Its users high
energy particles such as X–rays to destroy cancer cells. Killing the cancer cell, radiation treatment is
also called radiotherapy, irradiation, or X–ray therapy. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This can be used by performing X–rays or Gamma rays. Both are electrostatic radiations.
Tracing– a tracer is a chemical compound, where more atoms have been replaced by a radioisotope
so by its virtue radioactive decay it can be used to explore mechanisms of chemical reactions by
following the path that the radioisotope follows from reacted products
Gauging– This is a tool used in petroleum (petrol) industry, also mining also archeology purpose. It
consists of radiation which emits a cloud of particles and a sensor that counts received particles that
are reflected by the test material or pass through the middle of it.
Radioactive dating
Radioactive dating is a technique used to work out the date of materials like rock and other objects
based on their decay rate. In which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when
they were formed. Currently over 300 natural isotopes are

The Harsh Reality of Keeping Away From Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a looming threat that many people do not seem to know about. Ever since the
Fukushima disaster in Japan, the internet has been swarming with reports about how the radiation
can reach the West Coast and harm Californians. This has been confirmed by experts; radioactivity
was expected to show up in April and has already been found in kelp along the sea. Radioactivity is
a serious threat to humans, and people should be more aware of the risks related to it, especially
now, when there are signs of radioactivity in the West Coast. The main argument that people use to
keep themselves from accepting the harsh reality of radioactive poisoning is that since there have
been no radioactive leaks in the United States recently, we are not at risk. This also is untrue; back in
April, there was a radioactive leak in New Mexico. So far, doses of radiation to the surrounding
population are low, but even those low levels of radioactivity can have harmful effects on the body
in the long term. So what are these harmful effects? To answer this question, we need to understand
how radioactive isotopes decay. There are many different elements, and each has its own radioactive
isotopes. For example, one of the common plutonium isotopes produced by man is plutonium–239.
When this radioactive isotope decays, it produces energy. This energy is radioactivity. When the
isotope decays, it produces alpha, beta, and gamma particles. These particles are also a part of a
general class of

How Does Nuclear Decay Place
Discussion Question 1 Why and how does atomic nuclear decay take place? Explain. Atomic
nuclear is a phenomenon also known as radioactivity. According to NDE–ED the stability/instability
of the nucleus is linked with the paring of spins between neutrons and the pairing of spins between
protons. In a non–radioactive, isotopes are found that a nuclei having even numbers of protons and
neutrons to be more abundant. The even numbers help with spin paring as the odd numbers indicate
the unpaired spins. Nuclei with an odd number of neutrons or protons may indicate less stability
compared to a nucleus with even numbers. However, the isotopes that are considered the least stable
are the odd number of neutrons and protons (NDE–ED, 2016). The numbers ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Over a hundred radioisotopes have been utilized to facilitate in various diagnostic testing as well as
treatments. Radioisotopes make it convenient since they can produce gamma radiation, a short life,
and be eliminated after a procedure such as diagnostic testing or treatments are done. Radio
diagnostic procedures generally consist of radioactive tracers (monitor the biochemical elements in
the body) and iodine 131 (treatment for over active thyroids and detection of internal hemorrhages)
(World Nuclear, 2016). What are the future trends in healthcare with respect to the use of
radioactivity? In diagnostic techniques utilizing radioactive racers it generally produces gamma rays
with in the body. The tracers are typically short–lived isotopes connected to chemical elements that
allow a specific physiological procedure to be done. It may be injected, inhaled, or orally
administered. For instance, a procedure used to monitor the function of organs can be done with a
gamma camera that gives off images of the distribution of radioactivity with the combination of a
computer (World Nuclear,

The Pros And Cons Of Radioactivity
Radioactivity has been around since the 1800s. It is very popular in the medical field. It is used my
many professionals to help diagnose and treat people every single day. Although it does have some
advantages and disadvantages, people still use it to this day. Radioactivity is defined as "the
spontaneous emission of particles". (Nuclear Energy). Radioactivity is caused by an unbalanced
nucleus in the cell. This happens because there is either an uneven number of protons and/or
neutrons. When this happens, the element is considered to have multiple isotopes. An isotope is an
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Thus, they have different
atomic weights. This is important to know because there is a such thing as a radioactive isotope.
These elements just have additional energy, and they release radiation in different forms. "There are
over 800 radioactive isotopes, some of which are natural and some synthetic." (Helmenstine).
Radioactive elements can be both artificial and natural. However, in medicine, most of them are
more than likely synthetic, since they are the most popular types. The use of radioactive elements in
medicine is still growing to this day. Many oncologists use it to treat their patients who have cancer.
Many cancer patients use this option. They use the radiation to kill off cancer cells. X–ray
technicians or radiologists will also use it to administer x–rays to people who may have a broken
bone, or need an MRI. The patient is injected with a radioactive material that helps the doctor be
able to see inside the body better, whether it be with pictures or ultrasound. Radioactive material is
defined as "material that contains radioactivity and thus emits ionizing radiation. It may be material
that contains natural radioactivity from the environment or a material that may have been made
radioactive." (The Healthy Physics Society). This happens when someone needs a colonoscopy.
They have to drink or are injected with this liquid that helps their organs and all other masses in the
body be seen better by the radioactive materials. There are many advantages and disadvantages to
the use of radioactive elements in medicines. Some advantages include the fact that

Nuclear Energy Is The Energy
What is Nuclear Energy
"Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom." Each nucleus has two kind of
particles
Neutrons
Protons
There are two process to release nuclear energy
Fission and fusion
Process
Fission
A atom of one element is divided to create two small atom of different elements
Fusion
During this process, nuclear reactors use uranium to release energy
Two atoms are combined to made a large atom
This energy produces heat and warms the reactors cooling agent (usually water, liquid metal or
molted salt)
The heat produces steam that turns on the turbines
Turbines propel generators that generates energy
BENEFITS
Low Pollution
Reduces the use of coil and fuel (fossil fuel) Decreases gas emissions
Uranium is inexpensive
The production costs are low
There is enough supply of uranium at least for 80 years
Dependability and efficiency
Works under any weather condition
Can work uninterrupted a whole year
RISKS
Pollution Hazard
Uranium is radioactive once it is extracted

Radioactive waste
Even low level of radioactivity needs hundred of years to become safe
Accidents
Biological and health effects
Costs are high Residual radioactive waste administration is expensive Start up costs are high
Target for terrorism
Nuclear power is used to create massive destruction weapon
NUCLEAR PLANTS ACCIDENTS
It is a nuclear accident when it involves radiation emission
Those are divided in incidents or nuclear accidents depending

Marie Curie Research Paper
A Radioactive Pioneer Impactful discoveries of the past have greatly changed and aided the field of
medicine. Marie Curie is the pioneer of radiation research and has made many contributions to the
health care field, in particular, to that of radiologic sciences. Curie's accomplishments as a physicist
and chemist have brought about enormous scientific breakthroughs in Radioactivity. These
discoveries have paved the way for how radiology is practiced today. Marie Curie was born on
November 07, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. Both her parents where school teachers and they placed
extreme importance on education (Huso). Curie was exceptionally brilliant and had an obsessive
thirst for knowledge. However, Poland at this time was overruled by Russia ... Show more content
While working on her dissertation she became fascinated by the work from Henri Becquerel.
Becquerel's discovery of uranium salts emitting rays inspired her to conduct further research. Within
a couple months of beginning her research she made two important discoveries that "led her to
formulate the theory that the rays were the result of something happening within the atom itself, a
property she called radioactivity" (Goldsmith). She discovered that the rays were emitted from the
anatomical structure of the atom and the outcome was not due to the interaction of molecules. Pierre
Currie later abandoned his own research in crystals to help his wife in testing minerals that revealed
high levels of radioactivity. From Marie Curie's testing she concluded that a new more powerful
element was responsible for the high levels of radioactivity. The Curies confined their research to
the mineral pitchblende because it emitted the strongest rays. They then diligently and progressively
separated pitchblende by chemical analysis. They measured the radioactivity of the separate
components. "In July, 1898, she and Pierre successfully extracted an element from this ore that was
even more radioactive than uranium; they called it polonium in honor of Marie's homeland"
(Goldsmith). Within that same years they identified a more radioactive element. This element which
was embedded in the pitchblende was named radium. To prove their discovery they needed to
isolate a pure form of this element. Which was no easy task, considering that these elements were
extremely small and almost unnoticeable. In 1902 they were able to isolate enough radium to
confirm its existence. Marie Curie then received a doctorate degree from the Sorbonne University,
making it the first awarded to a women in Europe. In 1903 Pierre and Marie Curie and Henri
Becquerel where jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their

The Is A Nuclear Waste Site
The ancient Greek culture and the Egyptians only survived for about two thousand years. The
United States has been a country for only about two hundred and thirty nine years. In ten thousand
years the United States may or may not be around. This is significant because a nuclear waste site
will be dangerous for a span of ten thousand years. The WIPP, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, is a
nuclear waste site that is the result of testing nuclear weapons from the United States government.
The United States citizens must be protected from the radioactive wastes being regulated by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission. (1)The primary goal of the WIPP is to create a sustainable marker
or message to warn the citizens of America, and to any future generations, about the harmful site.
The markers and messages must be able to last for ten thousand years so future humans will be
aware of the dangers the area contains. Due to the nuclear testing, the WIPP will mark the hazardous
nuclear waste that remains in New Mexico for a period of ten thousand years.
(2)The cultures have greatly changed over the last two thousand years. Languages, food, clothing,
religion, and other aspects of culture have been created, used, and disregarded. It is difficult to know
if the future generations will be able to comprehend our English language, that has been around for
thousands of years. Also a good amount of infrastructure has been damaged or completely renewed
over the years. For example, natural disasters

The Discovery Of Roentgen Rays And Radioactivity
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY Radiation has been an ever present ingredient in the evolution
of life on the Earth. It is not something new, invented by the ingenuity of man in the technological
age, it has always been there.
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF RADIATION THERAPY
THE DISCOVERY OF ROENTGEN RAYS AND RADIOACTIVITY
On Friday, November 8, 1895, while passing an electric current through a Hittorf–Crookes high–
vacuum tube, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen noticed a light coming from a workbench about a yard
away. He identified the shining object as a piece of paper painted with barium platinocyanide. He
realized that this light must be caused by a new kind of ray, which he called x– rays and which later
became known as roentgen rays. He continued investigation of these rays and found that when he
replaced the fluorescent screen with a photographic plate, he could obtain pictures. The most
dramatic was one showing the bones in his wife's Bertha Roentgen hand, which was taken on
December 22, 1895. X–ray image of Bertha Roentgen's Left Hand Wilhelm Roentgen (1845–1923)
On December 28, 1895, Roentgen delivered a written presentation of his discovery to the Physical –
Medical Society of Wurzburg. Within a few weeks, this Preliminary Communication entitled

The Discovery of Radioactivity and its Effects Essay
During the 1800's, the late 1800's, scientist discovered radioactivity. The study of radio activity
became a phenomenon amongst scientist during this time period. With the discovery of new
elements polonium and radium by Marie and Pierre Curie, the use of radioactivity to probe the
center of an atom, provided the instructions of a nuclear weapon that will kill innocent Japanese,
leaving there face disfigured, and permanently changed. The majority of people know of the effect
of radioactivity but not how it was discovered and its close relation to physics.
The discovery of radioactivity can also be referred to the dawn of the nuclear age. Many scientist,
were interested in satisfying their curiosity and began to explore nature and the ... Show more
Just like the other scientist before him, he performed experiments to satisfy his curiosity about
radioactivity. Rutherford first, bombarded gold foil in particles from a radioactive source.
Rutherford saw that some of the particles seeming through the gold foil. Rutherford concluded that
matter was made up of empty space, but there was also a small dense portion of matter that
deflected the particles. He defined this dense area as being a nucleus. Through this finding, we were
able to find discoveries that lead to the discovery of radioactivity. Some people argue that
radioactivity should not be used at all mainly because it harms people and fatal, while others say that
it should be used for weapons in a war. From the two atomic bombs dropped on Japan in 1945 the
effect of radioactivity waves are clear. The effects of radioactivity are not always through a nuclear
bomb. Radioactive waves are transmitted through the sun and cosmic radiation. This simply means
that people at higher elevations such as the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado mountains are more
expose to radioactive waves compared to people that live on or at sea level. Radioactive waves are
also transmitted through some fabricated technology, soil, and rocks. The majority of people pose
the question why do doctors or nurses where aprons when giving an x–ray. This is to protect them
from radioactive waves. Nurses give countless numbers of x–rays a day. While you

The Contamination Of The Marine Environment
Unless an accident or in case of nuclear war, man is relatively protected from direct radioactive
contamination, ie caused by breathing air contaminated by radioactive bodies. Actually, the current
main danger comes from the high degree of biological concentration of radioactive along the food
chain substances. Thus an indirect radioactive contamination that begins with the warehouse in soil
and water of radioactive pollutants from the atmosphere fallen occurs. In animals and plants that
draw their nourishment from the soil and water bodies such focus, transmitting them to their
predators dangerous proportions. In the marine environment it is clearly seen this phenomenon.
Algae often come to have a radioactivity specifies thousand times higher than the surrounding water,
and plankton concentration factor that can become of 5000. aquatic animals that feed on such
organisms can reach concentrations even more high. Radioactivity in plants focuses on the leaves
and stems more than seeds. It is a factor that hurts herbivores. In the final link in the food chain,
man, cross–contamination occurs via the digestive tract after taking contaminated food or food
plant. Milk, for example, is one of the main vehicles for cross–contamination in some countries.
This explains why the bones of children, which constitutes the main food milk containing
strontium–90 more than those of adults.
It has been estimated that the world population is exposed to natural radiation environment
comprised

Fukushima Accident: Article Analysis
The article I have chose to read and write about is, Impact of the Fukushima accident on marine life,
five years later. In the article it is stated that about five years ago the largest single release of
human–made radioactive discharge to the marine environment resulted from an accident at the
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan. The article states that approximately eighty
percent of the fallout happened over the Pacific ocean. The article then discusses how a new study
explores the environmental consequences in the marine environment of the accident. Lastly the
article outlines the status of the current research about the impact of the fallout on plant and animal
life and what remains to be done as the radioactivity continues to spread. The issue of the subject in
this article is how the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So therefore this can relate to fishing, and feeding situations. This issue lastly can relate to groups of
people such scientists and people in those affecting areas as well. The scientist assessed to this
human–made radioactive discharge, and I would say are responsible for the accident of it being
released into the Pacific ocean. This also relates to the people over in Japan and the surrounding
areas of which the radioactivity is going on at and I believe everyone should be doing their part to
get this situation taken cared of. This article does not discuss solutions to the problem. The article
does not discuss solutions to the problem because they stated that additional research and studying
need to be done for further investigation. I believe that their are more complications rather than
solutions for this issue. Why I believe this is because there is not further evidence or facts that have
been brought up in this article. The subject of this article concerns me personally because I soon
would like to become a marine biologist and I am very much interested in the ocean and all the
living organisms within this environment. The subject of this

Nuclear Energy As A Safe And Reliable Clean Energy...
When nuclear energy was first put into practice the public was fascinated by the new energy source
that emerged from the atom and its efficiency. However, public fascination has turned to fear due to
accidents at nuclear reactors and the dangers of radioactivity. While the dangers are apparent,
advancements in technology and safety mechanisms make nuclear energy a safe and reliable clean
energy alternative. In a time of growing environmental concerns of CO2 emissions and dependence
of fossil fuels society should not let its fears from the past limit its future in a safe and clean energy
alternative.
As technology advances society's need for energy grows exponentially. Nuclear energy can help
provide the energy that society desperately needs, but there is a lot of controversy around nuclear
power. Many people are afraid that potential risks that arise when there is a disaster and the long
term health effect of radiation. Others are concerned with the storage practices for radioactive
material. These concerns are always prevalent in nuclear discussions and an implicit bias and stigma
around nuclear energy especially in the United States. The public's fear can lead into decisions based
only on emotion when controversial decisions should be made with a clear and unbiased mind. It is
important that people understand and learn all of the pros and cons of nuclear energy and base their
opinions on facts rather than irrational fear. Nuclear energy is a complex energy source with

Maria Sklodowska Research Paper
Maria Sklodowska was born on November 7, 1867. She was born in Warsaw, Poland by her mother,
Bronsitwa, and father, Ladislas. She was the youngest child, and had three older sisters and one
brother. Ladislas was a math and physics teacher, which later inspired Marie's interest for the
sciences. Bronsitwa passed away of tuberculosis when Marie was just eleven years old. She also had
a sister, Bronya, who Marie worked to support since their mother had passed. Eventually, she
married Pierre Curie and had two daughters, Irene and Eve. Even though her family life was a
struggle, Marie still managed to become a legendary physicist later in life. Curie's father, Ladislas,
being a physics and mathematics educator was the spark which got her interested. From a young
age, Curie was an excellent student; always intrigued by her father's profession. Curie and her sister
always dreamed of education at an elite level. However, with financial lacking and no mother, Marie
and Bronya helped one another pay for a secondary education. Since neither could enlist in Warsaw,
Curie attended Sorbonne in Paris, France where she signed her name as "Marie" rather than Maria to
sound more French. At Sorbonne she earned a master's degree in physics and ... Show more content
In 1903, Curie was the first woman to ever win a Nobel Prize. Marie and Pierre won the Nobel Prize
in 1903 based on their groundbreaking discoveries in the field of physics. In 1911, Curie won yet
another Nobel Prize in chemistry for discovering elements polonium and radium. Not only did she
win two Nobel Prizes as a female physicist, but she was the first person overall to ever win two
prizes over all.. Additionally in 1903 the Curies were awarded the Davy Medal of Royal Society.
Also, in 1906, she was the first woman to become the Professor of General Physics in the Faculty of

Environmental Pollution: What Are The Problems With...
What are the problems with America currently today? One problem we have faced in America is
environmental pollutions. Environmental pollutions are the harmful filth in the air, we breathe
everyday. Perhaps we do not notice them as we breathe. Some filth is seen from a far distance.
Factory filth is the main pollution producer in the USA now.
One environmental pollution are caused by factories because the product they produce causes the
filth out of them. This could be the car production or agricultural production. America produces a lot
of cars for all the people to drive. More cars makes more carbon dioxide (filth) which causes deaths,
health problems and global warming. Perhaps we can switch to a different energy source to power
these vehicles.

Marie Curie Research Paper
Marie Curie Biography
On November 7, 1867, Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw, Poland during a time of confusion
and chaos in Europe. At the time, Warsaw was controlled by a czar, who wanted to eliminate all
Polish nationalism by keeping the people away from their cultural traditions. In response to this
hypocrisy, Polish rebels ignored their Russian leader and continued with their traditions, which, in
the long run, caused major chaos to take form in Poland. Maria's parents, who were professors that
feared matters would worsen, focused on educating their daughter in hopes of keeping her away
from the problems in Warsaw. Their teachings allowed Maria to comprehend the lessons at a much
quicker pace than most other children her age; therefore, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Her work ethic included late nights with her studies as well as providing help to her younger
siblings with their school work. The homework seemed effortless to her, even if challenged or when
trying times became a road block in the way of her success; however, some of life's challenges are
known to have affected even the talented. During a three year time period, Maria and her family had
lost her older sister and her mother to tuberculosis, which caused them to fall into a state of
depression. Maria suffered from fatigue, anxiety, and nervous twitches, all of which severely
impacted her academics. One day, however, her father decided to send her to her cousin's house in
hopes that she would relieve some stress and perhaps become herself again. Once there, Maria
began to open her eyes and realized that Warsaw's situation had worsened and her future was
unknown. After she returned from her cousin's house, she immediately wanted to go to college to
earn an advanced degree, especially since she came home to an unemployed father. However, the
problem Maria faced was that the University of Warsaw, the school that she had wanted to attend,
only accepted male students. She did not let that deter her. Maria and her sister attended the Floating
University, which was an illegal night school that met in various locations in order to avoid being
caught by the czar. While having attended the University, she gained more knowledge in the new
developments within the scientific

How To Write An Essay On Chernobyl
Many animals live in the exclusion zone. Most of the small animals are getting cataracts in the eyes
and the brain. The wolf's there are 7 time higher population in the world. The wolfs with so much
radiation are getting wilder and more harmful. The most popular animals there are brown bear, roe
deer, and wolves. The animals took over the town and 1,600 acres of grassland and forest. Now that
everything has settled for now the animals are reuniting with each other. The smaller animals of
Chernobyl have a lower population because of the Chernobyl disaster. In the winter the animals are
taking over the abandon buildings for shelter, but the most common animals in the building are barn
swallows. In the winter time, they have the advantage of crossing the river when it's all ice. Now the
animals have been taking over the Chernobyl
The food chain has changed since the disaster. The cheetahs are eating dead grass, mushrooms, and
bark of the dead trees. Animals that have been left behind like cows, horses, and pigs don't have any
food like corn and beans. There have been 48 animals researched in the Chernobyl area. Most of the
48 animals have now started finding out how hard it is to survive without food around Chernobyl
area. The mushrooms ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Over 30,000 animals were affected by the Chernobyl explosion. Wolfs that are eating the deer are
more radioactive because the deer have a lot of radioactivity in them. Lots of insects have been
affected by the disaster. Most of the animals that did get affected were mostly mammals. The
smaller the animals more radioactivity is in them. The barn swallows are deforming like smaller
brains, longer tails and there noticing mutations. The radioactivity will ruin the DNA of the animals.
The livestock animals are deforming and they can't have baby animals. The dead animals bodies are
harmful to touch and you can not eat them because they have so much radioactivity inside

Why Do Nuclear Power Plants Go Wrong
From an environmental standpoint nuclear power plants are extremely clean when it comes to
electrical power generation. However, there are a lot of ways where nuclear power plants can go
wrong. Improperly functioning a nuclear power plant can create problematic situations. Take the
Chernobyl disaster for instance, because of their poorly designed nuclear power plant it released
tons of radioactivity which scattered across the atmosphere. This resulted in everyone leaving the
city. Another recent incident was in Fukushima (Japan), a tsunami hit the nuclear power plants
which caused the tins to break and release radioactivity as well. Still to this day there is radioactive
dust scattered all over the ground. Moreover, mining and purifying uranium

Compare And Contrast Marie And Carrie Curie
Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through some material or through space.
Pierre and Marie Curie were partners that had both become interested in the discovery Henri
Becquerel made which was the discovery of radioactivity. Marie and Pierre Curie came up with the
term "radioactivity" to describe Becquerel's discovery. Marie and Pierre extracted uranium from ore
and compared the pure uranium to the extracted uranium ore samples. They found that the uranium
ore samples contained more radioactivity. Marie's research concluded that the two uranium ore
samples, pitchblende and chalcocite, were more radioactive than the pure uranium and so because of
the high radioactivity of both of the samples there had to be additional radioactive

The Father Of The Nuclear Age Essay
Nowadays, we all know that the development of education is very fast. It can be proved by so many
new things created by the combination of education, especially in science. Long time ago, in New
Zealand, there was a man called "The Father of The Nuclear Age" who became the main figure in
radioactivity and nuclear physics. His name is Ernest Rutherford. Born as the second son and the
fourth of twelve children in his family in New Zealand, on 30th August 1871, Ernest Rutherford
grew up by believing that education can be a tool to make a big change in the world. During his
studies, he got so many awards because of his efforts developing the modern education of physic
and chemistry. For instance, he got the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and a Baronetcy both in 1908 and
1931. He also did some experiments to developing the atom theory for several years. Finally, Ernest
Rutherford results from all of his experiment now used in the physic and chemistry education. In
addition, to regard him, his picture appeared in the $100 New Zealand Dollar. He is a very important
person behind the development of modern science and will be remembered for a long time because
of his effort to discovering the theory of radioactivity, found the segment direction from his
radioactivity experiment, and dissecting the atom.
Ernest Rutherford firstly developing the modern science by found the theory of radioactivity from
an experiment. Radioactivity is "the emission of energetic particles or waves from atoms"

The Effects Of Soil Radioactivity On The Levels Of The...
The concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are measured in the material collected from two
locations .The collected materials are analyzed using gamma ray spectrometry. The activity
concentration of the naturally occurring radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in building material it
varies from 12.6 to 121.4, 13.6 to 142 and 69.5 to 620.6 Bqkg_1, respectively. The radium
equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose and hazard index are also calculated.
Keywords Radionuclides, radiological hazard, building material radioactive 1. Introduction Natural
sources exists in several geological formations such as soils, rocks, sediments, vegetation, water and
air emit radiation. While 4% is of artificial origin (Chougan–kar et ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Currently, a world wide effort is underway to measure the activity concentrations in building
materials (Tufail et al., 1992 [3]. A range of radionalytical methods can be used for determination of
activity concentrations in naturally occurring materials. Gamma–ray spectrometers are widely used
for this purpose. These are typically based on either germanium semiconductor or Na I(Tl)
scintillator detectors. They are the preferred choice in cases where the photo–peaks of concern are
well separated (IAEA, 1992) [4]. Some radioactivity studies have been previously carried out in soil
and sediment samples in some parts of the world (Beaza et al., 1992 [5]; Kannan et al. [6], 2002;
Kirchner et al., 2002 [7]; Mehra et al., 2007 [8]; Noordin, 1999 [9]; Patra et al., 2006 [10];
Selvasekarapandian et al., 2000 [11]; Senthilkumar et al., 2010) [12]. The materials used in building
collected from soil, sand and byproduct of industry, which contain varying amounts of natural
radionuclides. The knowledge of the natural radioactivity level of building materials is important for
determination of population exposure to radiation, the affection of this exposure almost occur
indoors .radioactivity statistics is useful for understanding and monitoring the radiation hazard to
human. Building materials contribute to

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