Type of discipline guidanceHow it worksAdvicecautionsReinf.docx

Type of discipline/ guidance
How it works
Advice/cautions
Reinforcers/
Rewards
Material reinforcers
These can be primary (e.g., food) or secondary (e.g.,money). Th
ese are given to the child after the child
has exhibited the required behaviors.
Be careful not to create situations where children believe
They must be rewarded for everything they do. Never reward
a whole group for the behaviors of a few.
Social reinforcers
Smiles, hugs, and kind words are social reinforcers, as is adult
attention (which is why teachers must becareful when respondin
g to negative behaviors).
This is often the best kind of reinforcement because it creates
important trust and relationships.
Activity reinforcers/ Premack principle
Completing a less-than-
desirable activity (e.g.,cleaning up the art area) is rewarded by
a More favorable one (e.g., playing on the computer).
Caution must be observed to make sure this does not punish a
child incapable of completing the first task to the teacher's
satisfaction.
Positive feedback
This is verbal feedback that tells the child he or she
is doing well and making progress.
The more specificthe praise, the more effective it is in modifyin
g behavior.
This is an extremely effective approach because it lets
children know what they are doing correctly.
Negative reinforcement
This is increasing a behavior by

removing a negativestimulus. For example, children will compl
ete work more quickly so they can go to the playground
sooner.
Rather than using negative reinforcement, teachers should
determine whether the behavior children are trying to avoid
could be made more meaningful and interesting.
Token economy
Children's appropriate behavior is rewarded
immediately with tokens, which are exchanged for material
reinforcers or privileges.
Tokens must be exchanged for things students really
want; a choice should also be provided. Many believe
tokens do not work with children under age 5.
Intrinsic reinforcement
Intrinsic reinforcement comes from within the child:
feelings of success or happiness, or a sense of
competence or pride.
The ultimate goal of discipline and guidance is that they are
internalized. Some people believe using extrinsic reinforcers
reduces the power of intrinsic reinforcement.
Punishments
Natural consequences
This is the natural result of what a child does or does
not do. A child who forgets to put on a jacket will get
cold on a winter day. A child who comes late to the
meal may miss out on his or her favorite food.
This works only when adults are willing to let go, and to let
the child live with the consequences of his or her behaviors.
A child needs to be able to make the connection between the
behavior and the result.
Logical consequences
If a child spills milk, a logical consequence is to have
him or her clean up the mess; a logical consequence
for a child drawing on a table is to have him or her
scrub the table clean.
The focus should be on fixing the problem and not on the

punishment. The child must be able to see how he or she
caused the problem and how the action helps to fix it.
Unrelated consequence
A child who does not complete a math assignment is
prevented from playing on the playground. There is
no logical connection between the behavior and the
consequence.
This approach should be avoided as much as possible,
because it does not teach anything and can backfire.
Response cost
A child's inappropriate behavior is punished by
removing a privilege he or she has earned. For
example, a child may earn money for a task and then
have it taken away for disobeying.
This approach is most effective when combined with positive
reinforcement for appropriate behavior, and when the child
does not lose everything he or she has earned.
Verbal reprimands
This is a verbal response by the adult to the child's
inappropriate behavior. The response should not be
sarcastic, in anger, or degrading. It should inform the
child of how he or she can engage in the appropriate behavior.
Verbal reprimands are more effective when they are brief,
immediate, and accompanied by eye contact or a firm grip.
They should be softly spoken and include a statement
acknowledging that the child is capable of exhibiting the
appropriate behavior.
Time out
This is a punishment that removes a child from a
pleasurable, engaging, or enjoyable situation. The
setting should not be reinforcing and the duration of
the punishment should be quite short.
Time out should be used sparingly and at the highest end of
a behavioral continuum. If it ends up being used frequently,
it is not working.
Modeling

Modeling is a very powerful way to teach both
appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. It works by
the child observing an adult or child who has prestige
and competence in a certain behavior or skill.
Adults and children whom other children see as behavioral
and learning models must be extremely consistent in their
behaviors. It is ineffective to say, "Do as I say, not as I do!"
ORG 6700, Diversity and Inclusion in the Organization Culture
1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
3. Compare and contrast dysfunctional and healthy thought-
behavior processes as they relate to
diversity and inclusion.
3.1 Evaluate stereotypes that impede an organization’s efforts
for diversity and inclusion.
3.2 Evaluate discriminatory practices that impede an
organization’s efforts for diversity and
inclusion.
3.3 Develop strategies for transforming a dysfunctional mental
model—based on stereotypes
and discriminatory practices—to a healthy mental model.

Reading Assignment
Read the following journal article from the Business Source
Complete database in the Waldorf Online Library:
Martinez, E. (2010). The air up there. OD Practitioner, 42(2),
14-18.
Read the following article from the Opposing Viewpoints
database in the Waldorf Online Library (Note: In the
Opposing Viewpoints database, type the article title in the
“search” bar to obtain the article.):
Levin, J., & Nolan, J. (2014). Racism and Anti-Semitism Are
Often Culturally Validated. In N. Berlatsky (Ed.),
Opposing Viewpoints. Anti-Semitism. Farmington Hills, MI:
Greenhaven Press.
(Reprinted from The Violence of Hate: Confronting Racism,
Anti-Semitism, and Other Forms of Bigotry, n.d.,
Pearson Education, Inc.: Upper Saddle River, NJ)
Watch the following video clips from the Films on Demand
database in the Waldorf Online Library:
Library Project” (10 minutes, 33
seconds)*
* If this video clip is not available, instead read the following

article from the Academic Search
Complete database in the Waldorf Online Library:
Kinsley, L. (2009). Lismore’s living library: Connecting
communities through conversation. APLIS,
22(1), 20-25.
Unit Lesson
Think of examples of workplace stereotypes and discrimination
that you have observed. Left unchecked, an
organization’s culture plays a major role in perpetuating those
stereotypes and discriminatory behaviors.
However, with an intervention designed to replace dysfunctional
patterns of stereotyping and discrimination
with more productive thought-behavior patterns, the
organization’s culture will also play a major role in that
change (Friesenborg, 2015; Schein, 2009). Comparing these two
scenarios, organization culture can either
be part of the problem or part of the solution. The difference is
whether there is an intervention led by a leader
or a consultant who is well-versed in the use-of-self as an
instrument for change (Friesenborg, 2015).
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Cultural Stereotypes and Discrimination

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Socio-Cognitive Systems Learning Model
The phrase socio-cognitive focuses on the thought-behavior
patterns that people have about themselves and
others, as social beings. The Socio-Cognitive Systems Learning
Model is a diagram that compares two
systems of values, behaviors, and outcomes: (a) Model I (i.e.,
the dysfunctional “default” system that
perpetuates stereotyping and discrimination) and (b) Model II
(i.e., the alternative, healthy, more productive
system that must be learned; Argyris, 2000, 20014, 2006a,
2006b, 2010; Argyris & Schön, 1996; Friesenborg,
2015).
Click here to view a document that depicts the Socio-Cognitive
Systems Learning Model. It includes two
figures. First, look at Figure 2, the simplified version of the
Socio-Cognitive Systems Learning Model. The
center row, shaded in black, shows the elements that comprise a
socio-cognitive process: values, behaviors,
and outcomes. Each of these three elements is influenced by
culture, which is mutually influenced by the
organization and the individual as patterns of meaning flow
between them (Argyris, 2000, 20014, 2006a,
2006b, 2010; Argyris & Schön, 1996; Friesenborg, 2015;
Schein, 2009). At the top of the diagram, you will
see the pattern of values, behaviors, and outcomes of the Model
I process. At the bottom of the diagram, you

will see the pattern of values, behaviors, and outcomes of the
Model II process (Friesenborg, 2015). Let us
look at these patterns in more detail, using both Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1 is the Socio-Cognitive Systems
Learning Model, and Figure 2 is a simplified version to use as
an introduction for understanding Figure 1.
Model I: Accommodating Stereotyping and Discrimination
Take a closer look at the Model I process, the cultural default
process that is typically in place unless an
intervention takes place (Friesenborg, 2015). We will also
weave a general example of stereotyping and
discrimination throughout the interrelated system of Model I
values, behaviors, and outcomes to demonstrate
how this system works.
Model I Values
The Model I values are self-centered. The individual espouses
(or pays lip-service) to values that are
idealized by the culture, but his or her real, underlying values
revolve around his or her own self-centered
desires and goals (Argyris, 2000, 20014, 2006a, 2006b, 2010;
Argyris & Schön, 1996; Friesenborg, 2015).
For example, people may claim to value the cultural ideals of
equality and fairness. However, their deep,
underlying values reflect their own self-centered desires and
goals. Their deep, underlying values also hold
stereotypes, such as those about women, people from minority
races, people in poverty, people with other
religious practices, people who are skinny, people who are
overweight, people who are young, people who
are old, people perceived as beautiful, people perceived as ugly,
or people from a variety of other

demographic groups. While individuals may pay lip service to
equality and fairness, they are mainly
concerned with their own self-centered desires and goals,
padding their egos and often comparing
themselves to those they stereotype.
Model I Behaviors
The Model I behaviors are self-centered behaviors that revolve
around gaining unilateral control by competing
for recognition, accruing social capital, and either punishing or
threatening people. Model I behaviors also
revolve around both blame and evasive behaviors that are
designed to defend oneself. These defensive
behaviors also protect the contradiction between the real and
espoused values from being analyzed. This
charade makes certain topics undiscussable (Argyris, 2000,
20014, 2006a, 2006b, 2010; Argyris & Schön,
1996; Friesenborg, 2015).
Let us continue the example described above, with people
espousing equality and fairness, yet truly valuing
their own self-centered desires and goals that are justified by
stereotyping other people based on their
demographic backgrounds. These Model I values are
subconsciously applied through Model I behaviors.
Using this example, the stereotypes that are woven into people’s
values are expressed through discriminatory
behaviors, which may be either subtle or explicit. Using the
example from above, a group of people believe
themselves to be superior to people from another demographic
group, so they seize unilateral control, which
they believe to be rightfully theirs. They may blame the other
demographic group or avoid extending
opportunities to people of that group. Through it all, they
subconsciously shroud the contradiction between

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their discriminatory actions and their espoused values about
equality and fairness, making the contradiction
undiscussable.
Model I Outcomes
A Model I system that includes stereotypical values and
discriminatory behaviors results in outcomes that are
riddled with pain and frustration among those people on the
receiving end of the stereotypes and
discrimination. This can lead to mistrust. People do not trust
others who stereotype and discriminate against
them. This destruction of trust typically results in the escalation
of problems (Argyris, 2000, 20014, 2006a,
2006b, 2010; Argyris & Schön, 1996; Friesenborg, 2015).
Single-Loop Learning
A socio-cognitive process is a cycle, a living system, and not
just a snapshot in time. The people involved will

respond to the Model I outcomes by reverting to Model I
behaviors, which can include seeking more unilateral
control, blaming, and using fancy footwork. Fancy footwork
consists of actions that deflect blame from oneself
and often redirect blame, undermining the other party involved
in the situation. Look at Figure 1, the Socio-
Cognitive Systems Learning Model. Single-loop learning
creates a vicious cycle between Model I behaviors
and Model I outcomes, producing resistance to productive
learning and change. Assumptions and values are
not tested through Model I, although the ugliness of the vicious
cycle fuels the self-centered focus of the
values of each person involved (Argyris, 2000, 20014, 2006a,
2006b, 2010; Argyris & Schön, 1996;
Friesenborg, 2015).
So, how can we change if this vicious cycle fuels itself? Before
we discuss interventions, we should contrast
Model I to the Model II socio-cognitive process.
Model II: Seeking to Understand People of Diverse
Backgrounds
The Model II socio-cognitive process is an alternative to the
Model I default.
Model II Values
Model II values are based on understanding yourself and other
people. This is accomplished by
acknowledging and testing assumptions or stereotypes, both
about yourself and about other people. Even the
most well-meaning of people are likely to have some inaccurate
assumptions or stereotypes because it is
human nature to judge people and situations. Model II values
seek to uncover these assumptions and

stereotypes, so they may be dealt with as the person seeks to
understand herself or himself and other people.
Model II Behaviors
Model II behaviors are centered on dialogue as the primary
means of better understanding oneself and other
people. People from diverse backgrounds are included and
welcomed to participate, and the ground rules
include treating each other with respect and providing the
freedom to disagree and the freedom to discuss the
undiscussable In this way, people discuss any elephants in the
room. This is not a debate to prove oneself
right, but instead it is a dialogue that focuses on asking
questions, listening, and observing.
First Loop of Double-Loop Learning
In contrast to Model I, Model II has two feedback loops. Also
different from Model I, the Model II feedback
loops both target one’s values: “acknowledging and testing
assumptions to understanding (one’s) true self
and other people” (Friesenborg, 2015, p. 9). For the first loop of
double-loop learning, you use the information
and observations gleaned from the dialogue (i.e., the Model II
behaviors) to better understand yourself and
others by uncovering and acknowledging stereotypes that you
have held, as well as uncovering any potential
discrimination that you have practiced.

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Model II Outcomes
Through Model II, problems are typically resolved, and the
people involved receive a sense of peace. Having
provided a psychologically safe environment for dialogue, they
trust each other. Ultimately, Model II typically
results in productive learning and change.
Second Loop of Double-Loop Learning
With the second loop of double-loop learning, the individuals
reflect on the outcomes to further inform their
values. The Model II outcomes produce a sense of wholeness,
which aligns with Model II values. Unlike the
values and outcomes of Model I, Model II’s values and
outcomes are congruent or complementary. If
wholeness-oriented outcomes were not achieved and the values
and outcomes do not yet align, more
dialogue is needed.
Intervention: Transformative Learning from Model I to Model II
Model II is clearly the more productive thought-behavior
pattern. How do we lead people from Model I to
Model II? One way to lead this change is through intervention.
An intervention is defined as a change agent’s deliberate action
that is designed to replace old thought-
behavior patterns with new ways of thinking and behaving

(Cummings & Worley, 2009). An intervention may
take a variety of forms. In this unit, we will discuss both
informal and formal interventions, as well as small-
scale and large-scale approaches. Each of these forms of
intervention is typically driven by ethics and by an
ethically-driven interest in generating change to help people.
Below are some examples of interventions.
Individual-Level Intervention
By learning about the culture of learning organizations and how
culture impacts diversity and inclusion, you
are developing an awareness of Model I and Model II patterns.
As you interact with people in the organization
and you recognize Model II behaviors and outcomes, you have
the opportunity to initiate a Model II feedback
loop aimed at Model II values. The feedback loop is designed to
seek the perspectives of other people in
order to better understand yourself and other people. In other
words, you have the opportunity to initiate
dialogue and other Model II behaviors with others with the goal
of better understanding yourself and better
understanding other people. This also creates an environment
for the other person to do the same. The
feedback loop makes the connection between actions and
underlying values.
When you recognize Model I behaviors and outcomes among
other people, you have the opportunity to
initiate Model II dialogue in order to generate a Model II
feedback loop, helping other people to better
understand themselves and other people from diverse
backgrounds. As you are speaking one-on-one with an
individual who is making assumptions or stereotypes about a
person based on that person’s group affiliation,
you may use self-as-instrument to initiate dialogue with that

person.
For example, if an individual in your organization tells a joke
that fuels stereotypes or demeans people of a
particular demographic group, you might dialogue with that
person to help him or her see the perspective of
people from that demographic group. As another example, a
leader might make an off-hand comment that a
particular job candidate is less desirable because he or she is
older or nearing retirement.
However, maybe it is not something that someone said, but it
might be an observation that someone is being
excluded based on his or her membership within a particular
demographic group. For example, the leadership
may decide to launch a plumb project, but the employees
considered for that project may be limited to males.
Based on this observation, you would have the opportunity to
discuss your observation with the leaders and
ask if there are women (or members of other under-represented
groups) who might also qualify to participate
in the project.
Prompting a Model II feedback loop may be considered a small-
scale intervention as you dialogue with
people to help them develop awareness of their Model I patterns
and to use dialogue and other Model II
behaviors. The goal is to help people recognize the assumptions
they have about people and to probe those
assumptions—by seeking to understand the perspectives of
other people from diverse backgrounds—in order
to identify whether those assumptions are baseless stereotypes
or whether the assumptions are valid.

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One note of caution: Be careful that you create a
psychologically safe environment in order to avoid the
inclination for others to respond defensively. Also, be careful
that you do not fall into Model I traps as you
seek to help others recognize their stereotypes. Your goal is not
to prove them wrong or prove yourself right,
as those are actions are indicative of Model I behaviors
designed to achieve unilateral control or blame.
Instead, think of yourself as a coach whose role is to ask
questions in order to help people consider new
angles. In the process, you may learn more about yourself as
well, and you may even realize assumptions
and stereotypes that you have held.
Intervention at the Team-Level
Organizational change may occur through either a formal or an
informal intervention, led by one or more
people within the team or by an external consultant. In both
cases, the leader or consultant uses self-as-
instrument to initiate change by helping people to dialogue in
order to better understand themselves and other
people. Like the individual-level intervention described above,
interventions at the team level also use a
Model II feedback loop to help people learn from the diverse

perspectives of other people. The goal is to
create a culture that uses Model II.
Intervention at the Organization-Level
Depending on the scale of the intervention, particularly with a
large team or an entire organization, you may
wish to enlist the help of an external consultant who is well-
versed in transformative change through the
development of a Model II culture. The tools presented in this
class may help initiate an intervention at the
individual level and perhaps among small teams.
Conclusion
Model II includes excellent strategies for dispelling stereotypes
and abolishing discriminatory practices. Think
about how Model I and Model II apply to the examples in the
Required Readings. Also, seek to recognize
examples of Model I and Model II in your own experience and
think about how you might lead those
relationships from Model I to Model II, achieving productive
learning and change.
References
Argyris, C. (2000). Flawed advice and the management trap.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Argyris, C. (2004). Reasons and rationalizations: The limits to
organizational knowledge. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.

Argyris, C. (2006a). Effective intervention activity. In J. V.
Gallos (Ed.), Organization development
(pp. 158-184). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Argyris, C. (2006b). Teaching smart people to learn. In J. V.
Gallos (Ed.), Organization development
(pp. 267-285). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Argyris, C. (2010). Organizational traps: Leadership, culture,
organizational design. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1996). Organizational learning II:
Theory, method, and practice. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishing
Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2009). Organization
development & change. Mason, OH: South-Western
Cengage Learning.
Friesenborg, L. (2015). The culture of learning organizations:
Understanding Argyris’ theory through a
Socio-Cognitive Systems Learning Model. Manuscript
submitted for publication.
Schein, E. H. (2009). The corporate culture survival guide (2nd
ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

7.3 Approaches to the Guidance and Discipline of Young
Children
It is important to remember that the goal of discipline and
guidance is to help children internalize important rules and
societal expectations. If the discipline or guidance approach a
caregiver uses is consistent with Erikson's stages of
psychosocial development, success will be higher, and the
caregiver will be less frustrated. Further, when all parties
involved in disciplining a child are consistent, the results will
be more effective. These various approaches are summarized in
Table 7.1. An important category of learning is behaviorism,
which is an observable change of behavior caused by the
environment (Ormrod, 2008). Behaviorism can be roughly
divided into two overall categories: rewards (known as positive
and negative reinforcement) and punishments. (The exception to
this rule is the social cognitive approach [modeling], which is
both behavioral and cognitive.)
Rewards/Reinforcements
A reward, or positive reinforcement, is the consequence of a
child's behaviors that increases the probability of it recurring
(Marzano, 2003). Rewards can be a smile or a positive personal
message, such as "I love how you put the books back on the
shelf." Rewards can also be in the form of external privileges,
such as the use of the computer after the child has finished an
assignment. Rewards include things like money, toys, candy,
dessert (after eating a main meal), tokens, and stickers.
Reinforcing agents, or reinforcers, can be primary reinforcers or
secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers satisfy a built-in
need or desire, such as food, water, air, or warmth, and are
essential to our well-being. Other primary reinforcers, such as
candy, are not essential, but physical affection, a smile, and
cuddling would seem to be (Ormrod, 2008). There are
individual differences regarding the effectiveness of these
rewards. For example, for someone who does not like chocolate,

chocolate is not a reinforcer. Secondary reinforcers are
previously neutral stimuli that, through repeated association
with another reinforcer, have become a reinforcer. A neutral
stimulus is a stimulus that a person does not respond to in any
noticeable way. For example, initially ringing a small bell in the
classroom causes no response from the children; however, after
the bell is continually followed by a snack, the bell will produce
a marked response. Other examples of secondary reinforcers are
praise, tokens, money, good grades, and a feeling of success.
Extrinsic Reinforcement
Positive reinforcers are rewards that increase a person's
behavior, such as a smile from the teacher after a child has
helped another child solve a problem, or the feeling of
satisfaction when one has completed a difficult task. They are
arranged into two different categories: extrinsic and intrinsic.
Extrinsic reinforcements are rewards provided by the outside
environment.
Material reinforcers. These are actual objects, such as food,
toys, or candy. While this approach is extremely effective in
changing behavior, it can be counterproductive, as it focuses the
child's learning on achieving the reward, rather than on the
complexities and strategies required to learn.
Social reinforcers. Social reinforcers are gestures or signs (a
smile, praise, or attention) that one person gives to another.
Teachers' attention, approval, and praise are powerful and
effective reinforcers (McKerchar & Thompson, 2004).
Activity reinforcers. This is the opportunity to engage in a
favorite activity after completing a less favorable one. It is
called the Premack principle. The more desirable activity is
contingent on the completion of the less desirable one
(Premack, 1959).
Positive feedback. Positive feedback works when it

communicates to the child that he or she is doing well or
making progress, and it is particularly effective when it gives
students guidance about what they have learned and how to
improve their behavior. Students think about this information in
an effort to modify their behavior (Ormrod, 2008).
Token economies. A token economy is a program in which
individuals who have behaved appropriately receive a token—an
item that can later be traded for objects or privileges of the
child's choice. Most children under age 5 cannot benefit from a
token economy due to their developmental stage and lack of
experience.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Intrinsic reinforcements are the internal good feelings that come
from within the child. Feelings of success, pride, and relief at
completing a task or assignment are all examples of intrinsic
reinforcement. For many young children, the motivation for
achieving a variety of new skills and tasks, from learning to
walk and talk to toilet training and holding a spoon, come from
a deep sense of accomplishment and personal satisfaction.
Rather than generally praising children for what they have
attempted or achieved, a parent or teacher can praise the effort:
"I like how you kept trying until you were able to tie your shoe"
and "I see how carefully you decided which tomatoes were ripe
enough to pick, and which were the ones that needed to stay on
the plant."
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement increases a response through the
removal of a stimulus—usually an unpleasant one. Thus,
negative reinforcement occurs when something negative is taken
away to improve a behavior. Telling children they can leave the
classroom to go to the playground once they have completed
their math activity is negative reinforcement. Other examples
include when a parent picks up a crying baby (negative stimuli)

and the baby stops crying, as well as the annoying buzzer in
your car that keeps going until you put on the seatbelt (you put
on the seatbelt [the desired behavior] to get rid of the annoying
noise [the negative stimuli]).
Punishment
Punishment is a behavioral approach that attempts to reduce a
child's inappropriate behavior (Ormrod, 2008). There are two
kinds of punishment: (1) the presentation of a negative
stimulus, for example, scolding a child who has misbehaved or
assigning a failing grade after a child did not complete an
academic task; and (2) removal of a stimulus, usually a pleasant
one. This could be, for example, taking away an allowance or
the loss of special privileges. Both kinds of punishment reduce
the target behavior. Forms of punishment used in early care,
education programs, and homes include natural consequences,
logical consequences, unrelated consequences, response cost,
verbal reprimands, and time out. Punishment does not directly
help the child gain emotional regulation or internalize accepted
behaviors, but it does help children (if used consistently) know
which behaviors are acceptable and which are not acceptable
(Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Problems with the Use of Punishment to Modify Children's
Behavior
Though punishment is a very popular approach used by adults
with young children (both parents and early care and education
staff) and can be very effective (Hall et al., 1976), it tends to be
overused and is fraught with problems. For example, a punished
behavior is not eliminated. It often reappears when the person
doing the punishing leaves, thus requiring constant adult
supervision at home and in the program. Further, punishment
does not address the cause of the behavior. Often, there are
clear and salient reasons why a young child is behaving a
specific way in a specific situation, and it is important that
these causes be addressed.

In some situations, punishment can actually lead to an increase
in the behavior that is being punished. This can occur in two
ways. If punishment is the only attention the child gets from the
adult, the child will continue to engage in the behavior for
attention. Punishment can also increase the behavior in a setting
where there is no one to control it; for example, punishing
certain bad language in the classroom can increase the use of
the same language on the playground. Further, young children
are often unaware of the specific behavior being punished, and
then they believe they are being punished for being "a bad
child." This develops low self-esteem, particularly in young
children who take an all or nothing view of personal criticism
(e.g., "I am all good" or "I am all bad").
Punishment can also lead to children avoiding certain places
and activities. For example, a child who always does poorly at
an assignment, such as math, and is punished for it, may not
only learn to avoid math, but may learn to dislike school
because he or she learns to associate all of school with math
(Smith & Smoll, 1997).
When punishment is used on children, they are not always being
shown how to engage in the appropriate behavior. The
punishment only tells them what not to do and what they are
doing poorly; it does not teach anything about what they should
be doing instead. Often, children do not know how to engage in
the socially acceptable alternative to aggression (for example,
how to resolve a conflict without being aggressive). A child
who grabs a toy from another child may not understand that
there is another way to get what he or she wants; a child who
bites another child may not have the language to communicate
his or her anger and frustration. Punishment can also lead to
aggression and later to bullying (Landrum & Kauffman, 2006),
because it models aggressive behavior and the use of power by
adults to achieve their goals (see Helping Children Develop: Do
as I Do: The Power of Example).

Finally, severe punishment can lead to emotional and physical
harm. Punishment can potentially lead to child abuse; many
adults with low self-esteem can trace this back to receiving
constant and harsh negative putdowns and punishment as
children (Smith & Fong, 2004), and parents who were abused as
children are more likely to become abusers themselves (Milner
et al., 2010).
Natural and Logical Consequences
Natural and logical consequences are forms of punishment that
make much more sense to children and teach them that certain
behaviors have consequences, some of which are unpleasant.
Natural Consequences
Natural consequences are the result of a child's behavior
without any direct involvement by an adult. They teach children
the causes and effects of certain behaviors. For example, if a
child fails to put on a jacket, the natural consequence is that he
or she might get cold; a child who comes late to lunch may get
cold food or fewer food choices. Natural consequences do not
work when a child is too young to make the connection between
cause and effect. They also do not work when the adults
involved are overly protective and do not allow children to
"suffer the consequences" of their actions or inactions.
Logical Consequences
Logical consequences occur when a child must rectify a
situation or repair damage caused by his or her behavior. When
a child spills milk on the floor, the logical consequence is for
the child to help clean up the milk; if a child draws on a table
top, the logical consequence is for the child to scrub the table
top clean. Logical consequences only work when the following
occur:
Children are able to make the connection between their

behavior, the consequences of that behavior, and what they are
then asked to do. This connection develops during the preschool
years, through experience and brain development.
The consequence is logical. Preventing a child from going
outside to play because he misbehaved in the classroom is not a
logical consequence.
The consequence occurs immediately after the infraction takes
place.
A logical consequence might be to remove a child from an
activity or group, which is called time away. For example, a
child who continually knocks down other children's
constructions in the block area may be asked to leave for a
while; but again, this consequence must be logical and timely.
Because logical consequences require a child to "fix" the
problem, they are rarely something the child would choose to do
and thus are not often viewed by the child as a reward.
However, the child learns that if he or she wants to participate
in an activity, or do what the other children are doing, then he
or she needs to engage in the appropriate behaviors. While time
away is a form of time out (discussed later in the chapter), its
focus is on making it clear to the child that removal from the
activity is directly related to the child's behavior.
Unrelated Consequences
Unrelated consequences are the punishment of a child's
inappropriate behavior with something that is totally unrelated
to the behavior—as in the example of keeping a child from
outdoor play after he or she has misbehaved inside the
classroom. Because the consequence is not logically related to
the behavior, this approach is usually ineffective (Ormrod,
2008). It can also misfire; for example, the child who is kept
indoors because he or she misbehaved may need to go outside to
burn off energy and take a rest from academic activities;
preventing this will cause further classroom disruption.
Response Cost

Response cost involves taking away something the child
previously earned. Thus, a child might have earned time at the
computer by cleaning up the art area but now loses this
privilege due to fighting with another child. The response cost
approach is most effective when used with positive
reinforcement for an appropriate behavior and when the child
does not lose everything he or she has earned by only a small
infraction (Phillips et al., 1971). When children lose everything
they have earned, they will soon not bother to earn anything.
Verbal Reprimands
Verbal reprimands are more effective when they are immediate,
brief, and accompanied by eye contact or a firm grip (Pfiffner &
O'Leary, 1993). (See Chapter 6 for a discussion on this in
relation to eye contact.) A verbal reprimand may also be more
effective when spoken quietly and close to the child, thus not
bringing attention to the child, which would cause guilt and
shame. Verbal reprimands should also provide an encouraging
statement indicating the caregiver knows the child can engage
in the appropriate behavior (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
Time Out
Time out is punishment because the child is removed from a
pleasurable and enjoyable stimulus due to his or her
inappropriate behavior (Skiba & Raison, 1990). Time out differs
from time away in that time out is a general punishment for any
kind of behavioral problems, while time away is removal of the
child when the child's behavior directly results in the disruption
of an activity. Further, in time away, the focus is on the child
understanding the relationship between his or her behavior and
the resultant disruption, and not on putting the child in a
stimulus-free environment (removal is the punishment). In time
out, the child is usually removed to another room or a corner of
the classroom that is screened off. The time out environment
should not be reinforcing, such as the school corridor or
principal's office—or frightening, such as a dark closet (Walker

& Shea, 1995). Time out is usually quite short—for example,
one minute for each year of a child's age. A key for using time
out is that a child's release from the environment is contingent
on the child's demonstrating the appropriate behavior. Time out
has been shown to be effective in reducing a variety of
disruptive and inappropriate behaviors (Pfiffner & Barkley,
1998; Rortvedt & Mittenberger, 1994) and does not interfere
with the ongoing classroom activities and events. Time out also
does not give undue attention (a reward) to the child.
Modeling
Modeling is both a behavioral and cognitive process of social
learning by which a person observes the actions of others and
then copies them. The academic term for modeling is social
cognitive theory. Infants imitate facial expressions of others
within a day or two after birth. By 6–9 months of age, they
learn new ways to manipulate objects by watching a model
demonstrate those behaviors, and by 18 months of age, they
remember how to imitate an action they observed a month
before (Collie & Hayne, 1999).
Albert Bandura is the theorist most associated with our
understanding of modeling. According to Bandura, modeling
can teach new behaviors, increase the frequency of previously
forbidden behaviors, and increase the frequency of similar (but
not exactly the same) behaviors (1977, 1986). From a discipline
perspective, modeling can teach and increase desired behaviors,
such as putting blocks back on a shelf like a teacher or
classmate does. Negative behaviors can also increase through
modeling (e.g., teasing Johnny because others are doing so) (see
Helping Children Develop: Do as I Do: The Power of Example).
Modeling works by the learner (child) observing the behavior of
the model (adult, peer). After the behavior of the model is
reinforced, the learner repeats the behavior. The reinforcement
of the model's behavior is called vicarious reinforcement and is
the behavioral part of the theory. The ability of the child to

imitate the model's behavior (even some time later) and the
motivation to do so make up the cognitive part of modeling.
As mentioned, children can learn both appropriate and
inappropriate behaviors through modeling. A great amount of
research has been conducted on learning aggression from real
models and from film, television, and video game models. These
studies show the powerful effect of models on teaching children
aggressive behaviors (Bandura, 1986). However, modeling (both
real and symbolic) can also effectively teach prosocial
behaviors—those aimed at helping others (Bandura &
McDonald, 1963).
HELPING CHILDREN DEVELOP:
Do as I Do: The Power of Example
It works better than rewards and punishments to change a
child's behavior.
It works better than direct instruction to teach academic skills
and concepts.
It explains why children imitate the behavior of people and
characters their parents and teachers might find unacceptable.
It is one of the most effective ways for parents to help their
children develop important literacy skills.
What is This Miraculous Thing?
Social cognitive theory. Commonly called modeling, social
cognitive theory is a very powerful, yet often misunderstood,
method for teaching young children.
Children will imitate the behavior of a role model, which can be
a live person or a symbolic model such as a character from a TV
program, movie, video game, or book. Unfortunately, the
behaviors they copy may be appropriate or inappropriate—it

works equally well for both! But social cognitive theory is more
complex than simply copying a role model. The theory is
powerful because it combines cognition (thinking), behaviorism
(rewards and punishment), and motivation. For modeling to
work, the following conditions must be met:
The model must be competent in the area or skill being
modeled. While a professional athlete would be a good model
for encouraging athletics in children, he or she may not be an
effective model for teaching children to read.
The model must have respect and stature in the eyes of the
learner.
The model must model behavior in which the child is already
interested. For example, someone who can speak Portuguese is
likely to be a role model for someone who is about to go to
Brazil and wants to learn Portuguese. But this same person is
not likely to be a role model for someone who has no interest in
learning Portuguese.
The role model's behavior must be reinforced in some way.
Many children look up to professional athletes and rap stars, for
example, because these stars' actions are seen by the children to
be rewarded with money and the things money can buy, such as
fancy cars, big houses, and expensive jewelry and clothing.
Teachers, parents, and even children can become role models
for teaching good or bad behavior. If Johnny, a popular boy in
the classroom, picks on another child and other children laugh
while the teacher ignores his behavior, other children are likely
to engage in this kind of bullying behavior. If, on the other
hand, when Johnny teases another child the teacher sternly
cautions him and removes him from the action for a short while,
chances are the other children in the classroom will not mimic
Johnny's behavior, because it is not being rewarded.
Uses of Social Cognitive Theory
When a teacher wants a young child to clean up after the child
has played with blocks, the teacher can tell the child to replace

the blocks on the shelves and threaten him or her with some sort
of punishment if the task is not done, or the teacher can get
down on the floor with the child and show him or her how to put
the blocks on the shelf, making it a pleasant experience. Then,
when the child has finished, the teacher can praise the child for
helping. If a parent wants to help a child learn to read, the best
thing the parent can do is model reading to the child. Modeling
can be done by reading a newspaper or book, reading the
directions aloud when a child wants to make something, and
reading books to the child on a regular basis. This will help the
child realize that reading is a pleasant and rewarding
experience.
Finally, if parents and teachers want to know why a child is
using bad language or engaging in poor behavior on the
playground or in the classroom, they usually only have to look
as far as the role models in the child's life, which sometimes
means reflecting on their own behavior and making positive
changes.
Wardle, F. (2003). Do as I do: Power of example. Children and
Families, 17(4), pp. 62–63. National Head Start Association.
Table 7.1: Approaches to guidance and discipline with young
children
Type of discipline/ guidance
How it works
Advice/cautions
Reinforcers/
Rewards

Material reinforcers
These can be primary (e.g., food) or secondary (e.g.,money). Th
ese are given to the child after the child
has exhibited the required behaviors.
Be careful not to create situations where children believe
They must be rewarded for everything they do. Never reward
a whole group for the behaviors of a few.
Social reinforcers
Smiles, hugs, and kind words are social reinforcers, as is adult
attention (which is why teachers must becareful when respondin
g to negative behaviors).
This is often the best kind of reinforcement because itcreates
important trust and relationships.
Activity reinforcers/ Premack principle
Completing a less-than-
desirable activity (e.g.,cleaning up the art area) is rewarded by
a More favorable one (e.g., playing on the computer).
Caution must be observed to make sure this does not punisha
child incapable of completing the first task to the teacher's
satisfaction.
Positive feedback
This is verbal feedback that tells the child he or she
is doing well and making progress.
The more specificthe praise, the more effective it is in modifyin
g behavior.
This is an extremely effective approach because it lets
children know what they are doing correctly.
Negative reinforcement
This is increasing a behavior by
removing a negativestimulus. For example, children will compl
ete work more quickly so they can go to the playground
sooner.
Rather than using negative reinforcement, teachers should
determine whether the behavior children are trying to avoid
could be made more meaningful and interesting.
Token economy

Children's appropriate behavior is rewarded
immediately with tokens, which are exchanged for material
reinforcers or privileges.
Tokens must be exchanged for things students really
want; a choice should also be provided. Many believe
tokens do not work with children under age 5.
Intrinsic reinforcement
Intrinsic reinforcement comes from within the child:
feelings of success or happiness, or a sense of
competence or pride.
The ultimate goal of discipline and guidance is that they are
internalized. Some people believe using extrinsic reinforcers
reduces the power of intrinsic reinforcement.
Punishments
Natural consequences
This is the natural result of what a child does or does
not do. A child who forgets to put on a jacket will get
cold on a winter day. A child who comes late to the
meal may miss out on his or her favorite food.
This works only when adults are willing to let go, and to let
the child live with the consequences of his or her behaviors.
A child needs to be able to make the connection between the
behavior and the result.
Logical consequences
If a child spills milk, a logical consequence is to have
him or her clean up the mess; a logical consequence
for a child drawing on a table is to have him or her
scrub the table clean.
The focus should be on fixing the problem and not on the
punishment. The child must be able to see how he or she
caused the problem and how the action helps to fix it.
Unrelated consequence
A child who does not complete a math assignment is
prevented from playing on the playground. There is
no logical connection between the behavior and the
consequence.

This approach should be avoided as much as possible,
because it does not teach anything and can backfire.
Response cost
A child's inappropriate behavior is punished by
removing a privilege he or she has earned. For
example, a child may earn money for a task and then
have it taken away for disobeying.
This approach is most effective when combined with positive
reinforcement for appropriate behavior, and when the child
does not lose everything he or she has earned.
Verbal reprimands
This is a verbal response by the adult to the child's
inappropriate behavior. The response should not be
sarcastic, in anger, or degrading. It should inform the
child of how he or she can engage in the appropriate behavior.
Verbal reprimands are more effective when they are brief,
immediate, and accompanied by eye contact or a firm grip.
They should be softly spoken and include a statement
acknowledging that the child is capable of exhibiting the
appropriate behavior.
Time out
This is a punishment that removes a child from a
pleasurable, engaging, or enjoyable situation. The
setting should not be reinforcing and the duration of
the punishment should be quite short.
Time out should be used sparingly and at the highest end of
a behavioral continuum. If it ends up being used frequently,
it is not working.
Modeling
Modeling is a very powerful way to teach both
appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. It works by
the child observing an adult or child who has prestige
and competence in a certain behavior or skill.
Adults and children whom other children see as behavioral
and learning models must be extremely consistent in their
behaviors. It is ineffective to say, "Do as I say, not as I do!"

Wardle, F. (2013). Collaboration with families and
communities [Electronic version]. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/

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