Provides information about human factors

1. 18ISE04-Principles of
Management

2. Human Factors and Motivation
• Leading: The process of influencing people so that they will contribute to
organizational and group goals
• Managing requires the creation and maintenance of an environment in
which individuals work together toward the accomplishment of common
objectives
• Human Factors in Managing
Multiplicity of roles
No Average Person
The Importance of personal Dignity: The concept of individual dignity
people must be treated with respect, no matter what their position in the
organization

3. Human Factors and Motivation
Consideration of the whole person
Motivation: A general term applying to the entire class of drives,
desires, needs, wishes and similar forces

4. An Early Behavioural Model:
MCGREGOR’s Theory X and Theory Y
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:Two sets of assumptions about
the nature of people
• Theory X Assumptions
• Theory Y Assumptions
• Clarification of the theories

5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory
• Maslow’s needs theory: when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of
need ceases to be a motivator
• The Needs Hierarchy:
Physiological needs
Security or safety, needs
Affiliation , or acceptance, needs
Esteem needs
Need for self-actualization
Questioning the needs hierarchy

7. ALDERFER’s ERG Theory
• People are motivated by existence needs, relatedness needs, and
growth needs.
• HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY
• Dissatisfiers, also called maintenance, hygiene or job-context factors
are not motivators while satisfiers are motivators and are related to job
content

9. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
• Vroom’s expectancy theory :People will be motivated to do things to
reach a goal if they believe in the worth of that goal and if they can
see that what they do will help them in achieving it.
• The Vroom theory and practice
• The porter and Lawler motivational model
• Implications for practice

11. Equity Theory
• Motivation is influenced by an individual’s subjective judgement
about the fairness of the reward he or she gets relative to the inputs,
compared with the rewards of others.
• The Essential aspects of the theory may be expressed as follows:
Outcomes by a person = Outcomes by another person
Inputs by a person Inputs by another person

13. Goal Setting Theory of Motivation
• For objectives to be meaningful, they must be clear, attainable, and
verifiable.

14. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory
• Positive Reinforcement or behaviour modification: Individuals can be
motivated by proper design of their work environment and by praise for
their performance , while punishment for poor performance produces
negative results.
McCLELLAND’S NEEDS THEORY OF MOTIVATION
• The basic motivating needs are the need for power, the need for affiliation
and the need for achievement
• Need for power
• Need for Affiliation
• Need for Achievement
• How McClelland’s Approach applies to managers

15. Special Motivational Techniques
• Money: Money is often more than monetary value it can also mean status or
power or other things
• Other Rewards considerations:
• Intrinsic rewards: may include a feeling of accomplishment and self-
actualization
• Extrinsic rewards: include benefits, recognition, status symbols and money
• Pay may be based on individual ,group, and organizational performance.
• Participation
• Quality of working life

16. Job Enrichment
• Job enlargement: Enlarging the scope of the job by adding similar
tasks without enhancing responsibility
• Job enrichment: Building into jobs a higher sense of challenge and
achievement
• Limitation of job enrichment
• Making job enrichment effective
• A systems and contingency approach to motivation: Motivation
must be considered from a systems and contingency point of view

17. Leadership
Leadership and motivation are closely interconnected
• Defining Leadership
The art or process of influencing people so that they will strive
willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals
• Ingredients of leadership: power a fundamental understanding of
people; the ability to inspire followers to apply their full capabilities ;
the leader’s style and the development of a conductive organizational
climate

18. Leadership
• Principle of leadership
Since people tend to follow those who offer them a means of
satisfying their personal goals , the more managers understand what
motivates their subordinates and the more they reflect this
understanding in their actions, the more effective they are likely to be
as leaders
• Trait approaches to leadership
• Charismatic leadership approach

19. Leadership behaviour and styles
• Styles based on use of authority
The autocratic leader: commands and expects compliance is dogmatic
and positive and leads by the ability to withhold or give rewards and
punishment
The democratic or participative leader consults with subordinates and
encourages their participation
The free-rein leader uses power very little, if at all , giving
subordinates a high degree of independence

21. Leadership behaviour and styles
• Do women lead differently
• The managerial grid : the grid has two dimensions-concern for people
and concern for production
• The four extreme styles
• Leadership as a continuum concept: Leadership involves a variety of
styles, ranging from one that is highly boss cantered to one that is
highly subordinates cantered
• The appropriate leadership style depends on the leader,the followers
and the situation

24. Situational or contingency approaches to
leadership
• Fiedler’s contingency approach to leadership: people become leaders not
only because of their personality attributes but also because of various
situational factors and the interactions between leaders and group members.
• Critical dimensions of the leadership situation: position power , task
structure , leader-member relations
• Leadership styles
• Fiedler’s research and management
• The path-Goal approach to leadership effectiveness: the main function of
the leader is to clarify and set goals with subordinates ,help them find the
best path for achieving the goals and remove obstacles.

25. Situational or contingency approaches to
leadership
• The theory categorizes leader behaviour into four groups:
• Supportive leadership
• Participative leadership
• Instrumental leadership
• Achievement-oriented leadership

26. Transactional and transformational
leadership
• Transactional leaders: Identify what needs to be done to achieve goals,
including clarifying roles and tasks ,rewarding performance and
providing for the social needs of followers
• Articulate a vision, inspire and motivate followers and create a climate
favourable for organizational change

29. Communication
• Communication-The transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being
understood by the receiver
• The purpose of communication:
• The communication process
Sender of the message
Use of a channel to transmit the message
Receiver of the message
Noise hindering communication: Anything-whether in the sender, the transmission or the receiver
that hinders communication
Feedback in communication
Situational and organizational factors in communication: The communication process is affected by
many situational and organizational factors
The communication model provides an overview of the communication process, identifies the
critical variables and show their relationships

32. Communication in the organization
• The manager’s need to know
• Communication flow in the organization
• Downward communication: It flows from people at higher levels to
those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy
• Upward communication: It travels from subordinates to superiors and
continues up the organizational hierarchy
• Ombudsperson: A person assigned to investigate employee concerns,
thus providing a valuable upward communication link

33. Communication in the organization
• Crosswise communication: Horizontal flow and Diagonal Flow
• Information is among people on the same or similar organizational
levels-Horizontal flow
• Information is among persons at different levels who have no direct
reporting relationships with one another.
• Written, oral and nonverbal communication: it includes facial
expressions and body gestures
• Written communication
• Oral communication
• Communication methods

35. Barriers and Breakdowns in
communication
• Lack of planning
• Unclarified assumptions
• Semantic distortion
• Poorly expressed messages
• Communication barriers in the international environment
• Loss by transmission and poor retention
• Poor listening and premature evaluation
• Impersonal communication
• Distrust ,threat and fear
• Insufficient period for adjustment to change
• Information overload
• Other communication barriers

36. Toward Effective Communication
• Listening: A key to understanding-Listening is a skill that can be
developed through appropriate techniques.
• Tips for improving written communication
• Tips for improving oral communication

37. Electronic media in communication
• Telecommunication
• Teleconference: A group of people interacting with each other by
means of audio and video media with moving or still pictures
• The use of computers for information handling and networking:
Instant messaging shows whether a friend or colleague is connected to
the internet; if connected , messages can be exchanged instantly.