1. Persian Civilization
Persia: 600-400 B.C.
Persia emerged and developed into a great country. They were successful in every aspect of their
civilization (this includes religion, technology, ruling, government, and how well they adapted to
their geographical surroundings). These characteristics contributed to making it one of the most
productive and complex empires of its time. Persia did a great amount of conquering other
civilizations and they had strategic government system that was very effective.
Ancient Persia is a civilization whose success was attributed to their peaceful methods and ways
of expansion. Their location was also a right hand in their expansion and conquests. The Persians
created an empire, the largest yet seen in the world, extending 3,000 miles. The empire
flourished for 200 years. Persia is located in present-day Iran. The Persian Empire had three
influential and powerful leaders that helped them expand their country; Cyrus the Great,
Cambyses, and Darius.
Persian Geography:
Persia is located in Southwest Asia. Until the 6th
century BC, the Persian lived in modern day Iran.
Some were settled while others were nomadic.
The land was mountainous and there were no
harbors. This resulted in tribes rather than a
united group. The tribes of Persia were under the
control of Media. Indo-Europeans migrated from
Central Europe and southern Russia to mountains
east of Fertile Crescent. The area extended from
Caspian Sea to Persian Gulf, Also known as
present day Iran. Iran has only two expanses of
lowlands; the Khuzestan Plain in the southwest
and the Caspian Sea coastal plain in the north.
At full extent Geographical features;

2. Water masses -Touching upon the Arabian sea, the Aral sea, the black sea, the Caspian
sea, the Mediterranean sea, the Persian gulf and the red sea.
Rivers -Euphrates, Tigris, Indus Surrounded by the Arabian desert, Caucasus Mountains.
Climate -Middle Eastern climate is generally hot and dry, with the exception of the
Fertile Crescent river-valley with fairly mild winters lesser in the more mountainous
terrain.
Natural hazards-Periodic droughts, floods; dust storms, sandstorms; earthquakes along
western border and in the northeast.
Natural resources-Petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, iron ore, lead,
manganese, zinc.
sulfur arable land-10%
Permanent crops-1%
permanent pastures-27%
forests and woodlands- 13%
Other-49%
Irrigated land-94,000 km2 (36,000 sq mile)
Topography-Persia consists of rugged, mountainous rims surrounding high interior
basins. The main mountain chain is the Zagros Mountains
Minerals- This area had rich farmland, many minerals such as copper, lead, gold, silver,
and blue lapis lazuli.
History of Persia:
In 1935 Persia name was changed into Iran. Iran mean: “Land of The Aryans”. Iran is home to
one of the world oldest civilizations.(first formed around 2500 B.C). The Persian Empire
stretched from China to Greece (That means Persia was the central hub for 3continents). The
capital of Persia was Persepolis. Persia was under monarchal rule for the past 2500 years (until
Islamic revolution)
How did each Persian ruler expand and better the Persian Empire? Persia’s government was a
monarchy. Each ruler changed Persia’s civilization, whether extending the Empire or influencing
the people’s feelings towards how Persia was led.
Cyrus
Cyrus ruled from 550-539 B.C. He was a military genius. Using his talents, he extended the
Persian Empire from the Indus River to Anatolia. Cyrus was a very tolerant ruler. He respected
other religions and customs. He let the Hebrews practice their own religion and he was even
written about in their bible, being depicted as an honored king. Cyrus died fighting nomads who
were invading the eastern side of his Empire.

3. Cambyses
Cambyses was the son of Cyrus, and started ruling in 530 B.C. He didn’t have his father’s
tolerance for other customs and beliefs. In fact, he despised them. He even burned images of the
Egyptian gods when he conquered Egypt. He died eight years into his reign, and was probably
the most hated of the Persian kings.
Darius
Darius was actually the guard of Cambyses before he died. A group of well-trained soldiers
called the Ten Thousand Immortals helped him achieve power in 521 B.C. The first couple of
years of his reign, he had to clean up what Cambyses has left behind; numerous uprisings from
the Persian society. One of Darius’s greatest accomplishments was the establishment of many
provinces in the Persian Empire. He was the first Persian emperor to use coins in trade.
The Provinces Darius broke the Persian Empire into many provinces, since it was too big to be
governed by just one person. He appointed satraps or local rulers to each province. He also had a
type of security checking in to see whether or not the satraps were following his lead, along with
an army leader and a tax collector. Each province spoke their own language, had their own
traditions, and practiced their own religions. This is what made the Persian Empire so different
from others.
Religion Zoroastrianism was different from all other religions during ancient times and that
difference has had a great influence on our society today. The religion ancient Persians practiced
was called Zoroastrianism.
Art:
Art with the texture of human experience, illuminating the humble and the commonplace,
exalting the royal and the divine. From early times, although art was natural and taken for
granted, the Persians consciously placed a high value on beauty. A widespread and expert
appreciation sustained excellence through many centuries. Royal patronage, enthusiastic and
generous was never lacking; beauty was always and in all things accorded to high status. One
with life, the arts was also united with one another. Craft borrowed from craft. There were
common themes and mutual inspiration throughout the arts. They were engaged on a common
task which absorbed their uttermost, with surprisingly little thought of individual pride and glory.
Scarcely one in a hundred of important Persian works of art is signed. It was an anonymous art
and thereby gaining in sincerity, in devotion, and in authority.
It is primarily an art of decoration. It became in devout symbolism, and symbolism some
philosophers regard as the primary characteristic of the mind. It interprets reality in a new form
which clarifies and controls it. Symbolism is a method of synthesis and transformation, the

4. beginning of intellectual and artistic life. It presents objects in abstract but yet emotional forms,
and when it is sanctified by custom and religion; it can evoke the deepest response.
Persia, a place deserving respectable antiquity, is one of the very few countries where there
exists today a complex culture, still capable of expressing its aspirations in literature, art and
philosophy, and which can yet claim a continuous tradition going far back into the pre-Christian
world. In the matter of such expressive culture, Europeans were mere up starters and parvenus
compared with the Persians. Nonetheless, when we try to define what, in the matter of artistic
creation, is distinctively and exclusively Persian we find ourselves at a loss. We feel sure that
there is a Persian quality in certain objects of art, we know there is quite a specific attitude to life
expressed by Persian artists, and that this attitude repeats itself at various epochs, but it is almost
impossible to distinguish it sharply from the expression of neighboring cultures.
From the seventh to the thirteenth centuries, Persian Art produced some of its greatest
masterpieces. And here, in the potter's craft Persia was during three centuries almost unrivalled.
For nicety of proportions, for unanalysable delicacy of curvature, some of these bowls and pots,
for all their unpretentiousness, must count as great artistic expressions. And no less striking is the
genius of painters who decorated these exquisitely modeled surfaces.
The solemn and ritual character of early Persian Art is at the foundation of its magnificent
achievement in pure decoration. Decoration, the main resource and goal of Persian Art is not
merely to delight the eye or to entertain the mind, but it has far deeper meaning. It is doubtful if
decorative design has ever been at once more delicately sensitive, more free in its rhythmic flow,
and at the same time more aware of its limiting conditions.
A word must be said about this linear rhythm of pottery painters, and the same applies to the
miniature painters of the time. The Persians, like many Eastern nations, have always held
beautiful handwriting in much greater esteem than Western nations have done, and in the Arabic
script - it was one of the gifts of Muhammadanism - they possessed an instrument exactly suited
to their feeling. It is unrivalled in its variety of forms; now severely architectural and rectangular,
and now allowing of development of long and flexible rhythmic phrases. And this free flowing
rhythm could be adapted to pictorial rhythms without break of continuity, So that the artist was
almost perforce a calligrapher; already half an artist.
Antique Carpets
The history of the origin and time period of the first pile-knotted carpets is unclear. At least one
modern authority suggests that such pieces were of nomadic origin. Certainly, the rearing of
sheep, the prime source of wool, is a traditional nomadic occupation, and the necessity of thick
coverings for people having to endure extreme cold would have soon caused the development of
the art of weaving to supersede the use of rough animal skins to provide such covering. There
are, of course, several references both in ancient scriptures and in classical authors to the art of
weaving but no evidence that such references apply to pile carpets. Indeed, on the evidence of

5. fragments found in ancient Egyptian tombs, some dating from the second millennium B.C., we
know that various forms of flat-weaving were well developed, but it is probable that pile carpets
were unknown. However, we are still at an early stage in the development of carpet studies.
Apart from advances in techniques in gathering of scientific data, the modern student is the
inheritor of several decades of intense research and of some remarkable discoveries. It must be
added, however, that although theoretical structures have been more elaborate and some of the
more obvious mistakes of early scholars have been corrected, very little in the way of concrete
factual evidence has been added to that at the disposal of many twentieth century scholars.
Early Persian Weaving Following the fall of the Sassanian dynasty and the establishment of the Caliphate, the evidence
for weaving in Persia becomes clearer, if only because Arab historians and geographers took
their task of examining and codifying the peoples of Islam seriously; thus we have a wealth of
written material. We know that carpet weaving was carried out at Fars, Majanderan and Gilan to
the south-west and, according to Muhddasi writing in the 10th Century in Kainat. Although Arab
historians do not describe the kind of weaving, it is safe to assume that pile carpets were made
and were almost certainly the products of tribal nomads, who could have moved down from the
north of the country in search of fresh pastures.
Abusson Carpets The greatest ambition of the French weavers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was to
create and maintain a high standard of excellence. A long time was required for apprenticeship,
which shows how important the art was considered and the title of "master in tapestry" was a
very difficult one to obtain. It is from this system of long apprenticeship and careful teaching and
supervision by artists of note, that were brought into existence such remarkably beautiful works
of art, as are the abusson rugs of France.
Firdausi Antique Persian Carpet
Persian Wall Hanging Tabriz Carpet
Antique Donegal Carpet

6. Antique Islamic Persian Tile
A Kashan Calligraphic Luster
Pottery Tile from
The Shrine of Natanz,
A Calligraphic Pottery Tile
(La ilaha ill-Allah Muhammadun Rasul-Allah)
Antique French Lamp And Chinese
Rose Bowl
Antique French Lamp Persian Qajar Royal Family circa
Antique Chinese Rose Bowl made for Persian Sufi Family Circa

7. Persian Painting
Antique Persian painting, Oil on canvas
Antique Persian painting, oil on cooper
Language and Writing
History of Persian Scripts:
In the ancient Persia and in the different historic
eras, languages such as “Ilami”, “Avestaaee”,
“Pahlavi”, and “Farsi-e-Mianeh” were spoken.
It is believed that ancient Persian script was
invented by about 500-600 BC to provide
monument inscriptions for the Achaemenid
kings. These scripts consisted of horizontal,
vertical, and diagonal nail-shape letters and that
is the reason in Farsi it is called “Script of
Nails” or “Khat-e-Mikhi”.
Persian (or Farsi in Persian) refers to an Indo-European language that was spoken in the
Old Persian Empire. It is spoken in today's Iran, parts of Afghanistan, and parts of the old
southern Soviet states such as Tajikistan. There are numerous dialects of Persian
language, such as Dari, Gilaki, etc. The standard and modern Persian is spoken in today's
Iran.

8. Persian alphabet has 32 letters (as compared to 28 in
Arabic and 26 in English) and is written from right
to left. Some of the letters can be connected to from
both left and right and some can only be connected
from right. Therefore, each letter may have two or
three different shapes based on connectivity and its
occurrence at the beginning, middle or the end of a
word. It means that memorizing less than 100 visual
icons is sufficient to read and write Persian words.
As compared to Latin scripts, there is no limitation
on the width of the letters and this brings a great
variability in form and writing style. Letters can be
expanded, curved and angled to fit the width.
Many have an image that Persian and Arabic
alphabet are the same? Persian alphabet includes but
not restricted to Arabic letters. Arabic alphabet
belongs to the group of Semitic scripts in which the
consonants are actually written and vowels are
placed in between the lines. Arabic script is derived
from the Aramaic Nabataean alphabet and has 28
letters derived from 18 shapes, distinguished by one
(10 cases) or two dots (3 cases) placed above or
below the letter or three dots place above the letter
only (2 cases).
Persian has 32 letters derived from 18 shapes. Letters
are distinguished by one (10 cases), two (3 cases) or
three dots (5 cases) placed above or below the letter.
Three long vowels, AA, EE and OO are also
represented by letters. Short vowels for A, E and O
have no letters and may be shown by small diagonal
underbars stroke (for E) and over bar stroke (for A)
or small comma (for O).
Again many people have a wrong image that Persian and
Arabic scripts are the same. There are six script styles,
named Shesh Ghalam:
Nasta-ligh (Farsi), Kufi, Deewani, Naskh, Req'aa and Thuluth.
The most common Persian script is called Nasta-ligh that is a lighter and much more elegant
version of Taligh or hanging script. The basic rules of Nasta-ligh were developed over centuries
and were revised in the Safavi (~1500 A.D.) period. Nasta-ligh is different from Naskh which is
common in Arabic, roughly, due to shape of letters and style of writing.

9. Religion
Zoroastrianism was the religion of the Persian ruling family during the time of Cyrus, Darius
and Xerxes. It was the religious perspective in which Xerxes would have been coming from
when he was getting to know Esther. As we will see in many ways, their religions were very
similar. Could that had made it easier for the two of them to relate to each other and even
perhaps easier for a possible conversion of Xerxes to Judaism. It was not until the time of
Xerxes’ son, Artaxerxes, that it became the official religion of the Persian Empire.
Zoroastrianism
It was created by a Persian prophet named Zarathustra who lived around 600 B.C. They were
monotheistic. The supreme god they worshipped is Ahura Mazda, or “Wise Lord.” Their main
belief was that choices affect one’s fate. -When a human dies, they are judged based on the
decisions they had made in their human life and are sent to either heaven (Ahura Mazda) and live
a happy spiritual life or are sent to hell (Ahriman, or “Destructive Spirit”) and suffer throughout
their afterlife. Every Zoroastrian’s goal is to be united with Ahura Mazda. They define life as the
battle between truth and order versus falsehood and disorder. They believed in free will. Their
religion gave its people much freedom within their lives. They also believed in the purity of the
earth (environmentalism) and equality between people. Their sacred forms of literature are the
“Avestas.” It is divided into different books and sections: Yasna, Khorda, Visperad, and
Venidad. They were very tolerant of other religions.
Influence of Zoroastrianism on other religions, it is believed that Zoroastrianism influenced
other monotheistic religions that came after it, such as Christianity and Judaism and the Islamic
religion. They introduced the idea of heaven and hell. Although Christians were originally
polytheistic, they got the idea of God from monotheism and Zoroastrianism. Events such as
baptism and communism relate and link back to Zoroastrianism rituals and ceremonies.
Zoroastrians had ceremonies of purification with fire and water. They believed that fire and
water were important aspects of rituals because they were life-sustaining. Zoroasters wore black
skull caps called “fentas” which influenced yarmulkes in Judaism and head coverings in the
Islamic religion.
Zoroastrianism today
Today, the Zoroastrianism population is rapidly decreasing. What used to be millions of
followers is now a disappointing number of 124,000 Zoroastrians. There are many reasons as to
why the number of Zoroastrians is declining. Many Zoroastrians intermarry, which often results
in them following and adapting to the religion their spouse practices instead of their own. In
addition, since there is much freedom in the Zoroastrian religion, women are not limited to being

10. the housekeeper of the family and instead choose to take on professional jobs outside of home.
This can lead to Zoroastrian women not having any children at all because they are so busy with
their jobs. The rate of Zoroastrian children being born to the number of Zoroastrian priest deaths
is 1:6. This explains why Zoroastrians today fear that in 100 years; there won’t be anyone to
continue their religion anymore.
Persian Fashion
Fashion – love it or hate it, it inevitably pops up in women’s lives and in practically every corner
of the world.
In Iran, women are required to dress modestly by keeping
their hair completely covered and by wearing long, loosefitting clothing to disguise their figures. For those bold
enough to flout the Islamic Republic’s dress code, they
risk getting fined, imprisoned, and worse, flogged.
Yet despite the harsh penalties, many young, fashionsavvy Iranian women have abandoned Chadors and drab,
formless coats for colorful headscarves and tailored coats
that are subtly pinched at the waists and end at the knee.
While the strict dress code is mandatory today, it has not
always been so in Persian history.
ANCIENT PERSIAN COSTUMES
Throughout the ancient world including Persia, both men and women used make-up, wore
jewellery and colored their body parts. Moreover, their garments were both elaborate and
colorful. Rather than being marked by gender, clothing styles were distinguished by class and
status:
The body was used freely and sexuality was often perceived as a gift from
gods and was celebrated. Judging by the number of nude male and female
attendants and personalities depicted, nudity did not seem to be a
problem. However high-ranking females would not expose their bodies
as much as ordinary females did as a sign of high status.
(“Cosmetics, Styles & Beauty Concepts in Iran” on www.cultureofiran.com)
Nearly 2,500 years of customs, traditions and styles of dressing had already

11. been established in the ancient Near East when the Achaemenian dynasty was founded in the 6th century
BC. Although they infused Assyrian, Babylonian and Egyptian fashion into their culture, they soon
developed their own styles as well.
Nevertheless, Persian garments at the start of the Persian Empire were simple and bore little distinction
for men and women. Animal fur and leather were widely used, and most families produced their own
wool which the women then wove into clothes. Describing ancient Persian
attire, Mahera Harouny, who is of Afghani-Persian origin, said:
A Persian, when dressing, first covered the body with white cotton
underwear. Over this was placed a single garment a single garment
made up of two pieces attached at the rear. The upper part was a
circular cut of pleated cloth, the bottom a large
long skirt. The skirt had either one or two pleats permitting a long stride
of the legs. The top of the garment extended from the back over the
shoulders and arms, falling in pleats in front, the large pleats providing
ample arm movement, the side pleats over each arm functioning as
sleeves. At the waist, a leather belt pulled in all the pleats of the skirt.
(From Harouny’s unpublished treatise on Persian dance – “Radif-E Raqs”)
With its growth, the Persian Empire became wealthier and along with it grew
a demand for more luxurious fabrics, elaborate ornamentations, rare dyes and
intricate hand-painted designs. From China came silk – a new luxurious
addition to the commonly used wool, cotton and linen. Gold and silver
threads were also used to create striking-colored garments. Other colors such
as lapis lazuli blue, olive green, turquoise and several shades of brown were
frequently used as well. In the meantime, purple came to be associated with
royalty, while white became a religious color.
Hellenistic culture was introduced to Persia by Alexander the
Great, and in the ensuing Seleucid dynasty, Greek dress and
customs became popular among the Persians.
Similarly, the Greeks were influenced by Persian
attire. However, it was only when the Parathions
came to dominance that Persian influence became
even greater, and Persian fashion was popularized all over the continent. In fact,
the Syrian Queen Zenoba became so fond of Persian clothes that she chose them
over designs from Rome, the centre of fashion then.
In the following Sassanian dynasty, there was a retaliation against foreign influences, which in
turn set forth a period of Persian culture and art at its best. Members of the upper classes became

12. exceedingly affluent and attired themselves in exquisite finery. According to Dr. Harouny:
The typical dress was a loose long sheath tightened at the waist and pleated at the knee. Over the
sheath, draped much like a sari, was a stole of elegant material, usually fine muslin, which could
be fastened around the waist to serve as an additional skirt or draped over the shoulder. Another
style of the period featured a knee length dress, which revealed a pair of trousers underneath.
Not only were the Sassanian textiles soft and delicate, they often had elegant and creative
designs of animals and trees on them as well.
INTRODUCTION OF THE ISLAMIC VEIL
Contrary to popular belief, neither Islam nor Persia
invented the veil. Veiling has a long history in the
ancient Near East as well as Mediterranean cultures
and predates Islam by several centuries.
Assyrian kings first introduced both the seclusion of
women in the royal harem and the veil in the Near
East. Veils were forbidden for prostitutes and slaves,
however. Beyond the Near East, the practice of living
veiled, isolated lives appeared in classical Greece, in
the Byzantine Christian world, in Persia and among
the upper castes in India.
The arrival of Arabs and Islam in Persia may have
drastically altered its religious and social settings, but
few changes were made to the overall clothing styles
for the next several years. Apart from slightly shorter
dresses and wider, fuller sleeves, the only notable
addition to the Persian dress was Islamic armbands
with Kufic designs.
Unlike in modern times, the first Muslims were not
overly concerned about female attire; in fact, their
practice of covering women stemmed from regional
customs as Islam spread throughout the ancient world.
It was only in the second Islamic century that the veil
became common for Muslim women. Even then, it
was chiefly women from the urban classes – a
minority of the population – who covered themselves
and lived in seclusion. Such a life of leisure showed
that the family had the necessary wealth. Hence the majority, who were rural and
nomadic women, did not cover themselves.
Persian attire remained more or less the same all through the 12th century. As

13. depicted in tales from The Thousand and One Nights, women during the peak of the Abbasid
period wore an open-front coat over their dresses, and a scarf or belt secured on the waist. Later
on, invading Turks and Mongols from Central Asia introduced Persians to elaborate embroidery,
which soon appeared the Persians’ long dresses.
Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Safavid fashion grew in popularity.
Designed to rid the nation of Turkish influences, the Safavid dress emerged as an
attempt to re-model fashion after ancient Persia. The women began wearing long,
drawstring trousers with tight ankles with a dress that revealed the trousers in
varying degrees. Over this attire, the women would wear a loose, ankle-length
robe which was open in the front and had sleeves that
were taught at the wrist. A large length of cloth
resembling a cummerbund would be wrapped around the
hips, and folded so that both ends hang from the front of
the waist and reach just above the dress’s hem. Some
princesses would tuck jeweled daggers on each side of
their “cummerbund” as ornaments and for self-defense.
Like the men, women also wore a cloak as part of their
basic public attire.
The royal court and affluent women began veiling and
secluding themselves from the public during the later
part of the Safavid dynasty. While some form of allenveloping Islamic veil – which was not black and
varied between regions – was worn in Persia from the
16th century onwards, the black chador only came about in the late 18th century and among the
upper classes.
In the countryside, women have always worn veils – often with bright, colorful prints – to protect
their heads from dust. They also wore scarves with veils over them, which were then wrapped
and gathered them at their waists to free up their arms.

14. In the later part of the Qajar dynasty, women in the Persian court started wearing a “ballet” skirt.
This skirt was believed to have been an idea of the Qajar ruler, Nasser-al-Din Shah; having
watched a ballet performance during a trip to Europe, the shah became enraptured by the tutus
and ordered the women of his harem to wear
similar skirts.
Pro-western, modernist ruler, Reza Shah also encouraged Iranians to wear European clothes
during the Pahlavi dynasty. Moreover, he believed that the Islamic dress code and hijab limited
the country’s modernization and duly outlawed the chador in 1936, ordering the police to tear
them off women who wore them in public. Homa Hoodfar wrote in The Women's Movement in
Iran: Women at the Crossroads of Secularization and Islamization that:
It was as though women's head gear per se excluded women from intellectual activity: if women
put on European styles of clothing, Iran would somehow miraculously transform itself and
become European in its other characteristics. The combination of unveiling and education in one
package derived at least partly from the elite's awareness that, in the West, the veil had come to
symbolize the backwardness of their society.
The edict caused an uproar, especially among many Iranian women for
whom the veil was a sign of virtue as well as a source of protection
and respect. Author of In the Rose Garden of the Martyrs Christopher
de Bellaigue, quotes in his book an Iranian historian as saying it was
as if "European women had suddenly been ordered to go out topless
into the street."
Faced with this aberrant decree, some of the women chose to remain in their homes for months.
Other, however, ignored the law and continued to cover them up with a chador.
The more educated or more modern Iranians however, embraced the ruling and wore western
clothes.

15. THE HIJAB REINSTATED
The Islamic Revolution took place in 1979 and it caused a major turnabout in the way the
country was run. A new Islamic government was now in charge, and it saw modernization as a
negative phenomenon which encouraged people to reject not only Islamic, but all local ethnic
traditions while they adopted western ways.
Starting from a headscarf, it soon came to the more conservative hijab which was
enforced by the government to “fulfill the wishes of people and to respect their
Islamic values”.
As the new government claimed, wearing the hijab would be to demonstrate the
uniqueness and superiority of the country’s culture, rather than allow it to be
seen as backwards and inferior to the culture of the west. Once again women rose up in protest
the new ruling on their attire, but their demonstrations were not successful in preventing the
imposition of the hijab.
Today, Iranian women remain split on the topic of the hijab. For
some, the strict dress code remains a mark of oppression and they find
ways to rebel against it by wearing heavier make-up and trendy
clothes under their coats.
Yet there are others who see safe haven in the mandatory veiling.
According to Women in the Muslim World: Personalities and
Perspectives from the Past, wearing the hijab allowed women to move more freely outside of
their homes and to “pursue professional and public lives”:
Merging the old and the new, the religious and the secular has been an age-old struggle for
Iranian fashion. It is also a struggle that will continue for many years more, just as the country
wrestles to combine its needs for an ethnic and religious identity together with its need for
progress and modernization.
Persian Footwear:
A Galesh is traditional footwear of Iran.
Unlike most galoshes, the "Galesh" are always hand woven and with specific fabrics.
It is what people in Persia used to wear before the proliferation of the modern shoe, especially in
the provinces of northern Iran.
Galesh are still made today, but under the guise of handicrafts and cultural produce
A concept
of creating
shoes out
of old
carpets

16. Persian Jewelry:
As is common with most cultures, the gifting of jewelry played an important role in the courtship
and betrothal process in Persia. Once consent was given by the bride's family, a day was
arranged for the Nomzad, or wedding and the bridegroom's family was expected to bring
presents of jewellery, valued according to their means and positions in life.
On the day of the ceremony, the female friends and relations of the two families congregated in
the harem. Several times throughout the day, the groom would meet his bride in a specially
reserved section of the harem, each time bringing a present of jewelry or silk. When the time
arrived for the removal of the bride's embroidered veil another gift of jewelry was presented,
which was known as the ruhmuhah, or "reward for showing the face."
The plundering of treasures from distant lands became the way of the world during the Islamic
Persian Empire, and the Persians loved jewels - especially diamonds and emeralds. Many of the
objects in the Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia were acquired during the Safavid Dynasty.
Persian Achievements:
It can be said that among the many achievements of the Persian Empire, perhaps arguably their
greatest was in the creation of the Empire itself. At the peak of supremacy this Empire, which is
reputed to have been built on tolerance, stretched from the Aegean to the Caspian Seas.
Blended Culture
Cyrus and Darius encouraged cultural unity. Shared culture led to peace and a blending into a
single Persian Culture. People worked together to improve empire
Communication
Network of high quality roads
Royal Road = world’s first long highway 1,500 miles

17. Horseback messengers in shifts
Trade, Money and Measures
It is recognized that Persia was the first empire to introduce the exchange of goods for coinage
and developed from a barter economy into a money economy. With the increased trade across
the empire, it became vital that transportation and travel became more efficient and effective.
To this end, hundreds of miles of roads were built and even a postal service was introduced as
links in this vast domain. Together with the construction and improvement of existing roads, a
public works system was introduced and a standardized weights and measures system was also
put into practice. Many rulers have contributed to the various achievements of the Persian
Empire, most notable of them being the Emperor Darius
Darius the Great and the Hanging Gardens
The ongoing ambitions of the Emperor Darius were extended
into the building of Palaces and other structures for the City
of Persepolis. At the same time, the great achievement of
extending the Empire did not stop; neither did the expansion
related to their arts and culture. Their legal system was
refined and civilized to be compatible with their philosophy
of tolerance. As far as architecture is concerned, the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon could perhaps be considered as one of
the great achievements of the Persian Empire and a form of
art.

18. Persian Music:
In Semi-mythical tales, invention of music has been attributed to the Great Iranian king,
Jamsheed. The disperse but well documented history of music during Hakhamaneshian empire
(550-331 BC) attests to the significance of this art. From Greek historian's manuscripts, we can
decipher some information about the-early period of music. Herodotus points to the religious
rituals of Zoroastrians.
In Koroupdya, Gaznofan discusses martial and folk music in Iranian Empire. In Sassanian's
court musicians were highly praised and some names such as Barbad, Nakeesa, Ramtin, Azad,
and Sarkash have been recorded. Different stories have been relayed about Barbad in Khosrow
Perviz's court and his marvelous virtuosity in performing and creating songs (Tasneef). It is
believed that Barbad established a musical format consisting of seven structural scales and
melodic pieces (Magham) known as Khosravani, 30 Lahn, and 365 Dastan corresponds to the
number of days per year, but its application has been unspecified In the advent of Islam in the
7th century, Iranian music among other cultural elements, became one of the most prominent
milestones in pervading Islamic music. We will refer to a few well-known musicians and the
ones whose legacies perpetuate:
1- Iberahim Mousali (742-803 A.D) born into an Iranian family based in Koufeh. Singer and
Barbat player in Mehdi's and Haroun-Alrashid'scourts. He has improvised more than 900 vocal
variations (Avas). He studied music under the supervision of a Zoroastrian mentor named
Javanovi in Ray (Iran).
2- Ishagh Mousali (766-849 AD) Ibrahim Mousali's son, well known in the genres of singing and
poetry, author of a few books on music.
3- Abu-Nasr Farabi (872-950 AD) from Farab (Khorasan), famous musical theorist whose
writings on scale, rhythm, and instrumental arrangements have been rich scientific musical
studies on Greek classical theories and became a pioneer in revival of such research. His book
"Ketab Al-Musighi Al-Kabir" (The Great Book of Music), still remains a great masterpiece.
4- Abul-Faraj Esfahani (896-966 AD) musical historian whose famous book "Aghani" is a
biography of famous musicians in the early period of Abbasi's rule.
5- Abu-ali Cina (980-966 AD) philosopher, physician, and musician. He based his research on
Greek theories and extended Farabi's empirical findings.

19. 6- Safiodin Ormavi (death, 1294 AD) great theorist whose works are "Resaleh-ye-Sharghieh"
(Eastern Dissertation) and "Ketab-ol-Advar" (The Book of Eras). His teachings on scales have
been widely accepted and recognized to be a fundamental basis for identifying Maghams.
7- Ghotbodin Mahmoud Shirazi (1236-1312 AD) the author of an original encyclopedia on
music which included teachings of Farabi and Safiodin. Also his significant share in generating a
complex vocal transcription methodology should be acclaimed.
In this atmosphere, creative growth and scientific studies had impeded evolution. The forbidding
attitude of religious figures and their tremendous interest in manipulating the social aspects of
the culture had mainly been responsible for such predicament. Royal patrons and aristocrats
under Safavieh (1501-1722) and Ghajar (1785-1925) sovereignties had endorsed music as a
performing art. In fact, the emergence of a twelve-scale system during the Ghajar era, by AliAkbar Farahani, was a novelty, but in the periods previously mentioned, music had been reduced
to a means of gaining personal pleasure. Since the third decade of the 20th century, music in Iran
gradually developed a notable propensity towards creativity and curiosity in research.
In the Pahlavi era (1925-1979) reformative movements towards modernization and
westernization of Iran took place. Until the middle of 1930's Tehran music conservatory included
several European instructors who taught musicians and also performed at western or traditional
events. Also, a Symphonic Orchestra was assembled and a Chorus group was established. Due to
Ali Naghi Vaziri's endeavors during this period, traditional music concerts were promoted after
World War II until the 1970's; the westernization of Iran was of highest priority.
Since the revolution of 1979 and the resurgence of religious authority, music has been swayed in
another direction. Despite all, what can be known as national music today is a traditional and
classic art compressing two genres: folk and urban music. Various native groups-supplying a
diverse pool of folk music comes together in a vast country such as Iran, with a population close
to 80 million.
Urban music, on the other hand, is a tradition, which has remained only with a few. This music is
a compilation of various melodic pieces passed down from one generation to the next. Each
piece revolves around an undetermined central core of melodies and performers may acquire
competence only through extensive training and experience. The identifying factor on each
musical piece, noticeably different from one performance to the next relies on the artist's sense of
freedom in improvisation. The richness of this music is not due to complex rhythmic patterns but
an exploration of melodic possibilities and the production of beautiful textures through the art of
improvisation. This music is personal, imaginative, sensual, and deep.

20. Persian Food:
Persians refined the taste & flavor of food and how it is presented. Although it still retains roots
in its ancient resources. Persians cook based on what is in season to ensure the food is fresh and
at its best quality possible. Fragrances during cooking, and at the table plays an important role in
the Persians culture, as does the presentation of the food.
The ancient philosophy of hot and cold foods is linked to ancient Zoroastrian religion of the
Achaemenian & Sassanian. This philosophy once shared with other civilizations including
China, India and Medieval West. From region to region, the classifications may vary. In general
poultry, wheat, sugar, various fresh and dried fruits & vegetables are considered to be hot. Whilst
beef, fish, rice, dairy products and various fresh fruits & vegetables are considered to be cold.
Based on your preference and season you will generally choose to eat hot or cold foods to suit.
To this day this philosophy is taken in to consideration when food is being prepared.
Persian cuisine is ancient, varied and cosmopolitan. Eating habits
and products from ancient Greece, Rome and many Asian and
Mediterranean cultures have influenced and are affected by this
unique cuisine. It has borrowed spices, styles and recipes from
India and has in turn influenced Indian food. There are many
dishes that are shared by both Iranians and Turks to the extent
that it is hard to say who has borrowed what and from where.
The archives at the major ancient Persian cities contain names of
many food products, ingredients, beverages, herbs, spices and
wine, an important ceremonial and religious drink. Basil, mint, cumin, cloves, saffron and
coriander were traded along with olive all over the ancient trade routes. The Parthian and the
Sasanian records mention walnut, pistachio, pomegranate, cucumber, broad bean, pea and
sesame in their trade records.
Persian Culture:
Persian civilization was established by the great Achaemenid kings. While Aramaic was used
mostly in the kingdom, Old Persian was the official language. Darius I organized the empire,
rewrote the legal code, fortified and reorganized the military and standardized weights and
measures. While he was a Zoroastrian, he held a policy of religious tolerance, and did not allow
the use of slaves.

21. It wasn't until 522 B.C. that the Persian Empire became unified. The emperor Darius
accomplished the real unification of this empire. Darius set up a government that was then used
as a template for later rulers. He then divided the Persian Empire into provinces; a government
official called a satrap headed each of these provinces. According to the economy and the wealth
of each province, determined how much taxes would cost for that year.
In the Achaemenian period (550-330 B.C.) a unified style of art emerged. Luxurious works of
decorative art were produced. The Achaemenids evolved a monumental style in which relief
sculpture is used as an adjunct to massive architectural complexes. Remains of great palaces
reveal plans that characteristically show great columned audience halls.
The major language in Persia is Farsi. It is a branch of the Indo-Persian languages which is a
group of the Indo- European languages. Aside from Iran, Farsi is spoken in Afghanistan,
Tajikistan and the Pamirs Mountains. In keeping their native tongue, Persians expanded the
nature of Islam from a religion with primary Arabic origins to a more encompassing world
religion.
New mothers and pregnant women received higher rations and sons were clearly preferred over
daughters. If they delivered boys both the mother and the nurse or the physician received higher
rations. The extra payments were given out for one month only. Consistently mothers of boys
received twice the amount compared to mothers of baby girls. There is no evidence of infanticide
for girls as the number of births of male children only slightly exceeds the number of girls born.
The official calendar of Iran is the Persian solar calendar, and the first day of the Persian New
Year is the 1st of Farvardin, and this day is called Norouz, meaning New Day. In the Persian
solar calendar there are 12 months, the first 6 months have 31 days, and the second 6 months
have 30 days, except the last month which has 29 days, but has 30 days only in leap years. In the
Gregorian solar calendar, the Norouz corresponds to March 21 of every year.
Famous Persian:
Of course, but perhaps the most famous Persian of all time is Cyrus the Great who founded the
Persian Empire. In fact, in 1992 he was ranked #87 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most
influential figures in history. Other famous Persian kings were Cambises and Darius the Great.
Darius III is famous only because he suffered under the hands of Alexander the Great of
Macedonia. During Darius' reign, the whole Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander, who
first attacked the Persians in what is now modern Turkey. He then moved on into the heart of the
Empire where he captured the capital Susa. Darius ran away from battle against Alexander twice,
but was murdered by his governor Bessus who wanted the throne for himself. Alexander was
angry this happened and respected his dead opponent. He held a great funeral for the dead king.
Later, Bessus was captured and executed.