1. SECOND SEMESTREY
PLANT RESPIRATION
Plant respiration is the process o breathing that occurs in a plant. It translates to
consume O2 and expel CO”. Not to be confused with the emission of oxygen that
occurs during photosynthesis. It is also said that respiration in plants includes H2O
because in the photosynthetic process is capturing energy form the electromagnetic
waves of the moon.
BREATHING OF PLANTS
In plants, there is no gas exchange takes place mainly through stomata and/or
lenticels. Stomata of pneumatodos.Formed by a pair of modified epidermal cells
(cells or stomata guard cells) in kidney-shaped. For gas exchange are called ostiole
hole that closes automatically in case of excess CO2 or water shortage. The stomata
are usually located at the bottom of the page, where you do not receive direct
sunlight, are also found in herbaceous stems. Lenticels. They are scattered across the
dead bark of stems and roots. In typical fashion, the lenticels are lenticular (biconvex
lens) in its outer contour, where the name comes from them. They usually are
oriented vertically or horizontally on the stem, depending on the species and vary in
size from barely visible to as large as 1 cm or even 2.3 in length. In highly fissured
bark trees, the lenticels are found at the bottom of the fissures. Lenticels function is
to allow a net exchange of gases between internal tissues and atmosphere
parenchyma. Also known in the case of humans when man inhales and exhales air
from your nose to the heart to continue beating forces and to give life to both
humans and any animals.
When the plant gets “light”, it absorbs CO2 from the air and releases O2 (O2=CO2-
C). This phenomenon of gas exchange between the plant and the medium is called
photosynthesis. Chlorophyllous cells using CO2 to make organic matter are
autotrophic cells. When the plant is in darkness, just place the other type of
breathing. The plant absorbs CO2 and releases O2 (O2=CO2+C)

2. STOMA
In botany, called stomata to small holes or pores of the plants located on the surface
oftheir leaves. They consist of two guard cells and surrounded by companion
cells stops.The separation that occurs between the two guard cells (which can be
separated by the center held together by the ends) called the "ostiole" regulates the
total size of the pore and thus the gas exchange capacity and loss of plant water.
The stomata are the main participants in photosynthesis, because
for them passes gas exchange mechanism, ie that this place out oxygen (O2) and
enters carbon dioxide (CO2).
They are used for gas exchange with the environment. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged with the atmosphere through these pores. The acquisition of carbon
dioxide and oxygen exchange are essential to develop processes of photosynthesis
and plant respiration. However, its opening also causes loss of plant water in vapor
form through the process called transpiration.
Therefore, the opening and closing of stomata is very tightly regulated in the plant by
environmental factors such as light, carbon dioxide concentration and water
availability.
ADAPTATION
A biological adaptation is a structure, physiological process or behavioral trait of an
organism that has evolved over a period through natural selection in such a way that
increases your long term expectations to successfully reproduce. The term adaptation
is also used occasionally is a synonym: for natural selection, but most biologist do not
agree to this use. It is important to note that variations do not arise as adaptive
responses to the environment but as a result of genetic drift. The adaptation to the
environment in a new environment is a slow, long and requires a change in body
structures, the functioning and behavior to get used to the new environment. Failure
to adapt leads to body.
ANIMAL RESPIRATION
Respiration is the exchange of gases: the delivery of oxygen (O2) and the elimination
of carbon dioxide (CO2). This process occurs from single-celled animals to those more
specialized, like the man. The more complex the animal, the respiratory system must
meet more demanding, so this system must be adapted to each species.

3. The term respiration is applied to two separate biological processes:
1) The chemical process of releasing energy after the metabolism of organic
compounds, a process called internal respiration or cellular respiration.
2) The external respiration refers to the exchange of gases between the organism and
its external environment
Cutaneous respiration by the gills, tracheal and lung, one of the four types of
breathing that may occur in animals. It consists of making gas exchange through the
skin or certain areas like the mouth or internal cavities, filled with water, are the lung
called sea cucumbers and certain aquatic gastropod mollusks.
SINGLE CELLED ORGANISMS
The protozoa (single celled organisms), and the hydra and jellyfish (multicellular
organism are composed of tow layers of cells), they breathe through theirf cell
membrane (by diffusion) and mitochondria (see cellular respiration). Respiration is
the process by which we enter air (containing oxygen) to our body and took it rich air
carbon dioxide. A living being can spend several hours without eating, sleeping or
drinking water, but cannot stop breathing more than three minutes. This graph
shows the importance of breathing for our lives.
CUTANEOUS RESPIRATION
Cutaneous respiration is characteristic of annelids, amphibians (combined in these
two cases with other types of breathing) and certain echinoderms.
In this type of breathing is necessary to distinguish the body integument, which forms
the structure of breath, and skin, through which gas exchange takes place, which
must be very thin, moist and well irrigated by the internal environment animal.
Gas exchange takes place through the epidermis, as long as the moist outer cuticle,
which is achieved because, interspersed between the cuboidal cells of the epithelium
(single layer), there are glandular cells.
BRANCHIAL RESPIRATION

4. The gill, are characteristic of aquatic animals, as some annelids, mollusks,
crustaceans, echinoderms and fish. The gases are transported into cells via the
circulatory system. The gills are projections of the outer surface of the body or the
lining of the intestine to the outside of the animal and therefore evolutionarily
derived by evagination. There are two types of gills; external and internal. The first
are evolutionarily primitive.
The external gills have the advantage that simple movement mobilizes the watger,
but can be easily damaged by external agents. The internal gills are placed in a
protective cavity so you need a ventilation system the exchange surface. The way to
achieve this ventilation syste3m in the different zoological groups in very diverse,
cilia, trpas, various appendices, counter movements, etc.
In fish, whose gills are always internal, there is an association between these and a
series of slits, the gills slits. In more evolved fish, which are bony fish, the gills are
form by a highly vascularized gills that are inserted into the branchial arch and are
covered by the operculum. The water enters through the mount and out through the
operculum, on the way, take gill O2 dissolved in the water.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GILLS
The gills are external organs, unlike the lungs or tracheae of subaerial lived animals,
because the organs in a complex cavity are not suitable for intensive movement of a
liquid such as water, much higher density than air , and the friction involved. The
effective exchange of gases requires a barrier-free contact between the epidermal
cells of the gill and the surrounding water, as the other party to the lungs, so that
even in animals with reinforced integument, such as scaly skin of the fish , the gills
are always covered at least soft and fragile tissues.
Anatomically, the gills are presented in two ways. The most common is the large
surface branched appendages relative. So arise, for example, molluscs, annelids and
aquatic larvae of salamanders and newts, aquatic insects and larvae. The other way

5. is that seen in the heterogeneous group of aquatic vertebrates-called fish. In these
gills are specialized structures arranged between the pharyngeal slits, or gill slits,
holes that connect the digestive tract laterally to the outside. The water that enters
the mouth goes through the cracks, oxygenating the blood flowing through vessels
that cross the partitions located between them, which are the gills.
TRACHEAL RESPIRATION
In this the air is taken form the exterior to the body´s cells by a system of tubes, so
that gas exchange occurs directly between the cells and the environment.
The caterpillars are insects also breathe and how such system through tubes or
tracheas, which communicate directly with the environment inside the body cells.
Each body segment of the insect has a pair of these air duct systems, which, after
branching several times, coming close enough to each cell for gas exchange occurs.
The gases enter and exit the tube system driven by body movements. At the mouth
of each tube with the outside there is a special muscle that opens and closes.
Respiratory system is efficient for small organisms, it would be inappropriate for the
elderly because the air does not come quickly to great depths.
Characteristics of insects and other terrestrial arthropods.
This device consists of a series of tubes, the tracheae, produced by invaginations of
the integument, in which air enters through small holes on the surface of the body,
called stigmata. The tracheae are branching and decreasing in diameter until they
come into direct contact with the cells where gas exchange takes places by diffusion.
No need, therefore, a circulatory system to transport gases. With increasing
complexity of the animal are specialized structures to streamline the process of
diffusion.
PULMONARY RESPIRATION

6. The lungs are invaginations of respiratory surfaces surrounded by capillaries. Walls
are thin bags, which serve for gas exchange, for which they connect with the outside
through a series of ducts. As one ascends the animal scale, the lungs will increase
its inner surface, from amphibians whose lungs are sacs with no septation,
thus complementing thebreath with the skin, until the birds (Figure 6 ) and
mammals, whose lungs are more developed due to the air sacs of birds
and mammals alveoli.
These mechanisms allow these two groups of vertebrates a considerable increase
in the respiratory surface.
More advanced on the evolutionary scale are reptiles have lungs and breathe more
developed by movements of the chest wall.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS MAMMALS
The lungs of mammals are the most developed, because through the alveoli
(lungbranching) have achieved a huge area of gas exchange.
Lungs have a very complex system, consisting of thin tubes that lead to small air sacs,
alveoli, where gas exchange takes. This system allows the lung has a large heat
exchange surface. Air enters and exits through the contraction of special
muscles, diaphragm,intercostal and others. The whale is a mammal that
breathes air. His lungs are able tomaintain a large amount of oxygen that allows you
to immerse for half an hour or more without breathing out. The whale dies
when stranded on the beach is because it can makebreathing movements by
its enormous weight crushes.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS OF REPTILES
Breathe exclusively through lungs, dry and coarse skin does not allow gas
exchange. Your lungs are a little more developed than those of amphibians. In
reptiles, including iguanas, air enters and leaves the lungs
through body muscle movement.
The chest muscles expand the chest cavity and within it decreases the pressure. In this
way the air passes from the atmosphere, where there is more pressure to the chest
cavity, where the pressure is lower. However birds have lungs with air sacs that allow

7. them to increase the turnover of gases and fill part of the bird's body decreasing your
body weight.
REPIRACION EN HUMANOS
Breathing is an involuntary, automatic process, which extracts the oxygen from
inhaled air and expels waste gases with the breath.The air is inhaled through the
nose, where it is heated and moistened. Then moves into the pharynx, the larynx is
and into the trachea.In the middle of the chest, the trachea divides into two bronchi
that divide again, and again in bronchi secondary, tertiary and, finally, about 250,000
the bronchioles.At the end of the bronchioles are grouped in clusters of alveoli, tiny
air sacs where gas exchange takes the blood.
The lungs contain about 300 million alveoli, which deployed to occupy an area of 70
square meters, about 40 times the size of the skin.Breathing serves two successive
phases, carried out by the muscular action of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles,
all controlled by the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata. In inspiration, the
diaphragm contracts and intercostal muscles raise and widen the ribs. The rib cage
volume and penetration gains outside air to fill this gap. During exhalation, the
diaphragm relaxes and the ribs move down and inwards. The rib cage decreases lung
capacity and leak air outward.Provides that the body needs oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide produced in all cells.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The human respiratory system consist of the nasal cavity, pharynx (throat), larynx,
and the most known one, the boothlungs. The right lung ha three lobes and the left
two. Each lobe has hundreds of side lobes or tubules. The bronchus to enter the
lungs bronchioles branch appear to be coming back to branch each in a lobule,
where it branches again form the bronchial capillaries ending in the pulmonary sacs,
the walls of which have expansions balloons called alveoli. Ost of the inner surface of
airway mucus-producing cells present (mucus). This is a very viscous substance
where particles remain stuck carrying the air and has antibacterial and ativiral
substances. In addition, the nostrils, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles have internally
ciliated cells that move mucus towards the pharynx that, where the esophagus passes
by swallowing.
ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

8. 1. Nostrils. There are two holes that connect the outside with the nostrils, inside
of which there are hairs that filter air and mucus-secreting glands that trap
dust and moisten the air.
2. Nostrils. There are two large cavities located on the mouth. The interior
presents some folds called turbinates, which slow the passage of air, thus
favoring humidification and warming.
3. Pharynx. It is a conduit of about 14cm which allows communication between
the nasal cavity, oral cavity, middle ear (via the eustachian tubes), larynx and
esophagus.
4. Boca. Allows entry of air but not dust filtering and humidification provided by
the nostrils.
5. Language. This body presses the food against the palate to introduce food.
6. Epiglottis. It is a tab that when pushed by a bolus descends upon the glottis
closed, thus preventing access to food is introduced into the trachea.
7. Larynx. It is a short tube about 4cm in length that contains the vocal cords.
8. Vocal cords. Two muscular and fibrous folds are in the interior of the
larynx. The space between them is called the glottis and leads to the trachea. They
are the phonetic organ of humans.
9. Thyroid cartilage. It is the first tracheal cartilage. Is more developed in men. In
these causes a prominence in the neck called the Adam's apple and a deeper
voice.
10. Esophagus. It is a digestive tube that lies behind the trachea.
11. Trachea. Through a 12cm long and 2cm in diameter, consists of a series of

9. cartilage semianulares whose rear ends are joined by muscle fibers. This prevents
friction with the esophagus, when the food passes.
12. Lungs. There are two globular masses. The right lung has three lobes and the
left only two.
13. Pulmonary artery. Poor blood contains oxygen and carbon dioxide-rich,
moving from the heart to the lungs.
14. Pulmonary vein. Contains blood rich in oxygen and poor in carbon dioxide
moves from the lungs to the heart.
15. External intercostal muscles. Are those who raise the ribs to increase the
volume of the chest cavity and thus produce inspiration.
16. Ribs
17. Pleura. These two membranes surrounding the lungs. The space between is
filled with the so-called pleural fluid. Its purpose is to prevent friction between the
lungs and ribs.
18. Thoracic cavity. Is the cavity formed by the ribs and sternum, which houses the
lungs.
19. Bronchi. Are the two passages in which the trachea bifurcates.
20. Bronchioles. They are the ramifications of the bronchi. The ultimate
ramificationscalled capillaries originate ending in the bronchial lung sacs, which
are numerous expansions globose cavities called alveoli.
Considering the two lungs is about 500 million alveoli.
21. Cardiac cavity. It is a concavity in the left lung which houses the heart.

10. 22. Diaphragm. It is a muscular diaphragm descends during inspiration to allow
for expansion during the expiratory lung emptying favoring amounts of the lungs.
THE EXTERNAL RESPIRATION OR "VENTILATION" IN HUMANS.
The external respiration or ventilationcomprises the following three stages:
1. Inspiration. Here the external intercostal muscles contract and raise the
ribs and sternum, and the diaphragm descends. This increases the capacity of
the rib cage, causing the lungs to dilate and between O2-rich air.
2. Exchange of gases. In it the O2-rich air reaches the alveoli, the walls of
which are so thinthat allow gas exchange. Because they are coated
with thin capillaries containing CO2-laden blood and low in O2, CO2 moves
into the alveoli and the O2 goes to the blood in thecapillaries.
3. Exhalation. Here the external intercostal muscles relax and lower ribs and
sternum and the diaphragm rises. This decreases the ability of the rib cage,
causing the lungs to contract and, therefore, that CO2-rich air out
The gas exchange. The characteristics of gas exchange that occurs in the alveoli are:
1) The blood from the heart, blood reaches the capillaries lining the alveoli, is loaded
withcarbon dioxide and contains very little oxygen.
2) The air reaches the alveoli from the outside that is rich in
oxygen. Carbon dioxide also comes from the blood capillaries. The result is a mixture
of gases in which oxygendominates.
3) The distance between the gases within the pulmonary alveoli and gases
containedwithin the capillaries is very small, only 0.6 micron (0.6 μ) and the
walls that separate themare permeable them. Due to that gases can pass each
other. The result is that both gas mixtures end up having a composition very similar.

11. 4) Blood leaving the capillaries lining the alveoli of the lungs to the heart is rich in
oxygen and poor in carbon dioxide.
ESTA ES LA PAGINA POR SI ALGO
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CUARTO PERIODO
Que es el univierso
The universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including
all space, time, matter, energy, planets, stars, galaxies, intergalactic space, an beyond.
Definitions and usage vary and similar terms include the cosmos,
the world and nature. Scientific observation of earlier stages in the development of
the universe, which can be seen at great distances, suggests that the universe has
been governed by the same physical laws and constants throughout most of its extent
and history. There are various multiverse theories, in which physicists have suggested
that our universe is one among many universes that likewise exist.
BIG BANG THEORY
Big Bang theory or big bang, is that made between 12,000 and 15,000 million years
ago, al matter in the universe was concentrated in an extremely small area of space,
and exploded. The matter came out with great energy driven in all directions. The
clashes and a certain disorder made the subject are grouped together and
concentrate more on some parts of space, and formed the first stars and first galaxies.
Since then the universe continues in constant movement and evolution.
This theory of the origin of the universe is based on observations in mathematically
rigorous and correct from an instant after the explosion; bus has no explanation for
the zero time origin of the universe, called “singularity”.
The Steady State Theory
Mani believe that the universe is an entity that has no beginning or end. It has no
beginning because it started with an explosion or collapse in the distan future to be

12. reborn. The theory is opposed to the idea of an evolutionary universe is known as
“steady state theory” or “continuous creation” and born in the early twentieth
century. The proponent of this idea was the English astronomer Edward Milne and
she said, the data collected by observation of an object located millions of light years,
must be identical to those obtained in the observation of the Milky Way from the
same distance. Milne named his thesis “cosmological principle”.
In 1948 astronomers HernannBondi, Thomas Gold and Fred Hoyle took up this idea
and added new concepts. Thus was born the “perfect cosmological principle” as an
alternative for those who reflect outright the theory of Big Bang This principle
establishes, first, that the universe has no origins and no end, because the interstellar
matter has always existed. Second, it argues that the general appearance of the
universe is identical not only in space but also in time.
OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY
Is quite simple to understand and explain. This theory holds that our universe would
be the last of many that emerged in the past, after successive explosions and
contractions. The time when the universe collapses on itself attracted by its own
gravity is known as the Big Crunch would mark the end of our universe and the birth
of a new one. Something like that pulse or respiration of the universe say the
Brahmins. You see, there are several theories-not so many truths- that science with
the current struggle, trying to explain the possible origin of the universe.
And so we are in everything. Seating as absolute truth only one degree- or
percentage if it is more convenient –just. Cling to what we believe rather than what it
is, but for now we do not recognize. Unifying, theories is essential to approach such a
fact, for example the origin of the universe, which from my point of view – as the old
treaties pray hidden by the axiom “as above so below” – is applicable to all. The
debate, provide it is done from knowledge, and enriches us closer to what “we”.
Otherwise, the best we can out of it is to return home unharmed.
INFLATINARY THEORY

13. The Alan Guth inflationary theory attempts to explain the origin and the first
moments of the universe. It is based on very strong gravitational fields studies, like
those near a black hole.
It assumes that a single force was divided into the four we know today, causing the
source to the Universe. The initial thrust lasted for a time virtually nil, but it was so
violent that, despite the pull of gravity slows the galaxies, the universe is still growing.
You can not imagine the Big Bang as the explosion of a material point in space,
because at this point focused all matter, energy, space and time. There was no
“outside” or “before”. Space and time are also expanding with the Universe.
A large scale, the universe consists of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Clusters of
galaxies are massive stars and are the largest structures in which matter is organized
in the universe. Through the telescope appear as bright spots in different ways.
When classified, scientists distinguish between Local Group galaxies, composed of
thirty and the closest galaxies gravitationally bound that is our galaxy (Milky Way),
and all other galaxies, which are called “external galaxies”.
GALAXIES SHAPES:
The growing power of telescopes, allowing increasingly detailed observations of the
various elements of the universe, has made a classification of galaxies by their shape.
Have been established and four different types: elliptical, spirals, barred spirals and
irregulars.
ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES
-in elliptical or spheroid, characterized by lack of a defined internal structure and
have very little interstellar matter. They are considered the oldest in the universe, its
stars are old and are in an advanced stage of its evolution.
SPIRAL GALAXIES

14. They consist of a central core and two or more spiral arms, which leave the nucleus.
This is formed by a multitude of stars and interstellar matter has little while in the
arms abundant interstellar matter and there are plenty of young stars that are very
bright. About 75% of galaxies in the universe are of this type.
BARRED SPIRAL GALAXY
It is spiral galaxy subtype, characterized by the presence of a central bar that
typically start two spiral arms. This type of galaxies constitutes a significant fraction
of all spiral galaxies. The Milky Way is barred spiral galaxy.
IRREGULAR GALAXIES
Include a wide variety of galaxies, whose configurations do not meet the above three
ways, but share some characteristics, such as being small and almost all contain a
large percentage of interstellar matter. It is estimated that are irregular about 5% of
galaxies in the universe.
MILKY WAY
The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy that is found in the solar syste4m and, therefore3,
teEart. According to the observations, has a mass of 1012 solar masses and is a
barred spiral, with an average diameter of 100.000 light years, is estimated to
contain between 200 billion and 400 billions stars. The distance from the Sun to the
center of the galaxy is about of 27.700 light years (8.500ocm uem55 percent of the
total radio galaxy_). The Milky Way is part of a group of about forty galaxies called
the Local Group, and is the second biggest and brightest after the Andromeda Galaxy
(although it may be the most massive, a recent study showing that our galaxy is 50 %
more massive than previously believed.

15. The name Milky Way come from Greek mythology and the Latin word for milk road.
That is, in effect, the appereace of the band of light around the sky, and so Greek
mythology says, explaining that the milk is poured from the breast of the goddess
Hera. However, as in ancient Greec astronomer suggested that a white beam in the
sky was actually a conglomerate of many stars. This is Democritus (460 BC – 370
CB), who argued that these stars were too faint to be individually recognized at a
glance. His idea, however, was not retained, and only to the year 1609 AD. C., the
astronomer Galileo Galilei would use the telescope to observe the sky and see that
Democritus was right, because everywhere you looked, it was full of stars.
THE START
They are the most important constituents of galaxies. Stars are massive shining
spheres of gas due to its huge nuclear reactions. When due to the gravitational force,
pressure and temperature inside a star in strong enough. It starts the nuclear fusion
of atoms, and begin to emit a dark red light, which then moves to the upper state is
which is our Sun, and later, by modifying the nuclear reactions inside, swell, and
finally cooled.
PLANETS
The planets are bodies that revolve around a star that, as defined by the
International Astronomical Union, must also satisfy the condition of having cleared
its orbit of other major rocky bodies, and to have sufficient mass for its strength
Gravity creates a spherical body. In the case of bodies that orbit around a star that
do not meet these characteristics, it is called dwarf planets, planetesimals, or
asteroids. In our Solar System has 8 planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune since 2006 considering Pluto as a dwarf planet. In late
2009 outside our Solar System have been detected over 400 extrasolar planets, but
technological advances are enabling this number to grow apace.
CONSTELLATIONS
These stars often draw recognizable figures in the sky, which have received several
names in connection with their appearance. These groups of identifiable profile stars

16. are known by the name of constellations. The International Astronomical Union
officially grouped into 88 constellations visible stars, some of them very large, like
Hydra of the Big Dipper, and very small as Arrow and Triangle.
SATELLITES
The moons are planets orbiting planets. The only natural satellite of Earth is the
Moon, which is also the satellite closest to the sun. the following are the major
satellites of planets in the solar system (included in the listing to Pluto, considered by
the IAU as a dwarf planet)
ASTEORIDS AND COMETS
In areas of the orbit of a star in which, for various reasons, there has been the
grouping of the starting material in a single dominant body or planet, are the disks of
asteroids, rocky objects that orbit very different sizes in large numbers around the
star, eventually colliding with each other. When rocks have diameters of less than
50m are called meteoroids. As result of collisions, some asteroids may change their
orbits, highly eccentric trajectories adopting a regular basis to approach the star.
When the composition of these rocks is rich in water or other volatile elements, the
approach to the star and the resulting increase in temperature causes some of its
mass to evaporate and be blown away by the solar wind, creating a long line of
bright material. As the rock is about the star. These objects are called comets. In our
solar system there are two large disks of asteroids, one located between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid belt, and a much more subdued and dispersed
within the limits of the solar system. About a light year away, called OortCloud.
SOLAR SYSTEM
The solar system is a planetary system of the Milky Way which is located in one
arm of it, known as the Orion Arm. According to recent estimates, the system is about
28 thousand light years from the center of the Milky Way
It consists of a single star called Sol, which gives this system, plus
eight planets orbitingthe star: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,

17. Uranus and Neptune, plus a host of other minor bodies: dwarf planets (Pluto, Eris,
Make,Haumea and Ceres), asteroids, moons, comets, and interplanetary
space between them.
The planets and asteroids orbit the Sun in the same direction along elliptical orbits
counter-clockwise if viewed from the north pole of the Sun The rough plan in which
the planets is called the ecliptic plane. Some objects orbit with a marked degree of
inclination of the latter, like Pluto, which has an inclination to the axis of the ecliptic
of 17 degrees, as well as an important part of the Kuiper belt objects. According to
their characteristics, the bodies that are part of the Solar System are classified as:
Sun A star of spectral type G2 containing more than 99% of the mass of the
system. With a diameter of 1,400,000 km, is composed of 75% hydrogen, 20% helium
and 5% oxygen, carbon, iron and other elements.
Planets. Divided into inner planets (also called terrestrial or telluric) and outer planets
or giant. Among the latter, Jupiter and Saturn are called gas giants while Uranus and
Neptune are named as ice giants. All giant planets have rings around them.
Dwarf planets. This is a mass of bodies allowed to have a spherical shape, but not
enough to have attracted or expelled all the bodies around him. Bodies as Pluto
(ninth planet until 2006 considered the Solar System), Ceres, Makemake, Eris and
Haumea are in this category.
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ECOSYSTEM
Today our world is undergoing manuy changes due to human action, changes that i
sojme way or other normal unbalance thereof and of course our lives.
It is our duty to do this work know more about our ecosystems, the factors that
compose them, the relationships between individuals (whether of the same or
different species), pollution, types, causes and consequences, among other things that
could influence to maintain of recover the balance of our environment.
Ecosystems can be defined as:

18. 1. Natural unit of living and nonliving parts that interact to produce a stable
system in which the exchange between living matter and nonliving follow a
circular route.
2. Community agencies and abiotic factors that are associated with interacting is
any place or environment where they are interacting beings lived (biotic) and
nonliving (abiotic factors).
3. All living things in the same medium and vitally alive elements attached to
them.
4. They are thermodynamically open systems that receive outside(sun, organic
matter) and transmit them to neighboring ecosystems through the material
flow or movement of
5. individuals (migration).
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Abiotic factors are the different components that determine the physical
space inhabited by living beings, among the most important we find: water,
temperature, light, pH, soiland nutrients.
They following briefly discuss how each of these factors plays a role in the
development of life.
TEMPERATURE
This imposes an important restriction to life as living organisms are chemical
machinescomplex within which the vast majority of vital functions are performed
by enzymes (pagehyperlink cell) protein in nature, which come in a range between
0 and 60 ° C. Above these temperatures undergo denaturation, this entails the
cessation of its function, leading to the death of the individual. On the other hand,
if the temperature falls below 4 ° C, the water, the main component of living tissues,
passes to its solid state, where its volume is greater.Such an increase in volume
means the destruction of cell organelles and even the cell itself.
Temperature also regulates the speed at which they are carried out chemical
reactions, a higher temperature implies a higher reaction rate. This is mainly
because the temperature is an indirect measure of heat, a higher
temperature indicates a higher energy content in the molecules and therefore
a higher reactivity of the same. Organisms such as birds and mammals spend a great

19. deal of energy to maintain a constant temperature optimum to ensure that chemical
reactions are vital to their survival, are performed at speeds appropriate to enable
them to achieve efficiency in all its processes.
WATER
Water is one of the most important abiotic elements, this is an essential compound
for life and is a large part of living tissue, it is known that terrestrial animals are
composed of water by 75% and invested a large amount of their conservation of
energy in the body water content. For plants, the situation is very different, a large
majority of the activities they perform depend on the presence of water.
All processes that allow and regulate life are performed in aqueous medium, given
the ownership of water as an excellent solvent. Similarly, individuals that live in
aquatic environments are favored by the physical properties of water as liquid water
has a density greater than the ice by which the latter fleet, forming a barrier that
isolates the core from the cold liquid environmental protecting aquatic organisms in
winter.
In arid areas where water scarcity is permanent, both plants and animals have
adaptations to conserve water. A simple example of this are the cactus spines
changing their sheets to limit the surface evapotranspiration is carried out
photosynthesis in their stems. In conclusion one could say that life as we know it is
impossible without water.
LIGHT
It is the main source of energy from the earth, it makes it a very important factor for
the development of life. In many environments, the light becomes a limiting factor for
primary producing organisms. For example, a lake light only penetrates to a certain
depth, it limits the production of this ecosystem to the layer above this limit, this area
is called photic zone. A similar phenomenon is observed in plants that inhabit the
lower parts of the forests (called understory) most of the light is absorbed by the
leaves of plants that are at the top or canopy. That is why the understory plants
generate large leaves, and that increasing its absorption surface are more likely to
catch the few rays of light that reach this layer of the forest.

20. TOMADO DE
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4_05.htm
NUTRIENTS
Inorganic compounds are essential for the construction of living tissue. They are
a limiting factor for plant growth and thus of individuals that feed on them. Some
nutrients are available in small concentrations, as in the case of nitrogen, as though
this is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere can only be used when it is in the
form of ammonium ions(NH4 +) and nitrate (NO3-). In general, the concentration of
these ions is low to the ground, to fix this problem many plants have
associations with cyanobacteria and bacteria that are capable of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen which can be used by plants.
Ph
The pH is a measure of the hydronium ion content (H +) present in solution. Such
content is calculated as the logarithm of the hydronium ion concentration. Under
normal conditions and absence of solutes few H2O
molecules dissociated hydronium and hydroxyl ions, hydronium ion
concentration is 10-7 / l. The pH of water in these conditions is 7. This is
considered neutral. A pH below 7 indicates acidity, ie a higher concentration
of H + ions than is present in the water. Greater than 7 indicates basicity, ie, lower
concentration of H+ than it is in the water.
At high concentrations, hydronium ions can be harmful to cells because of their high
reactivity can damage some enzymes, even acidophilic bacteria (living on less
than pH 4)maintain their internal pH values close to neutrality.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

21. Means all those aquatic ecosystems that have a body of water biotope, such as: Seas,
oceans, rivers, lakes, wetlands and so on. The two most prominent are: marine and
freshwater ecosystems dulce.
The amount, variations and regularity of the river waters are of great importance for
plants, animals and people living along its course. The fauna of rivers is of
amphibians, fish and a variety of aquatic invertebrates.
Rivers and their floodplains sustain diverse and valuable ecosystems, not only by the
quality of fresh water to support life, but also for the many plants and insects that
maintains and which form the basis of food webs.
In the bed of the rivers, the fish feed on plants and insects are eaten by birds,
amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
The fresh river water has a huge range of composition. As the chemical composition
depends, first, what water can dissolve the soil by running, is the soil that determines
the chemical composition of water.
If the soil is low in soluble salts and minerals, but the water is low in salts and
minerals. And, conversely, if the soil is rich in soluble chemical materials, much of her
wealth will render the water with which it will contain many more minerals.
That is crucial for the types of plant and animal life there can be developed.
The main adaptations of plants and animals are directly related to the physical
characteristics of water, which are in permanent contact living organisms in the
aquatic environment.
MARINE
The ocean contains 99% of the planet's living space. Life arose and evolved in the
sea. The marine environment is very stable when compared to terrestrial
or freshwater habitats. The temperatures of the ocean masses vary only
slightly, and salinity (3.5%). The ionic composition of sea water is similar to body
fluids of most marine organisms, which solves the osmotic regulation.
INTRODUCTION TO THE MARINE ECOSYSTEM
In the ocean environment sunlight into the sea just 200 meters deeper, the waters
are in total darkness. The illuminated area of the sea is called photic region. A dark
región aphotic zone.
The main problem in the ocean is the great distance between the photic
zone (surface)and nutrients (sediments in deep water). Where there is light for

22. primary production are few inorganic nutrients, and vice versa. The factor that limits
the production of phytoplankton in an ocean area is usually the phosphate ion. No
wonder, then, that areas with higher productivity are those in which deep,
cold, nutrient-laden come to the surface, these areas are known as outliers.; In them
the phytoplankton (microscopic plant organisms that float in aquatic ecosystems)
develops extraordinary way, and can keep a food chain with many links and for that
reason are the richest fishing areas.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
About a quarter of the earth´s surface is formed by the continents and island are the
dry portion of the planet. There has seating continental terrestrial ecosystems, most
of which are located in the northern hemisphere. The heights of the land mass rising
from the sea level to mountain elevations of about 9000 mts.Altitude as Mount
Everest in the Himalayas. Most terrestrial living beings are divided into the first 6700
meters. We also round bacteria and fungi spores in the atmosphere at higher
altitudes.
MEDITERRANEAN FOREST AND DECIDUOUS FOREST.
It occurs in many regions of the world: Southern Europe, North Africa, South
American and parts of South America (central Chile and Argentina). When
temperatures are warmer and more abundant moisture and distributed throughout
the year, the coniferous forest is replaced by deciduous forest, in the Northern
Hemisphere this biome is dominated by beech (American and Mexican), Oak, hazel,
elm, chestnut trees and many shrubs that produce a deep fertile soil. In temperate
zones, where rainfall is low and marked dry season, it installs other types of forest,
evergreen and drought-resistant summer. It is the Mediterranean forest, xerophytic
vegetation dominated in Europe by the oak, cork and oak gall. There are lots of
vegetation and is inhabited by various creatures.
Deciduous forest climate: deciduous forest found around 40°55° latitude. The typical
climate is moderate thermal regime, rainfall, well distributed throughout the year
and 4 distinct seasons. The brown soils prevail little or no leachate and mull humus

23. or moder (degradation of forest to alpine meadow). On the slopes ranker or rendzina
soils are more or less acid, caused by erosion on carbonate bedrock.
Vegetation dominated by deciduous woody species: oak, beech, oak and hornbeam.
YI
t has an abundant undergrowth grow sun-loving- spring (plants that rely on wind to
reproduce). Fauna: is determined by the hibernation and migration; is varied:
amphibians, reptiles, rodents, insects of humus, hebivores (deer) and migratory birds
and night or raptors. Other carnivores include badgers, foxes, wolver… etc.
TUNDRA
The primary features of this region are low temperatures (-15 ° C and 5 ° C) and very
briefly of the favorable season. The rainfall is rather low (about 300mm per year), but
the water is usually not limiting, since the rate of evaporation is also very low.
The land is almost always frozen, except for 10 to 20 cm higher
than experienced during the brief thaw hot season. The cold climate of this
biome results in the permafrost, a layer of frozen ice that allows only the growth of
plants in the days of summer as the surface thaws. There is an arctic tundra, also
called "polar desert", which extends over 60 ° latitude N and "Antarctic tundra,"
above 50 ° S, including Antarctica, the subantarctic islands and part of Patagonia.
Vegetation: lichens, algae and mosses and wildlife: At the time of thawing,
insects. Migratory birds, reindeer, wolf, arctic fox, lemming, polar bears, penguins, etc.
DESERT
The desert takes place in regions with less than 225 mm annual rainfall. The
characteristic of these areas is:
The scarcity of water and rain, very irregular, when they do fall in torrents. In
addition, evaporation is very high.
The scarcity of land that is carried by wind erosion, favored by the lack of vegetation.
Are less productive (less than 500 g of carbon per year) and productivity depends
on the proportion of rain that falls. Some deserts are hot, like the Sahara, while
others are cold as the Gobi. Some rain is virtually nonexistent, as in the Atacama, in

24. the Andes. Atacama is surrounded by high mountains that block the entry of
moisture from the sea and favor the development of katabatic winds, dry down,
this phenomenon is known as Foehn effect. Another mechanism which
is desert climate in areas near the coast is the rise of cold ocean currents near
the western continental margins of Africa and South America. The cold water lowers
the temperature of the air and are places where the air descends and blows toward
land. In the sea fogs are frequent, but not rain the nearby land. Desert: Location and
climate. In areas with very little rainfall and temperatures with large variations
between day and night. Vegetation. Scarce and adapted to water
scarcity. Notable cacti (America), and the palm trees, cactus and aloe (Africa
and Asia). Fauna. Coyote, cougar, rattles nake (America), camel, desert rat, cobra
(Africa), and so on.
There are four main forms of plant life adapted to the desert:
1. Plants that synchronize their life cycles, with periods of rain and grow
only when wet.When sufficient intensity rains, the seeds germinate and plants
grow rapidly and formshow flowers. Insects are attracted to the flowers and pollinate
them when traveling fromone another. Many of these insects also have a very
short life cycles adapted to the plantfrom which they feed.
2. Bushes with long roots that penetrate the ground
to moisture. Develop especially in cold deserts. Their leaves tend to fall before the
plant wilts and thus fully enters a state ofsuspended animation, until
you have moisture in the subsoil.
3. Plants that store water in their tissues. They are succulent forms, such as
cactus oreuphorbia and have thick walls, spines and thorns to protect themselves
from herbivores.Its rigidity is another way to protect against the drying caused by
wind.
4. Microflora, which remains dormant until there are good conditions for their
development.
STEPPE
The Steppe biome is a flat area and comprises a large, herbaceous vegetation, typical
of extreme weather and low rainfall. It is also associated with a cold desert to make a
difference to the hot deserts. These regions are far from the sea, continental arid
climate, a wide range of temperatures between summer and winter rainfall that does

25. not reach the500 mm annually. Dominated by low grasses and shrubs. The soil
contains many minerals and low organic matter and there is also the
steppe areas with a high iron oxide content which gives it a reddish hue to the
ground.
Climate: The climate is dry (arid). High temperatures in summer and low in
winter, resulting in a wide temperature range as stated above. Rainfall
varies between 250 and 500 mm per year
Vegetation is xerophytic type, ie, plants adapted to water scarcity, with deep roots
in the bottom looking for the ground water.
RAINFOREST
Tropical forests occupy large areas near the center of Ecuador, South America, Africa,
Asia and Oceania, and thrive in hot, humid climates, being provided
not only rainfall but also experiencing flooding rivers violent fall. A rain forest is not a
"jungle". The jungle isvery dense bush vegetation that grows along the banks of
rivers. It may appear on earth when the rain forest has been cleared by humans or
a natural event such as a flood or fire.Most of the
jungles become rainforests. Therefore, the jungle is a rain forest.
Vegetation: Large trees and vines (lianas, orchids ).
Fauna: Primates, exotic birds, mammals like the jaguar and many insects.
WETLANDS
areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water-covered surfaces, be they natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas
of marine water the depth at low tide does not exceed six meters .They also form part
of a wetland “Their adjacent riparian and coastal areas and islands or bodies of
marine deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands” (Ramsar
Convention, Act 375 of 1997). Ecosystem are wet areas and dry sub-humid,
characterized by the presence of specific flora and fauna. Despite its limitations in
terms of biodiversity, their populations are abundant. Because of its high primary
productivity, are important sources of food primarily for wildlife species. Provide
various goods and services: wide variety of plant and animal species, are important

26. for migratory birds, genetic capital reserves purify water by acting as catalysts, have
great scenic value, recreational and hydrological buffer of flooding.
Unfortunately, they are being subjected to high human intervention, which has
accelerated its deterioration. Because of this problem in Colombia developed the
National Policy for Inland Wetlands Colombia.
MANGROVES
An association of woody plants that grow in tropical and subtropical coastal areas
and share some morphological, physiological and reproductive allowing them to
grow of unstable soils, tolerate salt and brackish water, making gas exchange in
substrates with low concentrations of oxygen and playable by live embryos able to
float to be dispersed by water. In Colombia, mangroves cover an area of
approximately 378.034 ha, of which 86.310 belong to the coast to the Pacific
Caribbean and 291.724 in the Caribbean, the distribution is discontinuous,
concentrated mainly in gulfs, bays ad deltas. In the4 Pacific region occupies a
broader range and continuous from the border with Ecuador to Cabo Corrientes
(Chocó).
The mangrove ecosystem is fragile; to be protected and properly managed on a
scientific basis, to ensures sustainable medium and long term.