A Science Fiction Movie On The Big Screen Essay

A Science Fiction Movie On The Big Screen Essay
When watching a science fiction movie on the big screen about the end of the world being brought
on to humanity via disease or virus, it is easy to take it lightly and brush it off as another Hollywood
concoction. There is some truth and seriousness attached to the fabricated plots that are served to us
though these movies. Recently there has been news of contagious breakouts such as Ebola and
Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) that affect the populations in hospitals and
particular locations of the world. There is an international concern in the Zika virus by the recent
outbreak at different countries. Regardless of their place of origin they travel quickly and respect no
boundaries or regions. These scenarios if not handled properly can quickly compromise the health of
the general population and result in the death of otherwise healthy individuals. A major problem we
are all facing is the misinformation and lack of education when pertaining to matters of newly
emerging viruses and diseases. People need to show more interest in being informed about newly
emerging viruses and diseases that can not only cause harm but death. In this paper, I plan to discuss
the complex issues involved in the emergence of the Zika virus and will aim to provide information
about how it is diagnosed and what the treatment options are for those exposed. My hope is that the
lessons learned from distinct countries who are currently experiencing the outbreak can provide
valuable
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Prvac59 Research Paper
A particular stain of the Zika Virus, PRVABC59, has recently become an epidemic in South America
and the Pacific¹, and in the last month has spread to Florida. PRVABC59 is a Flavivirus, ssRNA(+),
is spread by Aedes Aegypti and Aedes Albopictus mosquitoes and is capable of spreading from
mother to unborn child during pregnancy. Although the Zika virus normally doesn't cause severe
symptoms, further complications arise if a fetus is infected, as stated by the World Health
Organization "There is scientific consensus that Zika virus is a cause of microcephaly and Guillain–
Barré syndrome". Before more research can be done to develop a vaccine or treatment, a specific
primary antibody must be created as a tool for further research about the function of the ten proteins
in the Zika genome. This project worked on nine of these proteins in ten parts. Two structural
proteins, capsid and pre–membrane protein, and the seven non–structural proteins, with NS5 being
split into two pieces due to its size and toxicity. A previous method of protein production and
purification2 was followed to create these antibodies. This method of protein production and
purification should lead to a primary antibody specific to recombinant proteins of the PRVABC59
strain of Zika virus, which is a necessary tool for further research into the PRVABC59 strain. ...
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Plasmid map of pRSETB. Primers were designed to amplify via PCR to cDNA. The PCR product
was digested with XhoI and EcoRI enzymes and ligated into the pRSETB plasmid. The pRSETB
plasmid contains a T7 promoter region, is ampicillin resistant, inducible with Isopropyl β–D–1–
thiogalactopyranoside IPTG, a molecular mimic of a lactose metabolite that triggers transcription of
the lac operon, and has XhoI and EcoRI cut sites. The pRSETB plasmid is transformed into dH5α E.
coli and plated on carbenicillin plates. Colonies are selected and grown on a carbenicillin plate while
PCR is used to check that the plasmid that was up–taken was not

Zika Virus Research Paper
The Zika Virus (discovered in 1947), a mosquito–borne virus; is a newly emerging worldwide issue.
The virus derived from genus Flavivirus pathogen family, and its symptoms include fever, headache,
myalgia and rash (De M., et al., 2016). The Zika Virus is causing un–born fetus to be born with
microcephaly (a birth defect where a baby's head is smaller than expected when compared to babies
of the same sex and age), and Guillain–Barre syndrome (the body's immune system attacks part of
the peripheral nervous system) (England, 2016). In Brazil, there are approximately 1.5 million Zika
Virus cases, and according to the World Health Organization, it is predicted that by the end of 2016,
there will be 4 million (Solomon, Baylis, & Brown, 2016). The

How Did The Zika Virus Affect Brazil
The Zika Virus: impacts on Brazil February 1, 2016 the World Health announced a PHEIC (Public
Health Emergency of International Concern) that declared the Zika virus was a global health
emergency. Brazil being the most affected country in the world right now has cases where pregnant
women with the virus have given birth to children with smaller heads causing their brains to not
develop correctly.The Zika virus is a flavivirus (Karimi) that is related to the common dengue virus
and West Nile disease. A flavivirus is a group of RNA (a ribonucleic acid), that are mostly carried by
mosquitoes, flies, fleas, etc. The virus carried causes severe human diseases, that are most
commonly related to the Dengue and West Nile disease. The disease ... Show more content on
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The government approximates that at least 1.5 million Brazilians have been infected in the last few
months("Areas with Zika").The mortifying consequences of the Ebola disease is still fresh in the
public's minds, there is a lot of concern increasing around the world over the political, social, and
economic impact of Zika virus for now that is affecting Brazil. Amidst the country's hardest political
and economic challenges in years. As scientists learn more about Zika itself, it is not going to play
out for Latin America's largest economy. Public Health Officials have only a little amount of control
over the virus. It is a mild disease, about three quarters of those with the virus develop flu–like
symptoms, which last about one week, while the remainder can't be seen or felt(CBS). This means
that if the disease keeps spreading and adults keep getting sick, productivity will decrease hurting
Brazil's economy in the process. Not only is it hurting the economy but it's going to create problems
along the "social classes". Poverty is one of the major critical factors in determining where the virus
will hit the hardest and where it will not affect society as much. In Brazil, the events affecting
different communities that are both being confronted by Zika can vary overwhelmingly depending
on wealth. Poor communities are more likely to be impacted by the Zika virus (Combs).The real
actual danger comes when the efforts being made to avoid panic for the public stand in the way of
good public health policy. Providing infection screenings for free and travel bans can possibly create
a sense of security, a false one, leading people into perceiving that they're safe and to falsely make
them believe that they aren't at risk. This is thereby increasing the odds of infection. Simple steps
should be taken to advise the public, such as government

The Zika Virus (ZIKV)
The Zika virus was first discovered in 1947 in a rhesus monkey in a forest in Uganda. This virus
also known as ZIKV, is a type of Flavivirus, which is a form of a fast evolving RNA virus. From
there, Zika was then discovered all around the African continent in countries such as Nigeria (1971,
1975), Sierra Leone (1972), Gabon (1975), Uganda (1969, 1970), Senegal (1988–1991) and Côte
d'lvoire (1999). Additionally, Zika was also discovered in Asia as well. Cities like Pakistan,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Micronesia and Cambodia all were plagued with this disease (Freire,
Lamarino, Faye et al.). Over time, the virus Zika has indeed mutated so that it could infect more
hosts and cause deadlier symptoms and evolve into the virus that we know today. As Zika migrated
across the globe, its symptoms seemed to progress with its travel. As the virus traveled it mutated
and evolved to include a vast array of different symptoms and accelerated its ability to affect more
populations. In today's society, the symptoms of Zika are a lot more severe and more prevalent than
ever in the past. Scientists link this rise in severity and prevalence of symptoms to an increased
number of transmission routes and symptoms. Thirty years ago, we did not see the neurological
symptoms that we see today. Zika was thought of as just a mild ... Show more content on
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It was not considered to be a danger to humans. Then in April of 2007, an influx of Zika took place
in Micronesia, where about 50 people were diagnosed with the virus. This outbreak demonstrated
the potential Zika had as an emerging disease with rapidly evolving symptoms and modes of
transmission. Because of this, mosquitos were associated as vectors for the disease to carry it across
not only continents but around the globe as well. Over time, it spread from countries in Africa and
Asia to South America and then the United

The Link Between Zika And Climate Change
The Link Between Zika and Climate Change In 2015 researchers made a discovery that the same
mosquitoes that spread many diseases including the Zika virus were living all in Washington, D.C.
Before this, researchers and scientists believed that these mosquitoes could not survive north of
South Carolina. Even though the D.C. population of Aedis aegypti mosquitoes is most likely not
carrying the Zika virus, this discovery was a shock to scientists. As this virus spreads, scientists will
keep studying how the environment and climate changes the way these diseases are spread. Before
2015 the Zika virus had only appeared in outbreaks around Africa and the Pacific Islands. However,
after the first cases in Brazil it has spread quickly through the

Zhikv Case Studies
1. What is the purpose of the study and what questions were asked?
Zika virus epidemic in the Americas is linked to increased prevalence in microcephaly in infants
infected with the Zika virus (ZIKV) in utero. The purpose of the study was to develop a vaccine to
for women of childbearing age and their sexual partners to prevent infection and Viremia due to
ZIKV. The authors created a DNA vaccine that can produce pre–membrane and envelope proteins
that offer immune protection in mice and primates. This study showed that DNA vaccine is an
effective way to protect against ZIKV.
2. How did the study address these questions?
The authors created a gene–based vaccine since DNA vaccines have several advantages: the ability
to quickly test several

Zika Research Paper
The morning after Christine Grounds gave birth to her son, Nicholas, she awoke to find a
neurologist examining her baby. "Did you know he has microcephaly?" she remembered the doctor
asking matter–of–factly. Confused, she replied, "What is microcephaly?" The purpose of this paper
is to discuss the Zika virus; how Zika is diagnose and treated; typical symptoms; and how to prevent
the virus.
What is the Zika virus? How is it diagnose? According to the World Health Organization, (WHO),
Zika is a virus caused by a mosquito–borne flavivirus and was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in
monkeys by a network that monitored yellow fever. It was later identified in humans in 1952 in
Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. A diagnosis of Zika is ... Show more content on
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There are many ways to prevent Zika, such as wearing long sleeve shirts and long pants and treating
your clothing and gear with permethrin or buy pre–treat items. Use Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)–registered insect repellents with one of the following active ingredients: DEET,
picaridin, IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus or para–menthane–diol, or 2–undecanone. Always follow
the product label instructions. Do not use insect repellents on babies younger than two months old
and do not use products containing oil of lemon eucalyptus or para–mentane–diol on children
younger than three years old. When at home stay in places with air conditioning and window and
door screens to keep mosquitoes outside. Take steps to control mosquitoes inside and outside your
home and use mosquito netting to cover carriers, strollers, and cribs for babies younger than two
months old. You should sleep under a mosquito net if air conditioning or screened rooms are not
available or if sleeping outdoors. To prevent sexual transmission of Zika use condoms or abstain
sex. Pregnant women should abstain for having sex for six months if their partner has traveled to a
region where a Zika outbreak exists because the virus transmits in semen. Having unprotected sex
with someone who has been exposed with the Zika Virus while pregnant can cause birth defects of
the brain called microcephaly. Microcephaly stunts a baby's head growth, causing devastating,
sometimes

Rotavirus Disease Essay
Spread of rotavirus infection can be controlled on farms by isolating the affected foals, strict
hygiene and disinfecting stalls and equipment.
Treatment
To control dehydration and electrolyte loss isotonic fluids @ 60 to 80 ml/kg body weight should be
administered, according to the hydration status. Paste of astringent bismuth sub salicylate @ 20
mg/Kg body weight, orally for 3 to 4 times in a day should be given. Administration of activated
charcoal @ 0.25 to 0.5 g/kg body weight once daily helps in binding toxins and firming the feces.
Exogenus lactase @ 120U/kg body weight twice a day should be given. Foals showing colic should
be administred flunixin meglumin @ 0.25mg/kg body weight. Oral administration of antaacid
omeparazole @ 2–4 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The major clinical signs observed over the course of disease included recumbency 100%,
hyperesthesia 81%, loss of tail and anal sphincter tone 57%, fever 52%, and ataxia and paresis of the
hindquarters 52% of cases. Mean survival time after the onset of clinical signs was 4.47 days (range,
1 to 7 days). Supportive treatment given had no effect on survival time and did not correlate with the
detection of Negri bodies at necropsy. Other diseases which present clinical symptoms similar to
rabies are tetanus, equine herpesvirus, botulism, lead poisoning, moldy corn poisoning, protozoal
myelitis, and trauma to the brain or spinal cord. Post–mortem diagnosis can be made by submitting
the intact head refrigerated by wet ice but not frozen to diagnostic laboratory. Diagnosis is
performed using the fluorescent antibody (FA) test to stain sections of the brain for the presence of
rabies virus. A positive test means treatment should be started for anyone who has come in contact
with the rabid animal. There is no treatment of the rabies virus. Immediate cleansing of the wound
area may prevent infection. Post–vaccination of the animal may not be useful as the horse may die
before immunity has time to develop. If a horse has been previously immunized, an immediate
booster should be given. Strict quarantine and observation for six months are mandatory in all cases.
If clinical symptoms develop, the horse should be

David Thao-Travel Medicine Assignment
Phar 6724 – 2018 David Thao–Travel Medicine Assignment Assume that you will be traveling to
one of the countries listed below for an extended rural farm stay (>4 weeks) during the Spring of
2016. You will be traveling with your significant other and two children (ages 4 and 12). The
purpose of this assignment is to familiarize the student with travel vaccination requirements and
malaria prophylaxis. This assignment does not have to be written in the form of a narrative. To
successfully complete this assignment, you should do the following: 1) List the recommended
vaccines suggested by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention for adult travelers to the above
area(s). The CDC Web site is located at www.cdc.gov. Do not include routine vaccines
recommended for adults residing in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of this information may be found on the CDC web page in fact sheets. You may also wish to
consult a general medical microbiology textbook or medical review. ● Hepatitis A: Infected liver
cells and cause inflammation. Signs and symptoms of Hepatitis A include tiredness, blackening of
urine, itching, abrupt nausea and vomiting, fever, joint pain, and decrease appetite. ● Hepatitis B:
Instigated by Hepatitis B virus and a chronic disease with duration lengthier than 6 months.
Frequently lead to liver failure. Symptoms naturally appear 1–4 months after infection and young
children may not display obvious symptoms. Symptoms comprise of dark urine, decrease hunger,
nausea and vomiting, and yellowing of the skin or eyes. ● Typhoid: Instigated by Salmonella
paratyphi and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. Salmonella paratyphi have a lesser number of
severe symptoms. Typhoid fever is common and ranges around 103 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit. A
patient will experience exhaustion and weakness, headaches and loss of

Infectious Disease: Malaria Essay
Section 1
Malaria
General Information
Malaria is a common infectious disease found mainly in the tropics but in rare circumstances can be
found in temperate areas. Depending on the circumstances malaria can be either life threatening
cause serious illness.
It is caused by parasites of the Plasmodium species(in text reference). These parasites are carried by
mosquitoes which become infected after biting someone who has malaria. Malaria is then passed on
to others when the infected mosquito bites another person. In rare cases malaria can be passed to
another person through blood transfusions, organ donations or shared needles.
On average there are around 300–500 million people who become infected with malaria every year,
with most of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Signs and Symptoms
Symptoms that are usually associated with yellow fever include fever, poor appetite, nausea, chills,
muscle pains in the back and headaches abdominal back pain. These symptoms usually subside after
five days. These symptoms sometimes reoccur. Abdominal pain and liver damage starts causing
yellow skin. There also is a higher chance of kidney problems. About 15–15% then proceed to the
'toxic' stage of which around 50% then die around 14 days after catching yellow fever.
Dengue Fever
General Information
Dengue fever is a mosquito–transmitted virus, it is a Flavivirus which is the same genus as yellow
fever. There are five different varieties of the virus and being infected usually gives lifelong
immunity to that particular variety and short–term immunity to the other varieties. However this
also increases the risk of having a severe reaction to the other types, this risk rises with exposure to
another type and so on.
Symptoms and Treatment
Symptoms from the virus include headaches, back pain, joint pains, fever and a skin rash, which is
similar in appearance to measles. A small percentage of infections the disease develops into a life
threatening dengue haemorrhagic fever, which results in bleeding, low levels of blood platelets and
blood plasma leakage. The other life threatening possibility is dengue shock syndrome; this

West Nile Virus Research Paper
ABOUT THE PATHOGEN
The pathogen – West Nile virus belongs to the family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus and is part of an
antigenic complex of Japanese encephalitis viruses. According to the classification of human–
pathogenic microorganisms WNV belongs to II group of pathogenicity. Pathogen – flavivirus has an
icosahedral shape, the approximate size is 40–50nm. Flavivirus has a single–stranded RNA, has a
protein coat an enveloped capsid. Based on the differences of the nucleotide and amino acid
sequences currently distinguish at least five genotypes WNV. Well–preserved frozen and dried state.
Die at a temperature above 56 C after 30 min.
VIRULENCE FACTORS
Journal of Virology states that West Nile Virus has numerous different proteins on the surface of the
envelope. Thanks to these proteins virus can penetrate into host cells without being detected by
immune system. (N–linked glycosylation of the E proteins). WNV also equipped with envelope E
glycoprotein (major structural protein) on the viron which is also the antigen that elicits neutralizing
antibodies. Normally Interferon prohibits infections. Once infection is present WNV is resistant to
the effects of antiviral interferon. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reservoir of the virus are birds of water and near–water systems, which explains the wide spread
of the virus in nature. Seldom West Nile virus has a distinct seasons – late summer and fall. WNV
also could be transmitted through blood transfusion, breast milk and

Philippines : The Country 's Overview
The Country's Overview Philippines is an archipelago located in Southeast Asia near the equator.
The Philippine archipelago consists of 7,107 islands divided into three major groups of islands
which is Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. As of 2016 the Philippine population is estimated to about
102,624,209 (World Fact Book). The Philippine nationality is termed Filipino and its population is
made up of various ethnic groups. The national language is called Tagalog, it also the name of the
major ethnic group of the country. According to Philippine Statistic Authority the population of
urban area accounts for 45.3% of the country's total population (Urban–Rural Classification). In
contrast, the population in rural area is comprised of 54.7% and considered to be the majority
population of the entire country. The Philippine climate is predominantly tropical marine where wet
season occurs from November to April and is caused by the northeast monsoon. Similarly, the
second set of rainy season, is caused by the southwest monsoon during May to October (World Fact
Book). Additionally, the Philippine economy has been relatively resilient to global economic
struggles because the country is less exposed to troubled international securities. The lower
dependence on exports is what makes the country relatively resilient, relying only domestic
products, as well as large remittances from millions of migrant and overseas Filipino workers
(World Fact Book). The existing account balance has

Zika Virus. Tremetra Whiteside . Brown Mackie College .
Zika Virus
Tremetra Whiteside
Brown Mackie College
SCI1850 Environmental Science
Dr. Samuel
April 22, 2017
Table of Contents
Zika Virus 4
History and Background 4
Environmental Health and Effects 4
Treatments 4
Prevention 5
Conclusion 6
Figures 7 Abstract
Zika virus was discovered by scientists in the Zika rainforest in a remote part of Uganda in 1947, in
the serum of an infected rheseus monkey. With five thousand two hundred thirty– four known cases
of the infectious virus documented in the United States. There is currently no vaccination for the flu
like virus. The chief concern of the healthcare administration is to continue to take preventive
measures to prevent contracting the virus. Within the same flavivirus family ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
In 2014, two Polynesian mothers and babies were infected. In 2015, from February through April,
seven thousand cases in northern eastern states as well as Brazil and Colombia were reported. In
2016, Zika Strategic Response, is a plan aimed to helping affected countries focusing on managing
and preventing the spread of the virus, received donations from thirteen donors in the amount of
$23.9 million dollars. In 2017, candidates are being evaluated during trials of a possible vaccination.
Environmental Health and Effects
Consequently, the spread of the Zika virus from its originating countries of Africa and Asia, to
American countries has linked the virus as an ongoing epidemic. Due to climate changes, warmer
winter temperatures, there is an increase of egg survival (Ali, 2017). Warmer spring, summer, and
fall temperatures may also lengthen the season transmission of the virus in temperate regions as
well. In addition, the spread of the flu– like virus in humans is is also due to natural disasters, such
as, earthquakes and hurricanes destroying homes forcing residents to sleep outside exposing
themselves to infected mosquitoes. International travelers are also at potential risk of contracting the

virus, especially in industrialized countries. Furthermore, pregnant women or women of child
bearing age should refrain from traveling to countries that are known for the Zika mosquito
infestation.

A Report On Aedes Albopictus
3. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT
Aedes albopictus is considered to be the most invasive mosquito species in the world (1, 2) and
there is an increased potential for its introduction into mainland Australia given the established
populations discovered, since 2005, in the Torres Strait, the region that sandwiches between Papua
New Guinea (PNG) and northern Australia (3). The aedine mosquito species have been culpably
involved in the transmission cycles of pathogens of public health importance (1). Aedes albopictus
is known to have both field and laboratory proven vector competence for a number of emerging and
re–emerging viruses including chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and dengue virus (DENV). CHIKV and
DENV are arthropod–borne (arboviruses) viruses transmitted by the Aedes genus (4). Dengue is
considered the most important arboviral disease in the world affecting 390 million people every year
(5, 6), and CHIKV has continued to conquer new territories; charting an unprecedented worldwide
expansion (7–11). In Australia, dengue outbreaks occur regularly in northern Queensland where
there is Aedes aegypti (12–14). Between November 2008 and May 2009, more than one thousand
confirmed autochthonous cases of dengue were recorded in Cairns, north Queensland, and Aedes
aegypti, the only competent dengue vector, at the time, was implicated. There is increasing global
concern about recent outbreaks of pathogenic arboviruses from diverse viral families including

Yellow Fever Research Papers
Most people don't know that 10% of people that get Yellow Fever die from it. However some
viruses are more harmful than others which may scare some people. The many symptoms of Yellow
Fever may make this viral infection seem frightening even though there is a treatment available, the
history is quite unique, but how it is spread may surprise people. There are two different conditions
of Yellow Fever, mild and severe. Mild cases' symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, back pain,
body aches, vomiting, and weakness in the arms, legs, and muscles. More severe cases' symptoms
consist of vomiting blood, bleeding from nose, mouth, and ears, slow heart rate, liver failure, kidney
failure, seizures, and comas. A person with Yellow Fever can easily be diagnosed by doctors by the
color of their skin. A person with Yellow Fever shows skin that is starting to turn yellow from ...
Patients with mild symptoms should rest, drink fluids, take pain relievers, and stay inside away from
mosquitoes. If infected staying inside prevents other mosquitoes from getting the virus. However
patient with severe symptoms may need oxygen administration, medicines to increase blood
pressure, transfusion of blood, dialysis, or a breathing tube. All patients should stay away from
Aspirin, Ibuprofen, and Naproxen because these may cause bleeding. Treatment would not have
been available if not for the scientist who did studies and came up with vaccines. In 1900 Dr. Carlos
Finlay did a study that proved that Yellow Fever is spread by mosquitoes. Later in 1930, Max
Theiler created a vaccine that controlled the virus. Yellow fever was brought to the Americas on
ships due to the slave trade. The first case recorded was located on the Yucatan Peninsula in the 17th
century. During the 18th century Yellow Fever was spread to North

Yellow Fever Research Paper
The Flying Fever: Yellow Fever A scientist is studying the social skills of spider in the Amazon
jungle. Suddenly, the scientist is bit by a mosquito. The scientist slaps the mosquito away and carries
on with his studies. After three days, the scientist experiences a fever, muscle aches, nausea, and is
very dizzy. The scientist was bit by a Yellow fever carrying mosquito. He is in the third day of
contraction. The scientist decides he must find a way out of the jungle. If the scientist does not get
help soon he could go into the toxic phase of Yellow fever. The life–threatening stage of Yellow
fever includes yellowing of skin and eyes (jaundice), decreased urination, bleeding of nose, eyes,
and mouth, slow heart rate (bradycardia) liver and kidney failure, and brain dysfunction (Jameson,
2017). Yellow fever was the cause of 5,100 deaths in 2015. Almost half of all people that contract
the Yellow fever virus die. Yellow fever is a vector–borne illness. It is transferred from the salivary
gland of the female mosquito that feed off of monkeys and then to humans through biting. It is
estimated that there are around 200,000 cases of yellow fever that occurs annually. It is ... Show
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The most effective way is vaccination. Vaccination can protect a person for 10 years. Vaccination
has been seen to cause side effects. Such as mild headaches, fatigue, and soreness around the
injection site. The best ages vaccination is people aging from 9 months to 60 years old. Another
method of yellow fever prevention is mosquito protection. One way to prevent mosquitos is to avoid
nonessential outside activities during the most active mosquito months. Another way is to wear
clothes that cover all of your skin when going outside. If you are in a house that does not have good
screens then bed nets should be used to keep out mosquitos while you sleep. Finally, always use
mosquito repellent when going outdoors (CDC,

Encephalitis: A Disease That Affects The Brain
Introduction: Encephalitis is a disease that effects the brain. Encephalitis is the inflammation of the
brain which can be caused by any one of a number of viruses. Arboviruses, viruses transmitted
through insect bites, are one of the most common causes of viral encephalitis, which also includes
Japanese encephalitis and tick–borne encephalitis viruses (World Health Organization [WHO],
2014).
Symptoms:
Symptoms of encephalitis includes high fever, headache, sensitivity to light, stiff neck and back,
vomiting, and, confusion. In severe cases, seizures, paralysis and coma are present. Mostly infants
and elderly people are at risk of severe illness (WHO, 2014). Encephalitis is a infection of the
central nervous system (CNS). It also has a fatal outcome or severe permanent damage including
cognitive impairment and epileptic seizures. It is often acute, although symptoms may progress
rapidly, causing severe debilitation to patients, including healthy children. Lewis and Glaser define
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An example of a types of encephalitis is Rasmussen's encephalitis. Neurosurgeon Theodore
Rasmussen and his colleague found Rasmussen's encephalitis in the 1950's. Rasmussen's
encephalitis is a rare neurological disorder. It is characterized by unilateral inflammation of the
cerebral cortex, drug–resistant epilepsy, and progressive neurological and cognitive deterioration.
Studies support the idea that Rasmussen's encephalitis is probably driven by a T–cell response to
one or more antigenic epitopes (Varadkar, Bien, Jensen, Bauer, Pardo, Vincent, Mathern, & Cross,
2014). Another type of encephalitis is Japanese encephalitis. Japanese encephalitis is a disease of the
central nervous system caused by zoonotic mosquito–borne flavivirus. Japanese encephalitis is an
arbovirus that is transmitted by mosquitos and vertebrate hosts, particularly pigs and birds. Humans
become infected when bitten by an infected mosquito ( Yun, & Lee,

Essay about Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism – Viral Hemorrhagic Fever
Abstract
Viral hemorrhagic fever is one of the most feared diseases of today's time. Although most people
have heard of anthrax, smallpox and the plague, viral hemorrhagic fever has become a potent
weapon used for bioterrorism, silently killing its victims and instilling fear in the rest of the
population. Viral hemorrhagic fever can be divided into 4 families. Although each family of viral
hemorrhagic fever may have some of its own unique characteristics, the four families are generally
fairly similar regarding the high fevers and hemorrhages they cause. Because of past outbreaks of
viral hemorrhagic fever, scientists have reason to believe that terrorists have easier access to the
deadly viruses ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reason why the Ebola and Marburg viruses are grouped together is because they have similar
symptoms. The incubation period is about 1 week, which means it takes about 1 2 week for
symptoms to occur (Wener n.p.). The symptoms can range from something as mild as headaches and
sore throats to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), which means clotting of the blood.
Other symptoms include fevers, arthritis, prostration, bleeding diathesis, thrombocytopenia and
platelet dysfunction. Some nonspecific clinical effects include nausea, pain in the stomach, diarrhea,
encephalitis and rashes (Schlossberg 53). Furthermore, viral hemorrhagic fever can potentially lead
to neurologic, hepatic, pulmonary, and renal disorders (Wener n.p.).
What makes Ebola such a serious disease is that fact that 90% of the people who are diagnosed with
this disease die, and the few surviving patients suffer from hair loss and sensory problems (Wener
n.p.). On the other hand, Marburg hemorrhagic fever has a 23–70% mortality rate. The history
behind the Marburg hemorrhagic fever helps explain why VHF is so dangerous to the public and can
easily be spread all across the globe. Marburg hemorrhagic fever was first discovered in 1967 in
Marburg, Germany when lab workers were contracted with the disease after handling imported
monkeys from Africa (Center for Disease Control n.p.). Because Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic
fever are both zoonotic, they can be transmitted from

Essay On Hepatitis C
ABSTRACT
Hepatitis C virus remains one of the largest health care burdens to the world. It is one of the most
common communicable diseases in Australia.
Ledipasvir, Sofosuvbir, and their combination (trade name – Harvoni) are Theapuetic Goods Acts)
approved drugs for the treatment of CHC infection. Ribavirin is another drug used for treatment of
CHC, and is employed in combination therapy.
This paper provides an overview on Hepatitis C: its epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis,
treatment and prognosis. The literature review of the specific drug treatments
(Ledipasvir/Sofosbuvir and Ribavirin) including the mechanism of action, safety, efficacy and place
in current practice of the drugs is discussed. The efficacy and safety of Harvoni was evaluated in ...
BACKGROUND
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major issue in today's society. This flavivirus infection was discovered
in 1989, before which it was called a non–A, non–B hepatitis. The world health organization
(WHO) estimates that 3% of the world's population has already been infected with HCV and there
are almost 170 million carriers who are at risk of developing HCV.
This disease can either be acute or chronic and the patient may remain asymptomatic, thus
remaining undiagnosed. However, chronic infection can cause liver failure or cancer of the liver
which could be fatal.1
The Chronic hepatitis C is a treatable infection and the complications associated with liver
functioning can be successfully treated by viral eradication. The aim of this review is to study the
epidemiological trends in the incidence of HCV infection in Australia and also the safety and
effectiveness of Ledipasvir and Sofosuvbir, Ribavirin and Interferons in the treatment of HCV

ZIKV Response Paper
Great concerns have been made by the public on the outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV), a mosquito–
borne flavivirus, on the influences it may bring to human fetal. Numerous research have been made
analysing the impact on human fetal if their mothers are being infected by ZIKA virus during
pregnancy and there are still more to be revealed. Freitas et al. (2016) reports the ocular findings in
infant with microcephaly (birth defect with abnormal smallness of head) while Mlakar et al. (2016)
reveals the consequences of ZIKA with microcephaly.
Driggers et al. (2016)
Calvet et al.(2016)
This annotated bibliography will discuss how the Zika virus contributes to the increased risk of
congenital microcephaly.
This article examines the ocular abnormalities of infants in connection with microcephaly, that may
be caused by speculated inborn ZIKA virus infections. The research was done by involving twenty–
nine infants that suffered from microcephaly, suspected to be due to inborn ZIKA infections.
Together with their mothers, they underwent ophthalmologic evaluations using a wide–field digital
imaging system. ZIKA infection symptoms were presented during pregnancy of 23 out of 29
mothers. Furthermore, 17 eyes of 10 children, out of 29 infants (58 ... Show more content on
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The research aimed at detecting and sequencing ZIKA virus from amniotic fluid of fetuses with
microcephaly in Brazil. It is done by involving two pregnant women whose fetuses were detected
with microcephaly. Serum, urine, and amniotic fluid samples of the two women were collected for
series of examinations and tests. Zika symptoms including fever and rash were observed from the
two women at 18 week and 10 week of pregnancy. Zika virus genome has been detected in both
women's amniotic fluid but not in any of their urine or serum. ZIKA virus is shown to be able to
cross the placental barrier and cause impacts on human

Zika Virus Analysis
Zika Virus swept the media in 2016. It reminded everyone of the 1999 West Nile virus because of
the similarities amongst the symptoms of the two viruses. Contrastingly, Zika Virus has a slightly
different mode of transmission. The virus is a member of the flaviviridae family and flavivirus
genus and is a positive, single stranded, RNA virus (Kuno, 1). Zika Virus has been known to
severely affect pregnant women. In pregnant women, Zika Virus causes a birth defect resulting in
abnormally small brain sizes in babies called microcephaly. Mosquito born Zika Virus transmission
has been reported in 68 countries and 14 of those countries have reported microcephaly associated
with Zika Virus (Kelley,1). A mosquito infected with Zika Virus that bites ... Show more content on
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In this study, they are targeting two functions for NS1A, the version of the NS1 protein associated
with influenza A virus. The two functions being studied are involved in viral replication, which are a
double– stranded RNA– binding and binding to an effector domain. The binding properties of
NS1B, the version of NS1 protein that is associated with influenza B virus, are also under study.
Because of these functions, the binding sites of both, NS1A and NS1B will be targeted for new drug
development; ultimately, to create a more effective antiviral to treat the influenza virus. Along with
Dr. Krug's study, other researchers are also studying the connection of NS1 and Influenza A

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Dengue Fever
Dengue Fever is a well–known arbovirus infection persistently affecting the tropical and subtropical
areas sharing similar characteristics of overcrowding, clammy warm climate, poor economic and
moving toward industrialization. (1) The incidence of dengue fever is escalating each year mostly in
Southeast Asia, America and the Pacific's adding to the world's burden of the disease (1,2) Dengue
virus is a member of flavivirus genus family that includes also West Nile virus, yellow fever, zika
and Japanese encephalitis virus (1). Four serotypes of dengue virus identified DENV 1–4
transmitted by the Aedes aegypti and Ades albopictus mosquitoes (3) Clinical diagnosis of dengue
fever remains a challenge and requires high index of suspicion. This could be attributed to the non–
specific signs and symptoms in acute phase which mimic many other febrile illnesses (1). It has a
spectrum of symptoms ranging from mild self–limiting symptoms (fever, headache, retro–orbital
pain, weakness, myalgia, arthralgia, nausea, vomiting, rash and sore throat) to severe life
threatening; dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSH) (3,4). The disease
has an incubation period of 2–7 days and has been classified into primary and secondary infection,
depending on whether there is no previous exposure to dengue virus or flavivirus related vaccine
(primary) or there is past exposure (secondary) (1,4).
While no definitive treatment for dengue fever and no vaccine available, early detection

ZIKV Research
Zika virus ZIKV is a flavivirus that has several modes of transmission across humans. Classically,
the mosquito is the vector of transmission and yet, more recent literature shows that the outbreak of
ZIKV viruses were sexually transmitted from infected individuals to uninfected individuals.
Concerned for the general health of the population, Lim et. all attempt to understand the overall
enhancement of ZIKV infection by preexisting antibodies against other flaviviruses, more
specifically, against dengue (DENV) and West Nile virus (WNV). The importance of this research
allows the scientific community to ensure that vaccines created against a specific virus will not
cause more harm when infected by another flavivirus, considering the ... Show more content on
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This portion lacked in results which did not further explore the reasoning why only DENV caused
neutralizing effects. To confirm that FcyR receptors bind through their main ligand, IgG antibodies,
Lin et. all compared the ADE of the DENV and WNV using three various approaches to confirm
interaction. First, the researchers introduced an environment where only IgG can be involved in the
binding to FcyR receptors. The IgG portion was not clear as to what the cells could check whether
the receptors on cell completely bound to IgG. It follows that IgG depleted plasma did not enhance
infection, and confirmed that IgG is the principle reason for ADE in these immunized plasma. This
portion was further explored due to uncertain IgG FcyR binding and an inhibitor is needed to bind to
the FcyR receptor. The results showed that IgG + FcyR inhibitor against DENV and WNV plasma
had no fold enhancement of viremia, which supports that IgG needs to bind to FcyR to activate the
ADE of a secondary infection. The antibodies could be used to block binding to different types of
the FcyR receptors. It was confirmed that FcyRIII is not expressed on the K562 cells but FcyRIIA
can bind to IgG to induce the ADE in the K562 cells that used in the experiment. Another plasma
dilution was used to cross the two antibodies that could block FcyR receptors: CD32 antibody
blocks IgG binding to FcyRIIA and CD16 blocks IgG binding to FcyRIII. Only IgG+ anti–CD32
antibody

West Nile Virus Essay
By learning about different viruses in class, it sparked my interest in further researching a common
virus known to the word called West Nile virus. Affiliated with the genus Flavivirus, this virus can
be transported globally due to being classified as a mosquito–borne arbovirus1. Mosquitoes,
belonging to the genus Culex, can facilitate the transportation of this pathogen by consuming the
blood of an infected bird, being the main reservoir, and then passing it on to another animal or
human1–3. Mosquito activity is at its peak during the months of summer and autumn, therefore
these months depict the most cases of West Nile virus4. Humans play no role in the transportation as
they are coined dead end hosts due to not being able to produce enough ... Show more content on
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Majority of the infections, around 80%, can be categorized as asymptomatic but this is not the case
for all5. West Nile fever, indicated by fever, headache, nausea etc, can develop in approximately
20% of the infected people5. In rare cases, less than 1% of disease ridden individuals can actually
develop more serious conditions like meningitis, encephalitis, and acute flaccid paralysis5.
Classified as neuroinvasive diseases, these clinical conditions are more prone to occur in older
individuals exceeding the age of 605. This doesn't exclude the population ranging from newborns to
middle aged as it hasn't been proclaimed that they are immune to developing some of these
disorders6. Overall, people infected with this virus will either experience mild symptoms or might
have to deal with more serious problems.
Surviving the neuroinvasive diseases does not mean that the battle is to be presumed over. Through
many reports, it has been stated that people still experienced symptoms of the West Nile virus even a
year after the diagnosis was made3. Long term consequences of the disease can be mental health
problems such as depression, tremors, headaches, muscle and motor weakness and etc3. But
researches have yet to come to a conclusion whether these consequences are due to the damage done
by the virus or the body's own immune

Case Study At The Hospital For Tropical Diseases, Thailand
Study design and population This prospective study was conducted at the Hospital for Tropical
Diseases, Thailand. Patients admitted to the hospital between May 2013 and July 2015 who met the
study criteria were approached for participation. The study's inclusion criteria were: (1) patients at
least 15 years old; (2) presenting with clinical criteria for dengue defined as acute fever with at least
two of the following symptoms: headache, retro–orbital or ocular pain, myalgia, arthralgia, rash, a
positive tourniquet test (defined as the presence of ≥20 petechiae per 1 square inch), or leukopenia
(defined as a white blood cell count [WBC] <5.0 × 103 cells/μl); and (3) having a confirmed dengue
viral infection. Patients with a history of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All dengue patients in this study received standard care according to the WHO treatment guidelines
for dengue by treating physicians [1, 3]. Type and amount of fluid intake and urine output were also
recorded daily during hospitalization. Patient data including baseline characteristics, clinical
parameters, laboratory findings, hemodynamic parameters, IVCd, IVCc, cardiac biomarkers, ECG,
chest X–ray, type of fluid, daily fluid intake and urine output per day were recorded in a pre–defined
case–report form. Severity of dengue was summarized on the date of discharge according to the
WHO's 2009 definition [3].
Case definition of dengue According to the WHO's 2009 definition for dengue [3], dengue patients
were classified into non–severe dengue and severe dengue based on clinical and laboratory criteria.
Patients with non–severe dengue were sub–categorized into three groups depending on the presence
or absence of warning signs. Non–severe dengue without warning signs was defined as having acute
fever with at least two of the following criteria: nausea, vomiting, rash, myalgia, arthralgia, a
positive tourniquet test, or leukopenia. Warning signs included: (1) abdominal pain, (2) persistent
vomiting (vomiting with signs of dehydration), (3) clinical fluid accumulation (pleural effusion,
ascites, or serum albumin of (–– removed HTML ––) 15 cm, (6) bleeding from mucosal areas
including nose, gums, gastrointestinal tract or vagina, or (7) an elevated

Annotated Bibliography on Mosquite-Borne Diseases
Annotated Bibliography
Hunter, A., Denman–Vitale, S., Garzon, L., Allen, P. J., & Schumann, L. (2007). Global infections:
recognition, management, and prevention. The Nurse Practitioner, 32 (2), 34–41. The authors
discuss many known infections from all over the world including Malaria and West Nile. They
mentioned the differences between these mosquito–borne diseases such as who the primary victims
that it affect, which time of day these mosquitoes come out to attack, which season it will most
likely occur and many more. Also, the ways in which these diseases can be managed and prevented
is present in the reading. This article provides phenomenal information and evidence that really
contrast the two deadly diseases carried by mosquitoes.
Iwamoto, M., Jernigan, D. B., Guasch, A., Trepka, M. J., Blackmore, C. G., Hellinger, W. C., . . .
Petersen, L. R. (2003). Transmission of west nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant
recipients. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348 (22), 2196–2203. Medical professionals
conducted an investigation to prove that four recipients obtained the West Nile virus through organ
transplants from the same donor who also received various blood donations from donors with
viremia. The donor`s organs was diligently examined and no visible problems were found until the
recipients developed flu–like symptoms in which was

The Destruction of Yellow Fever
A disease that has yet to be conquered" (Barrett & Higgs, 2007). Such a quaint, simplistic phrase
that yet effectively describes the disease commonly known today as yellow fever. Over the course of
history, the yellow fever virus (YFV) has decimated populations in various regions all across the
globe. While the overall gross impact of yellow fever has declined over the years, the virus still
poses a significant threat present day, especially to those in the developing world. The World Health
Organization currently estimates that approximately 200,000 cases of yellow fever occur around the
world each year, resulting in 30,000 fatalities (Bundschuh et al, 2013). Presently, yellow fever
remains without a legitimate cure, and the best defence against the virus lies with preventative
action. WHO identifies its three major yellow fever prevention strategies as vaccination, mosquito
control, and epidemic response (WHO Yellow Fever Fact Sheet, 2014). This being said, through the
combined efforts of scientists, medical workers, governments, and international agencies alike, the
yellow fever virus has been confined to endemic areas throughout Africa and Latin America (Barrett
& Higgs, 2007, p.209). With regards to the epidemiological nature of yellow fever, geographic
factors and influences clearly play a significant role. Environments, both physical and human (ie.
social), directly correlate to how the virus behaves, adapts, and survives. Through the analysis its
biology, its

The Epidemic Of West Nile
WEST NILE ENCEPHALITIS
Serah Hinga
MICROBIOLGY
Instructor: Mrs. April Champa Date: 10/17/2016
West Nile Encephalitis is a West Nile Virus that causes inflammation of the brain. The viral family's
name is flaviviridae and genera flavivirus (Tortora. Funke. Case, 2010, p 376). The flavivirus
genome consists of positive RNA single strand. However, the virus has acquired several mutations
and research is ongoing (Tortora, Funke, Case, 2010 p 223). West Nile virus is an arthropod–borne
virus and is transmitted to human beings through the bite of infected mosquitoes. It is the leading
cause of domestically acquired arthropod–borne disease in the United States. (Nicole, 2014 para.1).
According to the World Health Organization (2011), "Approximately 80% of people who are
infected will not show any symptoms. However, less than 1% of the people who are infected will
show severe symptoms resulting to a serious neurological illness like encephalitis." (Center for
Disease Control (2015) West Nile Virus was first isolated in West Nile District of Uganda in 1937.
In 1950's, there was an outbreak of West Nile Virus in Egypt and Israel. (Tortora, Funke. Case,
2010, p 223) About 50% of children in Egypt have West Nile Virus. It is also common in the Middle
East, where some suggest that Alexander the Great died from WNE. Moreover, its effect is also in
Asia and Africa. The first case of West Nile Virus in the United States was 1999 and was implicated
by several

Dengue Virus Infection : The Common Health Problems Essay
Dengue virus infection is one of the common health problems of the people in tropical and
subtropical geographic countries. A viral diseases known to cause dengue fever to severe
hemorrhagic fever that is transmitted by an infective female mosquito, genus Aedes but there are
other species known that capable of carrying the dengue virus, the Aedes aegypti and Aedes
albopictus, and Aedes polynesiensis. However, the Aedes aegypti is the most common mosquito that
spread the virus. There are two modes of transmission of the virus, the horizontal transmission
which is transmitted by human to the mosquito where the mosquito takes a blood meal from infected
human host. The vertical or transovarial transmission where infected female mosquito transmitted
the virus to the uninfected human host by taking a blood meal (1). The life cycle is a basic mosquito
to human transmission. Here, the mosquito ingested the virus when taking blood meal of the
infected host and passes through salivary gland and resided at the intestinal tract. After the
incubation period of approximately 10 days, the mosquito releases the virus through injecting to the
uninfected host by taking a blood meal (2).
The genus Flavivirus from family flavivirae is a viral pathogens responsible to cause the dengue
virus. Flavivirus is a virion that consists of a positive–single stranded RNA with lipopolysaccharide
envelope which measures 11 kb in length. It consists of three genome structural proteins– the capsid,
membrane

Human Beings And The Human Body
The Earth is surrounded by different kinds of living creatures since thousand years ago from humans
up to small tiny bacteria that live inside this planet. But before we go on do you know what is a
bacterium or bacteria? So basically Bacterium or bacteria are small tiny living organism that can
only be seen using microscope and it won't be able to show its body if we look at it using our naked
eyes. All of the living creatures that are found in earth may have some interactions with other
creatures like humans and animals, even interactions between human beings and small tiny bacteria
in many different ways. Human beings and small tiny bacteria could have any interaction in many
different ways; due to its tiny size the bacteria are able to come inside the human body from holes
from your body, wound, through air and water. Human beings has always been terrify since
hundreds years ago by Bacteria because it can affect anyone, and when it affects a person it may
cause infections, disease, and if fatal it may cause death. As a result thousands of people more than
23 thousand people die each year in the United States of America according to Centres For Disease
Control And Prevention (CDC). Living in Indonesia, a country a large country with full of
diversities of plants and animals that's risky of getting harmful diseases like the an outbreak in
Brazil called The Zika Virus that's carried by mosquitoes there's a 75% chance of people infected by
this disease. Before we carry

Case Analysis : Entebbe Bat Virus
General Introduction:
Entebbe Bat Virus in an infectious disease caused by a Flavivirus and is closely related to yellow
fever. Entebbe Bat Virus is a (+) single–stranded RNA (ssRNA) genome virus. It's an enveloped
virus with icosahedral nucleocapsid. It's genome has approximately 10,000 to 12,000 kilobases).
Entebbe Bat Virus was first isolated from a little free–tailed bat (Chaerephon pumilus) in Uganda in
1957, but wasn't detectable after initial isolation. In 2011, Entebbe Bat Virus was isolated from a
free–tailed bat captured from the attic of a house where it had been originally found. Infectious virus
was recovered from the spleen and lung, and the viral RNA was sequenced and compared with that
of the original isolate (Kading et ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since Enebbe Bat Virus is in the Genus Flavivirus, the structure is Icosadedral–like with a Psuedo
T=3 symmetry with a diameter of approximately 50 nm. The capsid protein is enveloped. The
genomic arrangement is a linear (+)ssRNA. Its genomic segmentation is Monopartite (Flint).
Genome
The genome of Entebbe Bat Virus is a (+) single–stranded RNA ((+)ssRNA) with a linear
characteristic to it. The genome encodes 3 structural proteins (Capsid, prM, and Envelope) and 8
non–structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5 and NS5B). The genomic
RNA is modified at the 5′ end of positive–strand genomic RNA with a cap–1 structure. The
(+)ssRNA doesn't have a poly–A tail, and it possess a UTR promoter site on the 5' end and the 3' end
if its RNA genome.
Replication Cycle
Entry into cell
Entebbe Bat Virus is an enveloped virus, which means that it has to bind its envelope proteins to a
cell surface protein on the cell that it's going to infect. In flavivirus virions, the fusion peptide is
buried in dimmers of the fusion glycoprotein E. At low pH, the dimmers are disrupted, the proteins
rotate to form trimers, and the fusion peptide is directed toward the cell membrane The viral
envelope protein E attaches to host receptors, which mediates receptor–mediated endocytosis.. The
viral nucleocapsid, as RNP, is released into the cytoplasm, where the RNA synthesis begins. The
mechanism by which the contacts between the viral nucleocapsid and M

Japanese Encephalitis Essay
Viral encephalitis is considered as the most common infection in the CNS as it causes acute
inflammation and infection to the brain (S. K. Saxena, 2008) . Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a serious
mosquito borne disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) belonging to the family
Flaviviridae (Cha et al., 2014). The Japanese encephalitis virus cause significant morbidity and
mortality by infecting CNS and spinal cord. Japanese encephalitis virus (Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) is
an enveloped virus having 40–50 nm in diameter and it contains single stranded RNA as genome
(Vashist, Bhullar, & Vrati, 2011). JE was first reported from Japan as a clinical entity in 1817 later
the JEV was isolated in 1934 from a fetal human case(Erlanger, Weiss, Keiser, Utzinger, &
Wiedenmayer, 2009). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The blood sucking Culex mosquitoes – principally Culex tritaeniorhynchus is responsible for the
transmission of Japanese encephalitis to the human population (Tiwari, Singh, Tiwari, & Dhole,
2012). Most infections are sub clinical and arise in rural areas, however transmission is also reported
from urban and peri urban centers(Solomon et al., 2000). Non–specific febrile illness including
rigors and diarrhea followed by vomiting and headache were significantly considered as the
symptomatic infection of JEV(V. Saxena, Mishra, & Dhole, 2009). In addition to this Convulsions
occur predominantly in children than adult.JE is a severe and lethal condition and it requires rapid
diagnosis to treat JE patients(Kumar et al., 1990; Lincoln & Sivertson,

The Epidemic Of West Nile
West Nile Encephalitis has infected more than 25,000 horses since its 1999 entrance into the United
States. This relatively new infectious disease is the most widely distributed arbovirus, causing
infections across the continent from Africa, to Australia, Southern Europe, and North America.
Cases have even been reported in Mexico and Canada. This paper will focus on the main symptoms,
treatments, vaccination types, and prevention. JH van der Kolk and EJB Veldhuuis Kroeze classify
West Nile Virus as, "a member of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and has a broad
vertebrate host range" (Infectious Diseases of the Horse pg141). West Nile was first identified in
humans in Uganda, Africa's West Nile district in 1937. The first identified case in an equine was in
1960. The first confirmed case of West Nile within the United States happened in Queens, New York
in the October of 1999 affecting both birds and horses. We are not entirely sure how West Nile made
the trip over to the U.S., (there are over 13 different theories) but the favorite seems to be per
smugglers. In 2001, the virus moved rapidly north to south, which has been contributed to migration
routes of birds carrying the virus. West Nile arrived in California in 2003, less than four years after
reaching North America.
West Nile virus is transmitted by numerous mosquito species and can vary geographically. The
American Association of Equine Practitioners says, "The virus and mosquito host interactions result
in

Daclatasvir Research Paper
2.Pharmacodynamic properties
Daclatasvir (BMS–790052) is a first–in–class, highly selective nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A)
replication complex inhibitor with high potency and broad genotypic coverage.
A. Mechanism of action
Daclatasvir is an HCV NS5A replication complex inhibitor. NS5A is a viral protein with no
enzymatic activity that is essential for HCV RNA replication and assembly. Its role in replication
appears to be the formation of a membranous web along with viral protein NS4B, and this web
provides a platform for replication. Futhermore, NS5A is composed of 3 domains; domains I and II
are essential for HCV replication and domain III plays a role in virion assembly [24,25]. Also,
NS5A contains phosphorylation sites, which act as regulators ... Show more content on
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domain 1) of the protein [28]. The initial rapidity with which daclatasvir reduces HCV RNA in the
serum(s2 logm reduction within 6 h of administration, with a slower decline thereafter) suggests that
it block virion assembly and release as well as viral RNA synthesis [29].
B. Antiviral activity
Daclatasvir displayed potent inhibitory activity against all HCV genotypes tested (genotypes 1–6)
[18, 19]. In replicon assays, the half~maximal effective concentration (EC5O) values of daclatasvir
against HCV genotypes 1a, lb, 2a,3a, 4a and 5a were 50, 9, 71–103, 146, 12 and 33 pmol/L,
respectively [28]. Daclatasvir displayed additive or syneregistic inhibitory activity in replicn assays
when used in combination with peginterferon–a and ribavirin, NS3/4A inhibitors (danoprevir or
asunaprevir) or NSSB inhibitors [EMS–791325 (beclabuvir) or NM–107] [28, 30]
Daclatasvir inhibited JFH–l genotype 2a replication in cell culture with an ECSO 0f 28 pmoUL [31].
Daclatasvir was specific for HCV as evidenced by the lower potency (EC50 of 9–12 nmollL) against
the related flavivirus bovine viral diarrhoea virus

Zika Informative Speech Outline
Matthew Wilson
Professor DeHay
CSS 1302–21
3 October 2016
Zika Virus Speech Outline
1) Introduction
a) Mosquitoes can harbor the Zika virus.
b) The Zika virus is a flavivirus that originated in tropical Africa.
c) Thesis – New information is available about the transmission, symptoms, and risks associated
with the Zika virus from scientists and medical personnel who are working to reduce its spread
worldwide.
2) Zika is a contagious virus that can be transmitted through both mosquito–to–person, and person–
to–person interaction.
a) Mosquito to person interaction
i) Two–thirds of the world's population lives in Aedes infested areas (Ibrahim, 2). ii) In urban and
suburban regions, Zika is generally transmitted in a human–mosquito–human cycle. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
5) Scientists recommend specific measures to avoid contracting the Zika virus.
a) For everyone, insect repellant with DEET and protective clothing is recommended.
b) The CDC now issues a level 2 travel alert warn people travelling to Zika infested regions
(Schmidt, 163).
c) The use of insecticide spraying and larvicides has proven effective in preventing and controlling
the outbreak of the virus (Baden et al, 1559).
6) Conclusion – Scientists and medical personnel around the world are continuing to learn about the
transmission, symptoms, and risks of the Zika virus. Recently, Congress committed $1.1 billion to
combat the spread and effects of the virus (Taylor, 1). Americans are hopeful that scientific advances
can quickly zap the threat of Zika here at home. References
Baden, L. R., Petersen, L. R., Jamieson, D. J., Powers, A. M., & Honein, M. A. (2016). Zika virus.
The New England Journal of Medicine, 374(16), 1552–1563.
Ibrahim, N. K. (2016). Zika virus: epidemiology, current phobia and preparedness for upcoming
mass gatherings, with examples from World Olympics and pilgrimage. Pakistan Journal of Medical
Sciences, 32(4),

Essay on Impact of West Nile Virus on Humans
The Impact of West Nile Virus on Humans (or Why We Should Worry)
West Nile virus can infect humans, but there are more drastic ways that it affects our lives. The virus
normally lives in birds and is transmitted among them and other animals by mosquitoes. There is no
other definite method of transmission, and people do not have to worry about contracting the virus
through contact with infected humans or animals. Hundreds of species of birds and many mammals,
including several endangered species, are vulnerable to the virus. Many domestic animals are also
susceptible, but the virus does not create any symptoms in most of them. There is no way of getting
rid of the virus once an animal has been infected, but a vaccine for horses has ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
About 20% of people develop mild symptoms, including fever, nausea, and swollen lymph nodes,
within a couple weeks of being bitten by an infected mosquito. Only one out of 150 infected humans
display more
WNV's Impact on Humans 2 serious symptoms, such as high fever, disorientation, vision loss,
numbness, and paralysis. Because West Nile is a virus, it cannot be cured by antibiotics. People who
display serious symptoms are given supportive treatment, which may include intravenous fluids and
respiratory support until they recover (CDC, 2004).
Animals found in the wild are also susceptible to West Nile virus. It is fatal to up to 285 species of
birds, which are the reservoirs that the virus normally lives in (CDC, 2005). Members of the avian
family Corvidae, which includes crows, ravens, magpies, and jays (CDC, 2003), are especially
vulnerable to West Nile virus, as seen during the 1999 New York epidemic, when hundreds of crows
died from the virus. Other animals that have been found carrying the virus include squirrels,
chipmunks, skunks, and bats (Lee, 2003). Although humans do not have to worry about becoming
infected by West Nile virus by handling infected animals, they should be aware that reports of
animals that have died from the virus is an indication that there are mosquitoes that are carrying the
virus in the area. Some endangered or threatened species are also susceptible to West Nile virus,
including Asian elephants, great Indian rhinoceros,

West Nile Virus Essay
More and more recently, we have been finding new "emerging" diseases that continually baffle
scientists as to how they came to be. Many of these diseases have not left the public eye yet, such as
HIV/AIDS, Ebola, and the yearly strains of Influenza; however, we must remain vigilant of every
disease that plagues humanity – including the all but forgotten West Nile Virus. Much like Influenza,
West Nile Virus has its own season. It tends to rear itself in the summer and fall, so it can potentially
be mistaken for a more harmless disease by today's standards such as Influenza. West Nile virus
originally began by infecting small parts of Africa, but with the convenience of today's airplanes,
ships and cars, it soon found its way all over the world – even in the United States (mayoclinic). ...
Mosquitos tend to be the main culprits; specifically female mosquitos, who carry the disease in their
saliva and inject it into our bodies as they bite us in order to prevent the blood from coagulating. If
you do not live in an area that is highly populated with mosquitos, and you are under 60 years old,
you are of a much lower risk factor, but for those who live near many mosquitos or are 60 or older,
the risk of getting West Nile Virus and suffering from its complications is much higher (mayoclinic).
Unlike with many diseases, West Nile Virus can be very easy or very difficult to diagnose in a
patient. For instance, a patient may be asymptomatic, meaning they show no symptoms of having
West Nile Virus, and it can be hard to say if this will ever change. Some patients will have mild
symptoms including pyrexia (fever), cephalgia (headache), body aches, nausea, emesis (vomiting),
and sometimes lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph glands) or a skin rash on the chest, stomach and
back, which can last from several days to several weeks

Emerging Diseases Research Paper
BIOL 390 Emerging Infectious Diseases Assignment 1 – 20 points 1) Pick from the following
emerging/reemerging diseases: Brucellosis, Clostridium difficile; Antibiotic–resistant Gonorrhea;
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5); Japanese encephalitis; MERS–CoV; Naegleria fowleri;
Powassan Virus; and Zika. List your disease in the blank. Then, research the disease from
www.cdc.gov and answer the following questions. Japanese encephalitis 2) Describe the microbial
agent that causes your disease (3 points). According to the CDC (2015), the Japanese encephalitis
virus is a flavivirus just like the yellow fever and West Nile virus. Flaviviruses are mostly
transmitted through bug bites, such as an infected mosquito. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Mosquitos are the main transmitter of this virus. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), pigs and birds are also part of the transmission cycle, which increases the risk of infection
to people living near these animals. According to WHO, there are twenty–four countries that have a
risk of infection, particularly in the South–East region of Asia and the Western Pacific. 4) What are
the symptoms of your disease (5 points)? Most cases of Japanese encephalitis have no symptoms or
just a mild headache or fever; however, according to the World Health Organization, 1 in 250
patients develop chronic symptoms like severe headaches, fever, stiffness of the neck, disorientation,
seizures, and eventually death. Most of these symptoms are caused by encephalitis (swelling of the
brain), hence the name of the virus. 5) How is this disease transmitted (3 points)? According to the
CDC (2015), this virus is mainly spread from infected mosquito bites particularly from Culex
tritaeniorhynchu. Humans are not part of the transmission cycle; however, pigs and birds are part of
the cycle. Therefore, there is increased risk to people who live in close proximity to these

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