Nursing Care Plan Essay

Nursing Care Plan Essay
Nursing Care Plan CLIENT CLINICAL PICTURE Mr. GB is a 78 year old white male admitted to
Bay Pines VAMC on 6/18/96. for " atypical chest pain and hemoptysis". V/S BP 114/51, P 84, R 24,
T 97.4. He seems alert and oriented x 3 and cheerful. Bowel sounds present x 4. Pt. has a red area on
his coccyx. Silvadene treatments have been started. Pt. Has a fungal lung infection with a pleural
suction drainage tube inserted in his chest . Pt is extremely thin with poor skin turgor with a
diagnosis of cachexia ( wasting) secondary to malnutrition and infection. Patient is no known
allergies to drugs but is allergic to aerosol sprays disinfectants and dust.. Advanced directives on
chart. Code status DNR. Primary physician ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1989 p.879) CACHEXIA SECONDARY TO MALNUTRITION/INFECTION : The state of ill
health, malnutrition, and wasting It may occur in any chronic diseases, certain malignancies and
advanced pulmonary tuberculosis. (Tabor's, 17th ed. 1989 p.287) NECROTIZING PNEUMONIA:
Aspiration pneumonia. Aspiration pneumonia is frequently called necrotizing pneumonia because of
the pathologic changes in the lungs. It usually follows aspiration of material in the mouth into the
trachea and subsequently the lungs. The aspirated material. Either food, water, or vomitus, is the
triggering mechanism for the pathology of this type of pneumonia. If the aspirated material is an
inert substance (e.g. barium or nonacid stomach contents), the initial manifestation is usually caused
by obstruction of airways. When the aspirated materials contain gastric acid, there is chemical injury
to the lung parenchyma with infection as a secondary event usually 48 to 72 hours later. The
infecting organism is usually one of the normal oropharyngeal flora. The clinical manifestations
proceed as those of a classic pneunococcal or streptococcal pneumonia. Fungi may also be a cause
of pneumonia. These infections are not transmitted from person to person, and the patient does not
have to be placed in isolation. The clinical manifestations are similar to those of bacterial
pneumonia. Skin and serology tests are available to assist in identifying the infecting organism.
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Management of Fluid Overload in Chronic Renal Failure
Management of Fluid overload in Chronic Renal Failure (CRF)
Chronic Renal Failure is a long term serious irreversible condition, described as the gradual loss of
kidney function (McCarthy, et al 2009). The number of patients suffering from CRF in United
Kingdom (UK) is rising rapidly. Ferenbach and Wood (2005, p.16) state that in UK, about 6000
people are commencing dialysis treatment per year. Fluid overload is a frequently observed finding
in renal failure patients. About one third of the patients receiving dialysis for Chronic Renal Failure
have fluid overload despite advice to restrict their oral fluid intake (Roderick, et al 2004).
This assignment will examine the clinical effectiveness of the management of fluid overload in ...
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In the beginning, his renal functions were relatively stable. Unfortunately in 2007, his blood urea
showed deteriorating renal function.
For this reason, the physician suggested that he 'might' require dialysis in a couple of years. He
attended for dialysis counselling so that he would know what action would be taken in case his
condition deteoriated. It is preferable to have preparation for dialysis as early as possible and the
patient should have confidence in the whole dialysis team (Thomas, 2004). Goldberg and Scoble
(2005) also urge the importance to begin the preparation at least six months before they need the
dialysis. But even in the best situation, adjusting to the effects of kidney failure may be difficult for
the patient and the family. Following a phase of acceptance, he agreed for an appointment with a
predialysis nurse.
Since then I have been caring for this patient. The main problem for Mr. Frank is the fluid overload
and its related complications. About 30% of the patients above 65 years are fluid overloaded even
after dialysis (Lindley, 2009, p. 11). Some patients cannot follow the instructions and gain about 4–5
kg between dialyses and this patient is one among them. The average volume increase necessary for
the signs of fluid overload is around 3 kg in a 70 kg patient, which can be sufficient to cause
elevated blood pressure (Hoenich and Pearce, 2005, p. 21). Mr.Frank's dry weight is 71.3kg and his
body weight ranges between 75 and 77 kg.
An

Glomerulonephritis Essay
Glomerulonephritis (GN), or the inflammation of glomeruli, is a leading cause of renal failure
worldwide. Inflammation is characterized by vascular fragility, infiltration of leukocytes, and
edema. Glomerular disease may manifest by three major syndromes: nephritic syndrome, nephrotic
syndrome, and rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN). Nephritic syndrome consists of
sudden onset of hematuria, non–nephrotic range proteinuria (1.5 g/24 h), active sediment with red
blood cell (RBC) casts or dysmorphic RBCs, acute renal failure, and hypertension. Nephrotic
syndrome is characterized by heavy proteinuria (>3.5 g/24 h), edema, hypoalbuminemia, and
hyperlipidemia. RPGN is characterized by active sediment (RBC casts and dysmorphic RBCs) and
rapid development of acute renal failure usually over a period of weeks to months.
Glomerulonephritis accounts for the majority of progressive renal disease in many parts of the
world.
ETIOLOGY
Glomerulonephritis has diverse etiologies related to disorders of the immune system, including
abnormal immunoglobulin and complement regulation. Glomerulonephritis is caused by immune
processes that lead to deposition of antibodies and complement within the glomerulus. This results
in injury to intrinsic glomerular cells, infiltration of leukocytes and damage to the capillary ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hematuria is a key manifestation of glomerulonephritis. Glomerular inflammation leads to
glomerular hemorrhage where blood enters the Bowman's space and erythrocytes are incorporated
into RBC casts. These casts are the hallmark of glomerular injury and are almost always present in
acute glomerulonephritis. RBC casts may persist for an indefinite period after an acute injury but
will generally decrease in number as inflammation

Case Study 1
1. Background: Ms. C. is a 53 y/o female with admitted to 2A with complaints of severe right
abdominal pain. She is a pleasant lady with a friendly demeanor and asks for very little assistance.
Mrs. C is morbidly obese which makes it difficult to get out of bed without assistance but for the
most part, she can ambulate and walk around on her own once she is out of the bed with the
assistance of a walker. Because of her obesity, Ms. C has several skin folds throughout her body,
which make a great medium for fungal infections. The area underneath her skin folds is red and
irritated. Ms. C has had oliguria for the past several days and is outputting very little to no urine. A
foley catheter has been placed in order to remove any ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
o D5W 1000 mL with Sodium Bicarb 100 mEq IV: o Intravenous Sodium Bicarbonate therapy
increases plasma bicarbonate, buffers excess hydrogen ion concentration, raises blood pH and
reverses the clinical manifestations of acidosis. o Sodium Bicarbonate is indicated in the treatment
of metabolic acidosis which may occur in severe renal disease, uncontrolled diabetes, circulatory
insufficiency due to shock or severe dehydration, extracorporeal circulation of blood, cardiac arrest
and severe primary lactic acidosis. Sodium Bicarbonate is further indicated in the treatment of
certain drug intoxications, including barbiturates (where dissociation of the barbiturate–protein
complex is desired), in poisoning by salicylates or methyl alcohol and in hemolytic reactions
requiring alkalinization of the urine to diminish nephrotoxicity of hemoglobin and its breakdown
products. Sodium Bicarbonate also is indicated in severe diarrhea which is often accompanied by a
significant loss of bicarbonate. o Side Effects: Frequent urge to urinate, headache (continuing), loss
of appetite (continuing), mood or mental changes, muscle pain or twitching, nausea or vomiting,
nervousness or restlessness, slow breathing, swelling of feet or lower legs, unpleasant taste, unusual
tiredness or weakness o o Furosemide (Lasix) o Furosemide, a 'water pill,' is used to reduce the
swelling and fluid retention caused by various

Pico Paper
Are kidney patients who received a radical nephrectomy at a higher risk of impaired renal function
and cardiac related death compared to those who received a partial nephrectomy?
Kiara Wilson
Nursing 3163
Dr. Linda Upchurch
November 12, 2012
Background Are kidney patients who received a partial nephrectomy at a lower risk of impaired
renal function and cardiac related death compared to those who received a radical nephrectomy?
When a patient is diagnosed with kidney damage, a surgical nephrectomy is often performed.
Kidney damage may be caused by blocked blood vessels, kidney stones, masses, infection, and/or
kidney cancer. With this procedure the kidney damage may be treated and also prevent further
damage. A partial nephrectomy is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Each patient's vital signs were acquired using the Social Security Death Index. Anyone without a
Social Security Number was excluded. The cause of death information from the patients' medical
records was reviewed. From there the participants were further categorized by the condition that
caused the death. Cardiac deaths ranged from death related to ischemic heart disease, CHF, ischemic
stroke, myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Renal deaths were
broken down into death related to renal failure, renal insufficiency, or nephritic syndrome. All other
possible causes of death were group together.
Perioperative, postoperative data and renal function tests were collected before and after the
procedures. Preoperative data was used to create the propensity model that was utilized in a
multivariate model of survival. They measured the overall survival rate of the participants and
cardiac specific survival rates.
Findings
Radical nephrectomies are greatly associated with an increased risk of death from any cause.
Patients with unanticipated benign tumors that were treated with RN were more likely to die from
any related health problem than those treated with PN. Participants who received a radical
nephrectomy were more likely to be older, with high comorbidity scores, and larger tumors. Those
with smaller masses and tumors were more likely to have a partial

Histological Study : Light Microscope Examination
Histological study Light microscope examination Specimens from the left kidney from each animal
were fixed in 10% saline formalin and processed to prepare 5–μm–thick paraffin sections for
Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stain (Bancroft and Gamble, 2008). Immunohistochemical study
Immunohistochemical staining for localization of nuclear factor–erythroid–2–related factor 2 (Nrf2)
was carried out by means of the avidin biotin complex (ABC) method (Dako ARK™, Peroxidase,
Code No. K3954, Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) following the manufacturer 's instructions. Paraffin
sections (4μm) were de–waxed, hydrated and microwaved in citrate buffer, pH 6, for antigen
retrieval. Endogenous peroxidase was eliminated by incubation in 10% H2O2 in phosphate–
buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.4. Nonspecific binding was blocked in a normal mouse serum at room
temperature. Then, the sections were incubated with the specific primary antibody overnight (4 °C):
anti Nrf2 antibody (rabbit polyclonal antibody; No. GTX103322; dilution 1:100–1:1000; Gene Tex,
Irvine, CA, USA). The sections were incubated with biotinylated secondary antibodies followed by
labeled horseradish peroxidase. 3, 3'–diaminobenzidine (DAB) was used as chromogen that resulted
in a brown–colored precipitate at the antigen site. Sections were counterstained with haematoxylin.
Negative control sections were incubated with PBS instead of the primary antibody. Stained slides
were analyzed by light microscopy (Ramos–Vara et al., 2008).

Chronic Kidney Disease : Diagnosis, Treatment, And Lifestyle
Chronic Kidney Disease: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Lifestyle Recommendations
Janelle Giggey
Nur6531
Walden University
August 2, 2015
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a condition characterized by a gradual loss of kidney function over
time (kidney.org, 2015). Renal failure is a complex and challenging health issue that demands the
involvement of both specialists and primary care providers (Buttaro, Trybulski, Polgar, Bailey, &
Sandberg–Cook, 2013). In this paper I will discuss what chronic kidney disease is, how it is
diagnosed, and what treatment options there are, as well as how potential patient factors can impact
diagnosis and treatment of chronic kidney disease.
Diagnosis
Chronic kidney disease can start slowly and worsen over time. Patients with a history of diabetes
and hypertension are especially susceptible. According to the CDC, approximately 1 of 3 adults with
diabetes and 1 of 5 adults with high blood pressure has chronic kidney disease. In addition to
diabetes and high blood pressure, other conditions that increase the risk of kidney disease include
heart disease, obesity, older age, high cholesterol, and a family history of chronic kidney disease
(cdc.gov, 2015). The clinical presentation of CKD is often subtle and can go unnoticed with
physical symptoms alone in those with mild CKD. Buttaro et. al., (2013) explains that symptoms are
uncommon in those with a GFR above 35%. Once GFR falls below 35%, a variety of metabolic,
psychiatric, hematologic,

Care Plan for Hypertension
PAST MEDICAL/SURGICAL HISTORY: Patient has a history of a myocardial infarction (MI, or
also known as a heart attack) in 2004, she had a hip pinning in 2005, and a traumatic amputation of
fingers on her left hand in 1974 from a lawnmower accident.
Pt lived on her own until 4–27–12 when her family found her lying on the floor in her home. Pts
family brought her to live with them but pt continued to have episodes of falling and hitting her
head. Pt was taken to the ER and given a Ct of the brain where all results turned up normal. After at
least 5 more falls the pts family took her back to the hospital with complaints of chest pain and
palpitations. Pt was more confused than usual & and was having increased difficulty in ... Show
2015, pg 858). The obstruction of blood flow through the coronary arteries that is associated with
CAD (coronary artery disease) is R/T the buildup of plaque made up of lipids along the arteries, or
hyperlipidemia. This blood flow reduction also resulted in angina, or chest pains, and also the MI
(myocardial infarction), or also known as a heart attack, that the pt had in 2004 (Hopper &
Williams. 2015, pg 465). Dementia is most closely related to hyperlipidemia with blocks sufficient
blood from reaching the brain via veins which results in damage to the brain (Hopper & Williams.
2015, pg 1154,1155). The hip pinning in 2005, as well as the amputation of two fingers from her left
hand in 2005, are unrelated to each other and unrelated to the pts' other health problems.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS AS RELATED TO NURSING DIAGNOSIS
|Physical: |Subjective Data: |
| |Pt stated "I get tired fast when I'm in this wheelchair." |
|Risk for impaired skin integrity R/T poor nutrition status, poor skin integrity, and immobility.
|Objective

Features Of Hadoop Software Library
TABLE 1. FEATURES OF HADOOP FRAMEWORK Scalability Allows hardware infrastructure to
scale up and down with no need to change data formats Cost Efficiency Massively parallel
computation leads to a sizeable decrease in cost Flexibility Hadoop is schema free so handles many
challenges of big data Fault Tolerance Recovery of data and computation failure B. Hadoop
Software Library The massive computing library of Hadoop consists of several modules including
HDFS, Hive, HBase, Pig, and Map Reduce. Fig 2: Architecture of Hadoop Software Library The
different modules in the architecture of Hadoop are introduced below. Apache Flume and Sqoop are
the two data integration tools that do the task of data Acquisition. Efficient collection of data from
different sources and storing them to a centralized store is the main work of Flume and Sqoop.
HDFS(Hadoop Distributed File System) runs on commodity hardware that refers to Google File
system(GFS).HDFS consists of one Name Node that manages the file system metadata and many
Data Nodes that stores the actual data. HBase is a column–oriented store which provides capabilities
like Google Big Table. The input and output to the Hadoop Map Reduce can be served by HBase.
Map Reduce is

Module 6 Blood Pressure Essay
Blood Pressure Woes
What supports the diagnosis of chronic renal failure instead of acute renal failure? Give reasons
from George's history; his signs/symptoms. The terms acute and chronic are terms used by medical
specialist to describe the amount of time that the illness as lasted. Chronic meaning a long time such
as a month or longer while acute means a short period of time from days up to a couple of weeks. So
the fact that George began noticing issues with his blood pressure being harder to control then
normally lasting over a month indicates that is when the renal issues began. One of the function of
the kidneys is to regulate blood volume and pressure. With this information the diagnosis of Chronic
renal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(kidney)(stress) (Gould, B. E. , pg 196–197, 2011)
If George was in the second stage of chronic renal failure, what percent of his nephrons have been
lost? What changes will be seen in the GFR; urination; and percent of nephrons lost when George
reaches end–stage renal failure? The amount of nephrons that would be lost if George was in the
second stage of chronic renal failure would be about 75% loss. At the end stage of chronic renal
failure there would be a loss of more then 90% of nephorons and his GFR levels would be so low
that they would not be readable. Blood would become toxic due to fluid, electrolytes and wastes are
retained causing an impact on all body systems. Marked oliguria (scant) to none (anuria) would
develop.(Gould, B. E., pg. 460, 2011). At this point due to the fluid, wastes, and electrolytes being
built up the blood would turn toxic and then impact all the systems of the body. George's kidneys
will fail and without transplant or dialysis on a regular basis, his life would be in danger.
Module 06 Written Assignment 4
How will George's condition be treated? Is it curable? First the doctor would focus on lowering
George's blood pressure as this is a stress on the kidneys. The doctor would then focus on
decreasing the progression of the chronic renal failure. He would be given a blood pressure
medication and

The Affordable Care Act ( Aca )
The introduction of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) changed the incentives involved in the
healthcare delivery system by shifting financial risk to providers in reimbursement methods such as
capitation. Healthcare organizations with large Medicaid populations face multiple battles based on
this principle. The increasing battle to stay financially viable in a world of decreasing
reimbursements is arguably the most important. This issue has faced every organization since the
ACA was introduced. Organizations face a complex task of improving their continuity of care to
improve their population health while controlling their costs. This especially is a daunting issue in
non–profit organizations that serve large unhealthy populations. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Patients require continuous treatments up to 3 times a week as they wait for a kidney transplant,
while others are reliant on lifelong dialysis treatments due to their ineligibility of being a transplant
recipient. Since wait times for kidney transplants can extend into several months and years, the cost
incurred for these patients in relatively high. With the incidence of ESRD on the rise, there is a
continuing need to provide services to address it. Healthcare organizations are expected to adapt
their healthcare delivery models to address this increase of ESRD pertaining to kidney failure while
staying financially viable.
A few service models are generally accepted as an outpatient dialysis service line. Healthcare
organizations have to decide which mode of dialysis they deem most effective in serving their
patients: 1) Outsourcing their dialysis service line to a specialized service provider such as Fresenius
or Davita, 2) instituting a home dialysis service 3) Implementing a hospital stand alone outpatient
dialysis center 4) Free standing dialysis clinic. In addition, organizations need to establish protocols
on the two–dialysis treatments, hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, and reach a consensus which to
provide.
III. Body:
Diabetes, CKD, ESRD:
Diabetes is a disease that affects the body's ability to produce or use insulin. It is a precursor to
numerous other diseases, which can quickly deteriorate patient's health if

Essay on Nursing Care Plan Pathophysiology
Patient: M.H. 80 year old female experiencing renal failure.
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is a disease that is described as a loss of kidney function gradually
over time. As kidney function decreases, the waste collection in the body's blood becomes high and
makes the individual feel sick. This disease can lead to other complications in the body such as
anemia, poor nutritional health, high blood pressure, and nerve damage. These complications will
begin to progress and show as CKD progresses to advanced stages. Early detection of this disease is
essential when it comes to treatment. If CKD is diagnosed early enough the disease progression can
be slowed down and managed. This disease will eventually lead to failure of the kidneys ... Show
The amount of filtration done by the kidneys will obviously cause negative effects throughout the
body if they are not functioning properly. CKD will cause the body to retain many excess fluids and
waste that are normally filtered out to prevent internal harm throughout the body. With kidney
disease there will be a rise in blood pressure due to the amount of extra fluid that is retained in the
blood vessels. This fluid retention will cause the passageways to become narrow and make blood
passage through the vessels increasingly difficult, in turn causing an increase in blood pressure.
There will also be an increase in protein and blood found in the urine because it is not filtered out
properly by the kidneys. Swelling will occur in the extremities and around the eyes because of the
fluid retention as well. The longer the urine goes unfiltered the harder it may become to urinate due
to pain or blockage or there may be more frequent night time urination (The National Kidney
Foundation, 12). There are also a few tests that will show whether or not the kidneys are filtering the
body's fluids as they should. A simple urinalysis can be done to detect protein or blood in the urine.
This will alert the medical professionals to a possible problem with the proper functioning of the
kidneys. There are also Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and glomerular filtration rate
(GFR) tests that will measure the

A Brief Note On The Major Micro Vascular Complication Of...
Background: Diabetic nephropathy is the major micro–vascular complication of type 2 diabetes
mellitus (T2DM) and is the main cause for end–stage kidney disease. In view of metabolic
derangements of T2DM, we went further to investigate the role played by oxidized low density
lipoprotein (ox–LDL), toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), lipocalin–2 (LCN2), and omentin–1 in DN.
Patients and methods: 15 normo–albuminuria T2DM, 15 micro–albuminuria T2DM and 15 macro–
albuminuria T2DM in addition to 15 healthy volunteer who served as control group were enrolled in
this study. Demographic and clinical data were recorded. Plasma Ox–LDL, omentin– 1 and urinary
LCN2 levels by immunoassy and TLR4 mRNA level with real time PCR were assessed. Results:
TLR4 gene expression, Plasma ox–LDL, urinary LCN2 levels were increased in T2DM cases as
compared to their allied control group with the higher values were for macro–albuminuria T2DM
cases. Meanwhile Plasma omentin–1 level was decreased in T2DM cases when compared to their
allied control group with least values were for macro–albuminuria T2DM cases. Also there were
positive correlations between TLR4 mRNA, ox–LDL, urinary LCN2 levels and serum creatinine,
fasting blood glucose, urinary albumin/creatinine ratio, meanwhile omentin 1 showed negative
correlations with serum creatinine, fasting blood glucose, urinary albumin/creatinine ratio.
Conclusions: Ox–LDL, TLR4, LCN2 and omentin 1 may confer a relevant role in diabetic
nephropathy development and

Nacle Physiology
In the human body, there are two kidneys located behind the peritoneum, on either side of the spine
at the lowest level of the ribcage [1]. Each kidney is made up of millions of nephrons, which drain
into a series of collecting ducts in the ureter and bladder. Each nephron consists of a glomerulus,
which is made up of a system of tiny blood vessels used to filter blood plasma. Each glomerulus is
attached to an unbranched tubule [1]. In the tubule, chemicals and water are either added or
removed according to the body's needs. The products that are not needed are removed via urine.
This urine production is regulated in a variety of ways including the use of hormones and
sympathetic nerve stimulation. These hormones, such as arginine vasopressin ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Known as desmopressin, the drug can be taken regularly to treat pituitary and gestational DI [8]. As
in nephrogenic and dipsogenic DI, the patient's still produce vasopressin however has become
resistant to it, so desmopressin cannot be used for treatment. In conclusion, urine production is
controlled and regulated by two hormones; arginine vasopressin and aldosterone. Both of these act
to keep the level of urine production balanced with fluid intake, however, problems can arise with
these hormones which disrupt the balance leading to dehydration, polydipsia and nocturia. There are
however, options in order to treat the sufferers of all types of diabetes

The Complex And Major Organ Of Our Body Perform Essay
Kidney
It is a complex and major organ of our body perform several important functions like formation of
urine, water and salt metabolism, acid–base balance, regulation of blood calcium level and secretion
of hormones (Padmalochana et al.2015). The kidney is composed of many tortuous, closely packed
uriniferous tubules, bounded by a delicate connective tissue in which run blood vessels, lymphatics
and nerves. Each tubule consists of two embryologically distinct parts, the nephron, which produces
urine, and the collecting duct, which completes the concentration of urine and through which urine
passes out into the calyces of the kidney, the renal pelvis, the ureter and urinary bladder. A renal, or
uriniferous, tubule consists of a glomerular capsule that leads into a proximal convoluted tubule,
connected to the capsule by a short neck and continuing into a sinuous or coiled convoluted part .
This straightens as it approaches the medulla, and becomes the descending thick limb of the loop of
Henle, and then the ascending limb by an abrupt U–turn. The limbs of the loop of Henle are
narrower and thin–walled within the deeper medullary tissue, where they become the descending
and ascending thin segments. The ascending thick limb continues into the distal tubule. The tubule
wall shows a focal thickening, the macula densa, where it comes close to the vascular pole of its
parent glomerulus at the start of the convoluted part of the distal tubule. The nephron finally
straightens once

What is Renal Failure? Essay
To understand what renal failure is, it is important to know how the kidneys work and what the main
functions are. The body has two kidneys on either side of the spine and the kidneys work to remove
toxic waste and excess water by producing urine. The kidneys also help with controlling blood
pressure and produce erythropoietin as well as aiding in keeping bones strong by producing
calcetrol hormones. When the kidneys are unable to perform these functions it causes the kidneys to
fail.
There are different types of renal failure such as chronic kidney disease which is a slow progression
over time and it can go unnoticed for a long time. Acute renal failure occurs suddenly, happening
within a few hours or a few days, if not caught in time ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When treating kidney disease it is important to control the underlying disease that is causing the
damage to the kidneys. If diabetes is diagnosed keeping blood glucose levels under control and if
high blood pressure is the cause keeping blood pressure under control with a reading of 130/80.
Medication can be helpful such as ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers. Acute renal
failure the main goal is to get the kidneys functioning again the physician may limit the amount of
fluids taken in daily along with antibiotics to protect against any infections and diuretics to help
with fluid removal. In some cases patient will require dialysis for a short period of time. Treating
end–stage renal failure requires dialysis and or transplants.
The prognosis of kidney failure is different from one person to another because the disease is so
unpredictable, many times if caught early the disease can be reversed. Factors that play a role are
the duration of the disease, complications, and recovery time. It is important to not let the disease go
untreated.
In the U.S. kidney disease is the 8th leading cause of death with an estimated 31 million people
having chronic kidney disease. Women are more likely to have chronic kidney disease than men.
Compared to whites, African Americans chance of developing this disease is 3.8 times higher,
Native Americans risk is 2 times higher, and Asians it is 1.3. Diabetes

Microscopic Analysis On Protein Blood Glucose Essay
1)
2)
Microscopic analysis
Sample Cells Casts Crystals
A0 None observed Hyaline None observed
A1 Lipid inclusions present in renal tubular cells None observed None observed
A2 RBC RBC None observed
A3 None observed None observed None observed
A4 None observed Waxy Oxalate
A5 The patient was anuric and hence no sample is available for testing
Dipstick analysis
Sample Protein Blood Glucose
A0 –ve –ve Normal
A1 4+ –ve Normal
A2 1+ 4+ Normal
A3 –ve –ve 4+
A4 1+ 4+ Normal
A5 The patient was anuric and hence no sample is available for testing
GFR interpretation
Sample GFR (ml/min/1.73m2) Renal Function Any evidence of renal damage? (y/n)
A0 >90 Normal N
A1 (Sample from a 10 year old) 65 Mildly reduced Y (however the test was not valid GFR as patient
was under 18)
A2 20 Severely Reduced function Y
A3 >100 Polyurea N
A4 24 Severely reduced function Y
A5 <15 Very severe loss of function – End stage renal failure Y
Gross Pathology Size Surface Features Cut Section Urine sample?
70.00.02 Normal Smooth Whole organ A0
71.92.08 Atrophied Granular Cortex or Medulla (reddish brown colour) both visible, but poorly
defined A5

70.30.02 Enlarged Smooth Medulla (brown colour) boundary poorly defined A2
Photo–micrograph Normal Fairly Smooth Medulla (reddish) A4
3)
Patient A0
The A0 urine sample comes from a 30–year–old adult who is also an extreme athlete.
When observing the sample from an electron microscope, we can see that patient A0 has hyaline
casts present in his

Chronic Kidney Disease
Kidney disease 1
Running Head: CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
Understanding Chronic Kidney Disease
Kim Prior
Rock Valley College
Kidney disease 2
Understanding Chronic Kidney Disease Chronic kidney disease is a growing problem with
increasing numbers of patients being diagnosed and those beginning dialysis or the transplant
process. "Currently, 26 million Americans have CKD...and 111,000 patients were newly diagnosed
with end–stage renal disease in 1 year" (Castner, 2010, p. 26). Chronic kidney disease develops over
years and can be considered a silent disease because many patients with this disease are diagnosed
while being tested for another condition. Signs and symptoms of the disease are dependent on the
cause, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the kidneys become more damaged the ability decreases showing a low specific gravity. Blood
tests show increased levels of BUN and creatinine. An abnormal
Kidney disease 3 blood count indicates anemia due to decreased production of erythropoietin
(Castner, 2010). A CT scan or MRI can evaluate the anatomy and function of the kidneys to help
determine the cause and stage of the disease. A renal biopsy may also be performed. These
diagnostic tests determine the progression of the disease. There are five stages of chronic kidney
disease. The treatment plan depends on the stage of the disease. If it is diagnosed in stage one, the
patient and physician can work to treat the contributing factors and slow the progression of the
disease. By the fifth stage the patient is on dialysis, needs a transplant, or in the most severe cases is
in hospice care (Castner, 2010). Educating the patient is a very important part of the nursing role.
The patient with chronic kidney disease needs to be educated on the disease process, how to slow
the progression of the disease, medications, diet restrictions, dialysis and how to care for the dialysis
access site, and the importance of regular visits with their physician. The more a patient knows, the
more he/she can be proactive in the treatment plan. Kidney disease is manageable if diagnosed early
and the patient needs to understand that it is not a death sentence! I was so excited

A Study On Diabetes Mellitus
Part A 1. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (previously described as non–insulin dependent diabetes) is a
condition due to hyperglycemia that accompanies a relative rather than an absolute insulin
deficiency. It appears as a consequence of the alteration (genetically inherited or acquired) of insulin
secretion, sometimes associated with peripheral insulin resistance.
Impaired ability to absorb certain macronutrients such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins can lead
to a large spectrum of chronic complications that involve more or less all tissues of the human body.
Globally, an estimated 422 million adults are living with diabetes mellitus, according to the latest
2016 data from the World Health Organization. "Diabetes Mellitus affects an estimated 29.1 million
people in the United States and is the 7th leading cause of death.
T2DM includes a heterogeneous group of diseases that associate in different degrees two major
metabolic defects: beta cell insulin secretion defect and insulin resistance of the peripheral tissues.
Obesity and insulin resistance are characteristic for the majority (80–90%) of T2DM cases (Obese
T2DM). The sine qua non condition for the progression from the preclinical phases (prediabetes) to
the overt hyperglycemia stages is represented by the presence of the insulin secretion beta cell
defect. A lack of compensation for insulin resistance will lead to evolution towards T2DM. The first
sign of

Contrast-Induced Nephropathy Case Study
Patients who undergo diagnostic procedures are at an increased risk of contrast–induced
nephropathy. Contrast–induced nephropathy (CIN) is defined as, "absolute (greater that or equal to
0.5mg/dl) and/or 25% relative increase from baseline serum creatinine" (Sani, D. H, 2015, p226).
Contrast induced nephropathy is also referred to as acute kidney injury and can lead to chronic
kidney injury, need for dialysis, and death. Contrast medium used in conjunction with x–ray
imaging during a cardiac catheterization is the how a doctor can diagnosis as well as intervene in the
procedure. The contrast medium used can have toxic effects on the kidneys, specifically the renal
tubular cells. Research has show that CIN is the third cause of hospital–acquired ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Patient history included: diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia and smoking. Both the Selenium
group and control group had similar mean averages in all categories except patient hematocrit
levels. The results showed that mean difference of CIN was significant between the two groups,
yielding results of 9% of CIN in the Selenium group versus 22% in the control group. Therefore,
this study shows that selenium supplements may significantly reduce the risk of CIN (Sani, D. H,
2015, p229).
The second article focused both on the incidence of CIN and patient condition. In the article, Role
of Hydration in Contrast–Induced Nephropathy in Patients Who Underwent Primary Percutaneous
Coronary Intervention, the incidence of CIN is investigated patients experiencing an ST–segment
elevation myocardial infarction, a medical emergency. CIN was defined the same as the first
research article and blood was draw on day 1, 2 and 3 of the hospital stay. This researched
concluded that STEMI patients have a higher incidence of CIN than elective cardiac catheterization
patients (Jurado–Roman, A, 2015,

Annotated Bibliography On Polycystic Kidney Disease
Assessment details: An Inherited Genetic Disease
Title: Polycystic Kidney Disease
Introduction
Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) is a fairly common genetic disorder of the kidneys. It affects
approximately 1in 750 people. There are 2 types, the autosomal dominant (ADPKD) and the
autosomal recessive (ARPKD). Autosomal dominant (ADPKD) is far more common of the two. The
disease presents with lots of cysts on the kidneys and can not be cured. Medication can manage the
symptoms. The symptoms include urinary tract infections, high blood pressure and even renal
failure as it progresses. Serial ultrasound scans are usually performed to monitor the cysts and to
screen family members.
How is the disease inherited?
Most cases of this disease have an autosomal dominant pattern (ADPKD).
These people with are born with a mutated copy of the PKD1 (85% of cases) or PKD2 (15% of
cases) gene in each cell and this mutated gene is inherited from one of their affected parents in about
90% of the time. The other 10 percent of cases result from new mutations in people with no history
of the disorder in their family. This is known as acquired polycystic kidney disease. The PKD1 gene
is located on chromosome 16 and PKD2 gene is located on chromosome 4. Not only are there
mutations in the DNA of these genes but there may also be large deletions that remove sometimes
up to 10 genes.
These mutations are also called germline mutations because they are present in the parent's egg or
sperm

The Complications Of Kidney Failure
The Complications of Kidney Failure and How Hemodialysis Works to Fix Them
Katie Sullivan
Professor Manny Rodriguez
CHE102–002
Parkland College
April 2, 2015
Kidney Dialysis
Kidney failure is deadly disease if not treated immediately.
When functioning normally, the kidneys clean the blood of waste and other fluids, but when they
fail the kidneys can 't clean it. This is where kidney dialysis comes in.
Kidney dialysis is the method that is used to clean the blood of waste and other fluids.
Dialysis is often a last resort for people that are undergoing kidney failure.
Possible Complications of Kidney Failure
Anemia and Erythropoietin (EPO)
– Erythropoietin is produced by the kidneys and is the hormone that regulates the production of red
blood cells. The kidneys don't make enough erythropoietin, so there are fewer blood cells, which
can lead to anemia.
Renal Osteodystrophy
– Since the kidneys can't regulate the proper chemical levels in the blood during kidney failure, the
bones don't get enough calcium and other chemicals to keep them strong.
Hyperkalemia
– When the kidneys fail, it runs the risk of high levels of potassium, which can influence many
factors that are dangerous.
Uremic Acidosis
– In kidney failure, toxic waste can build up in the blood, which normally the kidneys would absorb
and then filter out if they were functioning normally.
Functions of the Kidneys and an Overview of Hemodialysis
The kidneys are responsible for removing waste and

Effects Of Renal Impairment On The Pharmacokinetics Of...
(1) State the chosen journal article in the Vancouver referencing format.
Smith WB, Mannaert E, Verhaeghe T, Kerstens R, Vandeplassche L, De Velde VV. Effect of renal
impairment on the pharmacokinetics of prucalopride: a single–dose open–label Phase I study
[Internet]. 2012 [cited 2015 Sep 01]; 6: 407–415. Available from: www.ncbi–nlm–nih–
gov.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/pmc/articles/PMC3529624/pdf/dddt–6–407.pdf
(2) What were the compounds (and the derivatives if any) under investigation? Provide a brief
description about their pharmacology, and the potential uses in medical treatments.
This study concerned the drug prucalopride. Owing to its strong gastrointestinal prokinetic activity,
prucalopride is indicated for the symptomatic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(3) List the objectives of the pharmacokinetic study. What can we learn from studying drugs in the
selected population?
The objective of this pharmacokinetic study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of prucalopride in
individuals with renal impairment. By studying drugs in patients with renal impairment, a greater
understanding of the effect of decreased drug renal clearance on drug doses can be made. This is
particularly important in the current aging population, whereby decreased renal function is a natural
consequent of old age, as is the increased prevalence of constipation associated with drug treatments
and lifestyle changes. Considering 60% of prucalopride is excreted unchanged in urine, renal
excretion is one of the most important routes of elimination for prucalopride. This further validates
the importance of this study in the selected population.
Although prucalopride is not currently approved for use in men, this pharmacokinetic study
involved both men and women. This enables results of the study to be applicable for potential future
use in men.
(4) Briefly describe the study design including information about the dosage and the route of
administration.
The study involved 34 men and women aged 18–75 years old. They were each classified by renal
function:
Normal renal function (creatinine clearance ≥ 80mL/min/1.73m2)
Mild renal impairment (creatinine clearance 50–79mL/min/1.73m2)
Severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance ≤

The Importance Of Organ Donation
Over the past several years, the argument of whether or not compensating donors is ethical and
financially benefitting for everyone has been heavily debated. The interest for life saving organ
donation has such little supply that the doctors of waiting patients are so desperate that they believe
compensation is their only option. Enhanced survival rates combined with unfaltering development
of signs for transplantation make the organ deficiency progressively severe; waiting times are now
deplorably long. In order to cut the waiting period, compensating donors will promote more
individuals to become donors. Although there are many people who disagree with the idea to
compensate donors, people who donate their kidneys should be compensated because more
individuals will be drawn to donate their kidneys in return for monetary value. Additionally, donors
should be compensated because they are giving an organ from their body part away.
Individuals and their families pay for dialysis each year hoping they will be chosen to receive the
next available organ they have been longing for. These individuals often do not think about how
they could be paying a donor for a much lower price instead of dialysis which does not guarantee
the organ you desire. The interest for organ donation has reliably surpassed supply, and the large gap
between the quantity of recipients on the waiting list and the quantity of donors has increased. If a
larger supply of organs was available to the large

Kidney Failure Essay
Introduction There is a pair of kidneys in the human body. They are situated towards the back of the
body under the ribs, just at the level of the waist where one on either side of the body. Each kidney
is composed of about one million units which are called nephrons and each nephron consists of two
parts: a filter which is called the glomerulus and a tubule leading out from the nephron (Cameron
1999). According to Marshall and Bangert (2008) the kidneys have three major functions. Firstly,
the kidneys are excretion of waste from plasma in the blood. The second function is that, they
maintain of extracellular fluid volume and composition. Lastly, the kidneys have a role in hormone
synthesis.
Renal Failure The renal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, when the kidneys stop working completely, this situation is known as end–stage renal
failure (ESRF). There are some diseases may cause chronic renal failure and this essay will focus on
two types of these common diseases.
Diabetes Mellitus One of the diseases is diabetes mellitus which is a major cause of renal failure.
This disease can be defined as an increase of fasting blood glucose that is affected by a deficiency in
insulin hormone. The normal range for glucose (fasting) in the blood is 2.8–6.0 mmol/L. It is
classified into two groups, type 1 (insulin–dependent diabetes mellitus) and type 2 (non insulin–
dependent diabetes mellitus). Stein (2008, p.6) points out that kidney failure happens most often
when patients have suffered from diabetes mellitus for more than 10 years. According to United
States Renal Data System (USRDS) report in 2007, approximately 44% of primary causes of renal
failure is diabetes mellitus in the United States in 2005. Also, Stein (2008) indicates that 15% of
dialysis patients are influenced by diabetes mellitus in the United Kingdom. Diabetes mellitus has
negative affects throughout the kidneys where the increase of the range of blood sugar causes the
damages to the cells in the kidneys. This leads to the presence of the glucose in the urine which is
known as glycosuric.
Hypertension
High blood pressure which is called hypertension is another common disease which can cause
chronic renal failure. This

Living with Kidney Disease
Living With Kidney Dialysis
There are two kidneys, each about the size of a fist, located on either side of the spine at the lowest
level of the rib cage in the human body. Each kidney contains up to a million functioning units
called nephrons (CJASN). A nephron consists of a filtering unit of tiny blood vessels called a
glomerulus attached to a tubule, is a general anatomical term referring to any portion of the tubule
of the nephron or of the collection duct system of the kidney (American Society of Nephrology).
More specifically referring to that part of the nephron distal to the renal corpuscle and glomerulus
and consisting of the proximal convoluted tubule. The loop of the nephron and the distal convoluted
tubule; these tubules are lined with a simple, usually cuboidal, epithelium and they use a variety of
passive and active transport mechanisms to modify the composition of the plasma filtrate derived
from the renal corpuscle and glomerulus converting it into urine. When blood enters the glomerulus,
it is filtered and the remaining fluid then passes along the tubule. In the tubule, chemicals and water
are either added to or removed from this filtered fluid according to the body's needs, the final
product being the urine we excrete (American Society of Nephrology). Kidney disease can be
triggered by many factors: diabetes, high blood pressure, congenital abnormalities as well as
genetics (National Kidney Foundation). Different ethnicities also have a higher rate of

Glomerular Filtration : The Major Function Of The Glomerulus
Glomerular filtration
The major function of the glomerulus is to produce an ultrafiltrate from the blood using the
glomerular capillary wall(GCW) as a filter by a process differs from the transcapillary exchange
process as in other organs in two ways. First, the GCW almost completely excludes plasma proteins
of the size of albumin (radius 36Å) or larger from the filtrate. Second, the glomeruli exhibit an
extraordinary high permeability–surface area productto water and small solutes and also a very high
capillary filtration capacity (Anderson et al. 2000)⁠
.
Fluid movement across the glomerulus is, similar to the conditions in other capillaries, governed by
the Starling forces, i.e. the effective hydrostatic pressure gradient minus the effective oncotic
pressure gradient. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) can thus be described by:
GFR = LpS × ( ∆ P − ∆Π )
Where, Lp represent the hydraulic conductivity of the GCW, and S is the surface area available for
filtration. ∆ P denotes the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries minus the hydrostatic
pressure in the Bowman's space, and ∆Π the effective oncotic pressure in the glomerular capillaries
minus that in the Bowman's space. If LpS is 4 ml/min/mmHg/100g of kidney weight in humans, and
∆ P ≈ (52–15) mmHg, while ∆Π ≈ (28–0) mmHg, then, the GFR in man equals 4 x 3 x [(52–15) –
(28–0)] ≈ 120 ml/min. GFR can be measured clinically using molecules that are freely filtered
across the glomerulus and that are not bound to

Your Kidneys during Acute Renal Failure
What happens when your kidneys fail? Acute renal failure is a disorder of the kidneys when it's
ceased to perform its functions. For example, the kidneys lose its ability to excrete wastes. When
your kidneys fail because of a disease or injury, wastes and extra fluid can build up in the blood and
make you sick. Kidneys will not be able to maintain homeostasis of electrolytes. A high level of
plasma potassium, sodium concentration, and elevated pH will be evident as well.
ARF can be arranged depending upon the underlying cause. Pre–renal is the disruption of flow to
the glomerulus. Decrease flow to the afferent arterioles can severely affect the nephrons ability to
perform its functions. This is due to an abrupt drop in blood flow because of massive
vasoconstriction in relation to decrease in volume. Intra–renal failure, however, is an actual damage
to the kidneys. Damage to the nephrons may be short–term that injury to the cells and nephrons are
not able to work. It could also be permanent where the damage to the nephrons is so severe that it
becomes completely dysfunctional. Despite the injuries, the nephrons are capable to restore itself
and recover once blood flow is brought back to normal. Post–renal is an obstruction beyond the
nephron. Blockage in the ureters, bladder, and urethra can cause buildup of waste products. An
example of this is BPH or benign prostate hypertrophy where the prostate gland gets so enlarged
that it causes disruption of urine flow.
History

Chronic Kidney Disease Essay
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide problem that is currently three times higher for
African Americans, Hispanics, Pacific Islanders, American Indians and seniors (The National
Kidney Foundation, 2013). CKD occurs when the kidneys are damaged by a pathogen or injury and
they can no longer adequately maintain proper levels of regulated chemicals in the bloodstream.
There are many risk associated with CKD. According to the National Kidney Foundation, two of the
major risks are Chronic Renal Failure (CRF) and Cardiovascular Disease. Currently twenty million
American adults have CKD and millions of others are at increased risk. Age has no barrier on
getting CKD. People with pre–existing health issues, and a part of certain population ... Show more
Injury to the glomerulus and the tubules presents the onset of Intra–renal failure (Matzke, 2011).
Some of the frequent causes for Intra–renal failure are glomerulonephritis; pyelonephritis; and
tubular injury. Post–renal failure develops from things like ureteroliths, tumors, or anatomic
impediments. Opposite of the acute form, the chronic form has a slow onset that has no early stage
symptoms. It is important to know that following an acute episode a chronic renal episode often
follows, and at this juncture the damage is irreversible. Glomerulonephritis and pyelonephritis
combined, has been reported to be the forerunner in as much as half the cases from acute to chronic
renal failure. Diabetes mellitus, renal vascular disease, such as atherosclerosis, hypertension,
polycystic kidney disease, drug damage, and nephrolith are all examples of other causes of CKD
(Pradeep, 2014). Biopsies of kidneys that suffered with CKD reveal smaller kidneys with scarring
on the tubules. Causes of kidney disease are wide–ranging in number; however diabetes, high blood
pressure, inherited disease, and infection remain to be the contenders of cause (Davidson, 2011).
Acute kidney disease can be identified by anuria and oedema. CKD is often called a "silent" killer,
because instead of a sign, that would render immediate evidence, CKD only provides symptoms that
many don't know to correlate to renal issues. The symptoms may also increase at the latter stages of
the

Essay on Mammalian Kidney Investigation
Mammalian Kidney Investigation
Background Information:
The kidneys are dark red bean –shaped organs that are a very important pair of organs that perform
many functions. The kidneys have a convex side and a concave side. They are each about the size of
a fist. The kidneys are located near the middle back of a human, just below the rib cage, one on each
side of the spine. One kidney is located below the spleen on the left side of the body, whereas the
other kidney is located just below the liver. The kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries
and the blood is drained into the paired renal veins. In a human body, the kidneys process about 200
quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and extra water everyday. ... Show more
Variables:
Part A
Independent Variable The position in which the kidney is longitudinally cut with the scapel.
Dependent Variable The structure of the sheep's kidney observed.
Part B
Independent Variable The prepared slide and the region of that slide of the kidney used.
Dependent Variable The structure that can be observed from the microscope.
Part A
Controlled Variable Method to control the variable
The type of kidney used in this experiment. The kidney examine in this experiment is a kidney of a
sheep. Part B
Controlled Variable Method to control the variable
The type of microscope used in this experiment. Only one binocular microscope will be used in this
part of the experiment.
Part A Part B
Uncontrolled Variable Uncontrolled Variable
The health condition of the kidney The condition of the prepared kidney slides.
Results:
Qualitative data– Analysis of the kidney
The size of the sheep's kidney was around the size of a fist and the ureter was still attached to the
concave side of the kidney. Diagram 1 is the exterior of the kidney. The outside of the kidney was
dark red in colour. The renal artery carries the blood into the kidney and the renal vein carries the

blood away from the kidney.
It was evident that at all layers of the kidney, the colours are different. The renal cortex of the
kidney, which is labeled in diagram 2(the interior of the kidney), was almost a brownish shade of
red whereas the next

The Five States of Chronic Kidney Disease
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a long–term condition characterized by presence of kidney
damage or a decrease of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) less than 60ml/min/1.73m2 for 3 months or
longer periods (Levey, Bosch, Lewis, 1999). Kidney disease always being neglected as it was
asymptomatic in the early stage. Chronic kidney disease was divided into 5 stages and according to
its severity. The staging system is based on the estimated GFR and remaining kidney function. In
each stages of chronic kidney disease, there is certain medical action and investigation need to be
carry out to monitor the progression of disease. Medical practitioners can use this as basis guidelines
to monitor the deterioration of kidney disease. Patient will increase severity of uremic and suffer
from clinical manifestations of azotemia when GFR drop to less than 25% of normal (Schrier,
2010). When GFR drop to less than 15ml Stage 5 CKD patient need to be undergo renal
replacement therapy, either dialysis or renal transplant in order to avoid complication such as uremic
and fluid overload.
Whenever there is an injury occurs to the kidney, reduction of nephron number will be result from
compensatory of glomerular haemodynamic changes. The remaining nephron will be undergoing a
process call hypertrophy, with the increase in glomerular blood flow. Intraglomerular pressure and
amount of filtrate formed by each single nephron rise. Angiotensin II being activated and cause the
vasoconstrictor

The Issues Associates with Acute Renal Failure
Acute renal failure is the most common kidney disease that exists today. It occurs when blood flow
to the kidneys is in some way compromised which causes a sudden stop in kidney function. Acute
renal failure is a very serious complication for a already hospitalized patient since they are already
in a vulnerable state from staying in the hospital, in fact, it is the most common cause of death
amongst hospitalized patients, and most commonly they occur because of a hospital workers error.
Acute renal failure causes many serious problems for patients, including abnormal electrolyte and
acid–base balance, excess in fluid volume, and an excess in nitrogenous wastes. Acute renal failure
can have either pre–renal, intra–renal, or post–renal causes. According to WebMD (2011), "the
pathophysiology of pre–renal acute renal failure is a sudden reduction in blood flow to the kidney
causes a loss of kidney function. In pre–renal acute renal failure, there is nothing wrong with the
kidney itself." The pathophysiology of intra–renal acute renal failure is when there is damage
directly done to the kidneys from either inflammation, infection, drugs, toxins, or a reduced blood
supply to the kidneys. The pathophysiology of post–renal acute renal failure is when there is
suddenly an obstruction of the flow of urine because of a tumor, kidney stones, an enlarged prostate,
or an injury. At the end of the post–renal acute renal failure stage, the next stage is chronic renal
failure. As the stages

The Renal System: The Urinary System
The renal system, also known as the urinary system removes wastes from the blood and forms it into
urine. The urine produced generally contains excess water, ions, urea and other toxic substances.
The urine created by the nephrons in the kidneys is moved through the ureters and is stored in the
bladder until it is released through the urethra.
The renal system is composed of a number of organs which store fluid, including the kidneys,
bladder, ureters, urethra and a bladder (Connor, Morgan and Harwood–Pearce, 2006). Each kidney
is joined to the bladder by a long muscular tube called a ureter, which transports urine away from
the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urine is then transported from the kidneys along the ureters by
peristalsis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With regards to size, kidneys are around eleven centimeters long and six centimeters wide. They are
uniquely structured to filter blood and produce urine. Each kidney is encapsulated in and protected
by three layers of tissue; the renal fascia, the adipose capsule and the renal capsule (Parker and
Winston, 2007). The renal fascia is the outer layer of dense irregular connective tissue which holds
the kidneys in place by attaching them to their surrounding structures and the abdominal wall. The
adipose capsule is the middle layer of fatty tissue that protects the kidneys and holds them into
place. The last layer, is the inner layer called the renal capsule. The renal capsule consists of a
smooth transparent fibrous membrane that is continuous with the outer coat of the ureters which
protects the kidneys and helps to maintain their shape (Hull and Slegg, 2009). The kidney has two
distinct regions; the renal cortex and the inner medulla. The medulla forms around six to eighteen
conical structures known as renal pyramids (Premkumar, 2012). Each pyramid contains a cup–
shaped calyx which opens into the renal pelvis (Gould, 2005). The part of the cortex that dips
between the renal pyramids is the renal columns. The apex of the pyramids, the renal papilla is
located central and protrudes into the renal sinus. Any urine that is formed is drained by the ducts in
the papilla into the renal calyces. Four or five small calyces known as the minor calyces empty into
two or three larger calyces, called the major calyces, which join to form a large chamber, the renal
pelvis (Premkumar,

The Pathophisiology of Acute Renal Failure
Acute renal failure, recently being called Acute Kidney injury (AKI), according to Susan Dirkes
(2011), "the classification criteria for AKI include three grades of severity: risk of acute renal
failure, injury to the kidney and failure of renal function." (p.37). Explain the pathophysiology of
acute renal failure. Include prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal causes. Pre–renal failure has to do
with inadequate fluid in the body, which leads to inadequate perfusion, or blood circulation in the
body. This disables the kidney from properly filtering out the blood. Patients have low blood
pressure, feel very ill and can go into shock. This may lead to multiple organ failure. Intrarenal
failure, sometimes called intristic failure, is different than pre–renal or post– renal in the sense that
intrarenal is an actual damage to the nephrons, kidney tissue necrosis or renal injury due to
nephrotoxic medications like (aminoglycosides, NSAIDS, chemotherapy medications like
methotrexate, some metals like mercury, lithium, drug abuse such as, heroin, cocaine, and also the
use of radiological contrast agents). Intrarenal failure can be irreversible but it can take several
months of treatment. Post–renal failure has to do with an acute obstruction to urine outflow from
either one or both kidneys, which is usually a cause of ureter obstruction kidney stones, etc. The
patient will feel back pressure or pain. What diagnostic exams would be used to

The kidney’s job is to purify the blood from toxins that...
The kidney's job is to purify the blood from toxins that body produces on a daily basis. It is able to
get rid of the toxins by diluting them with the water the animal drinks and then by expelling it
through urination. When renal failure occurs the kidneys are not able to excrete the toxins out,
which cause a higher amount of toxins to remain within the animal. The animal's water intake will
increase over time to be able to secrete out the same amount of toxins it use to until it reaches a
point where the toxins in the blood overtake the water capacity of the kidney. With chronic renal
failure, the progression will be slow and irreversible. (Becker, 2010)
Indications Hill's Prescription Diet k/d Canine Renal Health: Instead of treating ... Show more
(Hill's, 2014) Purina Veterinary Diets NF Kidney Function Canine: The contraindications Purina NF
suggests are feeding this diet to dogs with medical conditions that demand high protein or
phosphorus intake. (Purina, 2014)
Food Forms, Available Sizes & Feeding Guidelines Both Hill's and Purina have the option of dry
and moist food products for this particular prescription diet. Hill's – Dry: 8.5lb, 17.6lb and 35lb bags
Hill's – Canned: 13oz cans Purina – Dry: 6lb, 18lb, 34lb bags Purina – Canned: 13.3oz cans
Company Dry Food (cups/day) Canned Food (cans/day)
Hill's Prescription Diet 3 ¼ – 4 ½ 2 2/3 – 3 ¾
Purina Veterinary Diet 3 2 ½ Obesity is a disease caused by overindulgence of an animal that is not
being nutritionally controlled. Feline obesity is becoming common among most veterinary practices
around the world. Obesity is curable but it takes patience and commitment from the owner to
provide a strict and controlled diet that still contains all the necessary nutrients. Obesity itself may
not kill the animal but it can lead to other fatal medical conditions. (Cowdrey, 2014, pg. 81)
Indications Hill's Prescription Diet r/d Feline Weight Loss: Within this diet the fat content is
decreased in order for the body's fat store to be used as energy. At the same time it provides a high
fibre source to allow reduction in the blood lipid levels in cats with

Kidney Dissection Paper
Introduction
In this lab report the main objective where to be able to
Method
Firstly the kidney parts such as the ureter, renal artery and renal vein were examined. Next kidney
got cut perpendicular to the long axis to be able to reveal the internal structure and parts. This
kidney was cut open by a medical grade scalpel and scissor.
Materials/ equipment used;
Medical scalpel
Medical scissors
Medical tweezers
Wooden board to put the kidney on and to be able to carry the work out
Lab coat
Safety glasses
Latex gloves
Discussion of dissection
There were many anatomical parts which were found when completing this dissection. Everything
that should have been expected to see was seen.
Kidney diagram showing different parts; (Chart Diagrams, 2015).
The renal capsule ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The medulla controls the amount of salt and water which is in the urine before excretion (Gondar
Design Biology, 2015). The medulla also works very hard at pumping sodium ions (Gondar Design
Biology, 2015).
The ureter helps collects filtrate and urine this is from the renal pelvis the next step for it will to be
taken into the bladder; the ureter works at all times in health animals/ people (Gondar Design
Biology, 2015). Urine usually flows by gravity but mainly the flow is caused by waves of
contractions in which normally happy several times per minute (InnerBody, 2015).
The renal artery is there to be able to supply blood to the kidneys this is done from the left hand side
of the heart; this blood has to have glucose and oxygen in it to be able to keep the kidneys going as
it is hard work to produce urine (Gondar Design Biology, 2015). The renal artery branches off from
the Aorta this serves a purpose by transporting the waste filled blood to the kidneys to then to be
able filter the blood (Gondar Design Biology,

What is Acute Renal Failure?
Acute renal failure is a disorder of the urinary system. It involves the loss of kidney function and
may occur suddenly. Acute renal failure occurs when blood flow to the kidneys is decreased. There
are numerous reasons why there may be a decrease in renal function. A urinary tract obstruction,
low blood pressure, illness, inflammation of the kidneys, and harmful substances are examples of
causes of acute renal failure. These causes have different origins. The causes are separated into
prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal. Prerenal causes of acute renal failure are caused by a sudden drop
in blood pressure. It may also be due to an "interruption of blood flow to the kidneys from severe
injury or illness"(Stanbridge College, 2014). Prerenal is the most common cause of acute renal
failure. Intrarenal is caused by harmful substances, infection, and inflammation. These cause direct
damage to the kidneys. Postrenal is due to a decrease in urine flow. Obstruction of urine may be
caused by renal calculi, injury, strictures, an enlarged prostate, or a tumor in the bladder. Acute renal
failure is associated with decreased urine output. Further lab results can confirm acute renal failure.
Diagnostics that can confirm ARF test BUN, creatinine, phosphorous, potassium, hemoglobin,
hematocrit, and bicarbonate levels. There will be in increase in BUN, creatinine, potassium and
phosphorous levels. ARF test results will also show a decrease in hemoglobin, hematocrite, and
bicarbonate

The Pathophysiology of Acute Renal Failure, Questions and...
Problem: A man arrives at a clinic with complaints of asthenia, malaise, headache, weight gain, and
a decrease in urination. A tentative diagnosis of acute renal failure is made.
1. Explain the pathophysiology of acute renal failure. Include prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal
causes.
The Urinary System plays an important role in our everyday life. It's most important functions are
maintenance of homeostasis, manufacture hormones that we need, and to process our wastes for
elimination. Our kidneys are part of this whole system; bad habits and lifestyle affect the whole
cycle. This system has a long list of disorders and diseases that an individual may acquire; one of
these is Acute Renal Failure (ARF). Its fast development impairs the kidneys– unless the problem is
found immediately and treated. In Acute Renal Failure (ARF) the kidneys suddenly stops working.
It loses its functions, which are: eliminate wastes, maintain fluid balance, and preserve our body's
electrolytes. Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries and leaves through the renal veins.
The strength of pressure exerted onto the kidneys is what makes the glomerular filtration work. The
glomerulus, or the capillary network inside the Bowman's capsule, is the filtration system. This
pressure depends upon the flow of blood and the resistance between the afferent and efferent
arterioles. The afferent aterioles brings blood to the glomeruli; while the efferent arteriole takes the
blood away. When the flow

The Ethical Issues Involved For Medicare Funded Organ...
Describe and evaluate the ethical issues involved in Medicare–funded organ transplants. When the
dialysis machine was discovered in 1960, there have been hopes that
Patients with renal impairment should have a life prolonging care. For patients with renal
impairment were a matter of life and death and all were willing to pay the amount it does not matter
what you get dialysis. Soon, it became a controversial issue when it was realized that the demand
exceeds supply and the equitable distribution of the few dialysis machines
Available became controversial. While the question of the dialysis machine is still controversial, the
health system was caught in another ethical dilemma regarding organ transplantation. Organ
transplantation is closely linked to the issue of cleanliness because patients with kidney failure can
get an organ transplant as an alternative to hemodialysis. The issue is complicated by the fact
Medicare is financed by organ transplant, and there are those who believe that the distribution of
rare transplant is not right. There are thousands of terminal patients whose lives can be saved by
organ transplantation, but there are no formulas of work that can be used to determine which of the
thousands of patients will be given priority. It is left to the discretion of medical officers to decide
who is worth saving. The ability to keep someone alive by replacing one or more of their major
organs is a splendid achievement of medicine of the 20th century.

Nursing Care Plan Essay

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