Clostridium Difficile Or More Commonly Called C. Difficile

Clostridium Difficile Or More Commonly Called C. Difficile
Clostridium difficile or more commonly called C. difficile or C. diff is a spore producing rod shaped bacterium that can cause infections of which
result in a broad spectrum of disease ranging from mild diarrhea and fever to pseudomembranous colitis and life threating inflammation of the colon.
C. difficile commonly located in the feces of humans and is spread though spores. Over the last 20 years the prevalence of healthcare–associated C.
difficile infection (CDI) has increased to an estimated prevalence of colonization as high as 50% in hospitalized patients. (Cohen et al., 2010) This
rise in prevalence is associated with new epidemic strains of C. diff that, are causing in an increase of incidence and disease severity. C. difficile
infections are most commonly associated with healthcare facilities like hospitals and long–term care facilities and are also the most common cause of
infectious diarrhea in the healthcare setting. With the disease severity on the rise people who are most at risk are generally the ones already in the
hospital and have lower immune response. C. difficile's main rout of transmission is through direct or indirect contact with spores on a contaminated
surface. After contact whether a person develops C. difficile or not, is directly connected with a person's immune response. If the disease is contracted
there are a variety of treatments available. Prevention before contraction is the main source of struggle with C. difficile especially in the
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The Role Of Irritable Bowel Disease ( Ibd )
Although the gut microbiota are involved in a range of functions within the human body, this essay will focus on their role in the development of
Irritable Bowel Disease (IBD). The human gut microbiota play a significant role in the metabolic health of individuals with irritable bowel diseases
such as Ulcerative Colitis (UC) and Crohn's Disease (CD). IBD, UC and CD are chronic gastrointestinal illnesses, all of which have an uncertain
etiology. Symptoms of these illnesses can include diarrhoea, weight loss, ulceration, proliferation and even total obstruction of the gastrointestinal (GI)
tract. (1). However the causes of these diseases are not strictly known(2). There are a vast number of bacterial species that reside within the GI tract,
some of which can play a role in producing inflammation. It is believed that microbial patterns may play a role in causing IBD. The innate immune
system may play a role in altering the gut microbiota profile. Certain pathogens have also been found to play a role in the development of IBD.
Finally, diet and nutrition play a role in IBD, however certain nutrients are believed to have both positive and negative effects. This essay will aim to
critically explore what is responsible for IBD: both internal and external factors that influence the human gut microbiota, and hence trigger IBD, or
more specifically; an abnormal immune response in a vulnerable individual, or a deviation in immune function that leads to an altered immune response

Bifidobacterium Research Paper
The beneficial aspects of Bifidobacterium Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in the body and regulate the proper functioning of organism; in
adequate amounts help maintain our well–being. This is about two kilograms of bacteria, which are responsible for protecting our body against
pathogenic bacteria. One of many bacterial strains found in human body is bifidobacterium, which has a great impact on health of digestive and
immune system. Bifidobacterium does interact with intestinal mucosal cells, and communicate with intestinal epithelial cells which help to maintain
gut homeostasis physically and immunologically. By the communcation with intestinal epithelial cells bifidobacteria can improve its work and help in
case of the inflammation. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Currently, the type Bifidobacterium includes 32 species. They natural environment is in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals where it may
occur in a number of 1012 cells per 1 g of the intestinal content. In addition, they are presented in the mucous membranes of the mouth and of the
reproductive tract. Within human intestines the most popular species are B. adolescentis, B. angulatum, B. bifidum, B. brevi, B. catenulatum, B.
langum, and B.infantis. Microorganisms that are classified as the genus Bifidobacterium belong to the lactic acid bacteria family. It includes rods and
coccus Gram–positive bacteria belonging to other genera, among which the most important are Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Lactococcus,
Enterococcus, and Leuconostoc. All bacteria belonging to this group are characterized by the metabolism of fermentation where the main end product
of metabolism of sugars is lactic acid. These microorganisms metabolize in the process of lactic fermentation simple sugars, disaccharides and some
complex

Causes And Effect Of A Bacterium
The ratio of TUNEL–labeled surface over the entire surface area of the egg was then measured (Pannebakker et al., 2007). The research article results
shows that A. tabida, has become dependent on W. pipientis to reproduce. W. pipientis affects the wasps oogenesis, but the specific mechanism
responsible is yet unknown. Pannebakker et al. (2007) research shows the W. pipientis influences programmed cell death processes in A. tabida by
making its presence essential for the wasps eggs to fully mature. In conclusion, this study suggests the bacterium's strategy causes the host to be
dependent through evolution, thus creating a quick transitioning phase from commensalism (parasitism) to mutualism, where both organisms benefit.
The study... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
infantisis. A breeding scheme was set up with polymeric Ig receptor–sufficient and deficient mice to understand the effects of breast milk–derived SIgA
on development of the host's immunity and gut microbiota, thus evaluating the relationship. The mice that had a Pigr gene mutation were used. Tissue
histology and immunofluorescence microscopy were performed on the mouse's tissue. Quantification of Fecal IgA and for Bacteria in MLNs was
performed. After quantification, the mouse's fecal microbiota was analyzed by PhyloChip hybridization at the early days of the mouse's life. Once the
mice reached the age of 8–10 weeks, each mouse was induced with colitis. Epithelial cells were dissected from the mouse's colon and isolated. After
the cells were isolated the gene expression was analyzed. After the analysis, genes regulated by SIgA were identified. Lastly, a statistical analysis was
performed to see the differences in IgA concentrations, colony forming unit, and gene expression (Rogier et al., 2014). When a baby is first born, its
immune system is naked; it will receive its first source of antigen–specific immune protection by receiving its first serving of breast milk. The breast
milk appears in a form of secretory IgA also known as SIgA. Mice that were breast feed compared to those who were not contain a significantly
different gut microbiota when they approach adulthood. When exposed to SIgA at an early age, a pattern of intestinal epithelial cell gene expression.

Diversity Of Escherichia Coli Isolated From Pigs Reared...
Diversity of Escherichia coli Isolated from Pigs Reared Using Different Husbandry Practices
Christopher Gemmell
0844930
MCB*4500
December 12th, 2016
Introduction
When pigs are born, their gastrointestinal tract is sterile, but it is rapidly colonized with microorganisms (Katouli et al. 1995, LallГЁs et al. 2016). One
of the many microorganisms is Escherichia coli, an extremely versatile bacterium, which is estimated to make up 1% to 4% of the cultivable colon
bacteria (Schierack et al. 2006, Schierack et al. 2009, Herrero–Fresno et al. 2015). E. coli strains can be divided into non–pathogenic (commensal) and
pathogenic strains (Schierack et al. 2006, Schierack et al. 2009, Herrero–Fresno et al. 2015). Pathogenic E. coli strains cause gastrointestinal disorders
and intoxications due to their virulence genes colonizing the gut (Schierack et al. 2006, Schierack et al. 2009, Herrero–Fresno et al. 2015). Commensal
E. coli strains are members of the gastrointestinal flora of most mammals; they support digestion and provide defense against enteric pathogens
(Schierack et al. 2006, Schierack et al. 2009, Herrero–Fresno et al. 2015).
Importance of gut microbiota to swine health
The gut microbiota encompasses trillions of microorganisms that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract (Carding et al. 2015). The composition of the gut
microbiota is constantly evolving and can be susceptible to both endogenous and exogenous modifications (Carding et al. 2015). The microbiota

A Study Of Dynamic Regulation Of Gene Expression Essay
The majority of cells in the human body are not human at all. The 100 trillion prokaryotic cells that make up our microbiota, constitute 90% of the
cells in our bodies, and are derived from more than 40,000 bacterial strains (Forsythe & Kunze, 2012). Bacterial cells reside in animal hosts as
commensals, symbionts, or as pathogenic parasites, forming a veneer over almost all body surfaces (Dave et al., 2012). Increasingly, research is
showing the importance of host microbiota composition and the bidirectional signaling pathways between the brain and the gut, some of which are
epigenetic. These studies elucidate the profound impacts that signaling pathways, such as short–chain fatty acid mediated effects, nucleomodulins, and
other bacterial metabolites, can have on health, behavior and cognition (Sommer & Backhed, 2013). 'Epigenetics,' derived from the Greek root 'epi '
meaning on top of, is the study of dynamic regulation of gene expression due to factors that act on chromatin structure, nuclear architecture and other
molecular events that do not change the DNA sequence (Stilling et al., 2014). In addition, epigenetics has sometimes been defined as sequence–
independent heritable changes in gene expression (Holliday, 1987). Epigenetic processes include post–translational histone modification, as well as
cytosine methylation and interactions of non–coding RNAs (Jaenisch & Bird, 2003; Landry et al., 2013). Post–translational histone acetylation results
in a decreased

Beneficial Effects of Probiotics Essay
INTRODUCTION
Probiotics are ingestable microorganisms which gives the consumer a beneficial effect. First coined by the late eli Metchnikoff probiotics are described
to be microorganisms which are ingested in small amount to increase the diversity of both flora and fauna inside the human body this reaction in turn
affects the adaptation abilities for the human body to react to different surroundings, digest different things, or just improve the antibody or the
mechanism that already exists in the human body.
This mechanism of diversity caused by many flora inside the digestive track of humans are beneficial because it helps with the digestion of a more
diverse product. Even if the probiotic does not help with digestion some other ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the other reasons why lactobacillus plantarum 229v is used is that because it is a gram positive facultative aerob bacteria it can survive in low
oxygen environment like inside the juice box or in the juice itself.
Although lactobacillus plantarum cost are higher this certain strain of lactobacillus is specifically engineered to have more commercial benefits.
Some benefits can also benefit the product itself. Like many other lactic acid bacteria lactobacillus plantarum229v releases lactic acid if in dairy
based product lactic acid might bring a negative side effect of giving it a crude rancid taste and smell in juices with a sour taste like orange, black
current, and mango these lactic acid give or enhance the taste. According to a 2006 study of comparison of both probiotic and non–probiotic juice,
juices containing lactobacillus plantarum yields a higher mark with emphasis on them being more fragrant and tasteful. Another side effect of these
lactic acid is that the lactobacillus plantarum uses the lactic acid to control competing microorganism this affects the product by giving it a longer
shelf life without any excessive amount of sugar and or any other added preservative.it is also worth mentioning that by eliminating the need of any
preservative production cost can be cut down significantly and the product can now avoid any problems based on the use of

The Gastrointestinal Tract, The Immune System And Mental...
Introduction
Nowadays there are a large number of investigations related to the microbiota and health not only of the gastrointestinal tract, the immune system but
also the nervous system and mental health. Likewise, changes in the microbiota are implicated in the increasing tendency for a broad range of
inflammatory diseases such as allergic disease, inflammatory bowel disease, obesity and the presence of non–communicable diseases (NCDs) for
instance, cardiovascular diseases (like heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructed pulmonary disease
and asthma) and diabetes. Studies have suggested strategies that would regulate the intestinal microbiota for reducing the risk of such diseases, ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The gut microbiota is involved in the regulation of multiple host metabolic pathways, giving rise to interactive host–microbiota metabolic, signaling,
and immune–inflammatory axes that physiologically connect the gut, liver, muscle, and brain. A deeper understanding of these axes is a prerequisite
for optimizing therapeutic strategies to manipulate the gut microbiota to combat disease and improve health (4).
Discussion
Interactions between the gut microbiota and the host immune system begin at birth. Some epidemiological studies suggest that C–section babies may
have an elevated risk for developing immune and metabolic disorders, including Type 1 diabetes, allergies, asthma and obesity. Scientists have
theorized that these children may be missing key bacteria known to play a large role in shaping the immune system from the moment of birth onward.
Babies delivered by cesarean section (C–section) acquire a microbiota that differs from that of vaginally delivered infants, and C–section delivery has
been associated with increased risk for immune and metabolic disorders. Dominguez–Bello et al conducted a pilot study in which infants delivered by
C–section were exposed to maternal vaginal fluids at birth. A mother's vaginal fluids– loaded with one such essential bacterium,

Bacterial Flora in the Gut
There is an ever–growing awareness of the possible potential for bacterial flora in the gut, also known as microbiota, to influence the gut–brain
communication in health and disease. Bacterial flora in your gut may be microscopic but these tiny colonies may play some vital roles in your overall
health and well–being. If depression due to a compilation of symptoms, and inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction are single
handedly influencing these negative symptoms, we need to stop and take a look at the root cause of it all. Interference to the gut ecosystem may be a
crucial player and the microbiom, which is the ecological population of symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms that share our body space, has
stepped to the forefront of research in the psychiatric realm of science. This paper will discuss the importance of gut health through the use of
probiotics towards mental health disorders like depression and anxiety by reviewing the findings of experiments involving three different reviews on
studies in the field of Psychobiotics
To start, an introduction to the term as well as the study of Psychobiotics might be necessary. The Society of BiologicalPsychiatry defines a
psychobiotic as,
"a live organism that, when ingested in adequate amounts, produces a health benefit in patients suffering from psychiatric illness. As a class ofprobiotic
, these bacteria are capable of producing and delivering neuroactive substances such as gamma–aminobutyric

Why I Want To Study Gut Microbiology
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE The emergence of new pathogens from food and water, particularly bacteria, as well as the recurrence of known food
pathogens, has received research attention in Nutrition and Food Science. The unusual dietary pattern and nutrition affect the microbial population in
the human gut (Probiotic), with an ample effect on the immune system and human health. To understand the interactions of gut microflora with food
and nutrients, and their potential involvement in disease etiology and human health, novel approaches tailored from various disciplines are required.
The additional concern is the growing number of children who are overweight and at a risk of obesity, early onset of type–2–diabetes and sedentary
behavior. Taken together... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This summer, I completed a short term online certificate course in "Introduction to food and health" offered by Stanford University. This course was
focused on sustainable solutions of choosing healthier foods and practical tips for preparing healthy and nutritious food. I also enrolled in one more
online course to complete the program requirement called "Introductory Human Physiology" offered by Duke University. Furthermore, in my spare
time, I'm learning statistical analysis softwares such as SAS 9.4 and Python for genomic data

Is Gut Microbiota Influencing Your Behavior
Is gut microbiota influencing your behavior?
The Prognosis
As much as science likes to research the universe to figure out its mysteries, there is an equal fascination with the human body. Studies come out every
other day it seems to show the public their findings on some new behavior or phenomenon about our own bodies.
Which is why on the 28th of July, a new study was released that would go on to explain what we know microbiota as we know it may be lacking.
Unraveling Your Gut Microbiota
Those confused about what microbiota is, it would help to think of it as a group of bacteria in different parts of your body that aid your body is various
functions. It used to be called gut flora but now is simply referred to as gut microbiota.
So in

Periapical Lesion Essay
DISCUSSION
Many authors consider placement of an implant in a socket with periapical lesion as a contraindication, but several studies which were conducted do
not show any significant difference compared to those with healthy sockets.
The disadvantage of the placement of implants into the sockets of teeth with periapical lesions is the potential for implant contamination during the
initial healing period because of remnants of the infection.(8,13,162)Bacteroides species can inhabit tooth periapical lesions while being encapsulated
in a polysaccharide that promotes its virulence, survival, and importance in mixed infections. Bacteroides forsythus has been shown to persist in
asymptomatic periradicular endodontic lesions and may survive in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These positive results could be explained by various biological events occurring during bone healing process, dependent on aspects such as primary
stability of the implant, the surgical technique, the prosthetic load and the associated inflammatory response.(84)
Fugazzotto conducted the only study comparing implants immediately placed into sites with periapical pathology with those immediately placed into
sites without periapical pathology in the same patient, it was observed that both treatments yielded comparable results with no statistically significant
difference in survival rates.(165)
Regarding the treatment protocol, appropriate clinical procedures to perform the decontamination of the implant's site, such as antibiotic
administration, meticulous cleaning, and alveolar debridement, combined with GBR with or without bone grafting, is suggested to create adequate
conditions for bone regeneration and osseointegration despite the previous contamination.(6,85,166)
The natural healing process after tooth extraction normally manages residual infection, but as an infection increases inflammatory activity, infection
may result in increased bone resorption and a higher risk of implant stability loss and failure. The presence of granulation tissue in the socket of an
infected tooth must be considered as an inflammatory response to bacteria. This reactive

Human And Microbial Components Of The Human Body Essay
Introduction With the influence of "micro–evolution," science is evolving at a relatively fast pace. We as humans, are also evolving at a rate in which
we still today have many unanswered questions; pushing us to make this new technology to learn more. Our own health is always changing across
decades, keeping us up to date on finding new information about the human body. Our bodies are composed of human and microbial components,
making us supraorganisms. (Costello et al 2012) Meaning we have advanced functions and work in units, to make us superior to other organisms on the
Earth. (Turnbaugh) We know currently essential information about microbiomes to help us understand the human body a little better. The skin, mouth,
esophagus, stomach, colon, gut, and vagina are composed of microbial communities. Collectively, the gut has the most information. Information
pertaining to these body parts however, are limited simply because each individual is unique This makes each body just as unique as the person. (The
Scientist Staff) It is in still in question whether we are functionally redundant between community members, and what kind of factors are influencing
this. (Turnbaugh) The struggle of finding accurate technology to be able to compare human microbial communities globally include the degree of
relatedness so whether that persons are related, the place in the family structure, the age, demographics, there are many ethical, legal, and logistical
barriers, types of comparisons,

The Human Immune System And Its Effects On Disease...
The human immune system has advanced to distinguish between and eliminate disease–causing microorganisms. Nevertheless, a symbiotic
relationship has been developed with several species of bacteria that not only inhabit the gut, but also make up the natural commensal flora or
microbiota. The microbiota, being essential in the breakdown of nutrients, helps prevent colonization by potentially pathogenic bacteria. Also, the gut
commensal bacteria appear to be vital in the growth of an efficiently functioning immune system. Many studies have been done to demonstrate that
various species of microbiota can cause responses from different types of immune cells such as Th17 cells and Foxp3+ regulatory T cells, suggesting
that the properties of the microbiota can have a significant influence on immune response. Although the microbiota is found in the gut, it seems to have
a substantial effect on immune response. In fact, specific gut commensal bacteria have displayed a correlation in affecting disease development in other
organs besides the gut, and depending on the type of species, can have a wide range of effects on disease, whether that being inhibition or protection. It
has also been determined that the initial composition of the microbiota is significant through the effects of milk attained by either breastfeeding or
formula feeding. All in all, the gut microbiota has been found to be significant in the development of the host's immunity to various pathogenic
microorganisms, and

Evaluation Of Effect Of Non Steroidal Anti Inflammatory...
EVALUATION OF EFFECT OF NON STEROIDAL ANTI
–INFLAMMATORY DRUGS ON GROWTH OF PROBIOTICS
пЃ¶Nsaids might be our future antibiotics as they show antimicrobial properties...
Nida Rizvi1, Ma'am Azra Riaz2
1, 2 Pharmacy department, faculty of pharmacology, University of Karachi.
Abstract: Effect of various concentrations of NSAIDs (Non–steroidal anti–inflammatory drugs) on growth of commercial probiotic preparations (A, B,
C, and D) were observed by agar well diffusion assay. Zone of inhibition was recorded after 24 h and found that different samples of probiotics showed
more or less susceptibility to different doses of NSAIDs. This indicates that NSAIDs beside anti–inflammatory response may give antibiotic effect as
well.
Keywords: NSAIDs, antibiotic, probiotics.
1. Introduction:
According to the definition by WHO and FAO, probiotics are live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confers a health
benefit on the host. Probiotics are available to consumers mainly in the form of foods and as dietary supplements.
NSAIDs have analgesic, antipyretic effects and also have anti–inflammatory effects in higher doses. Use of NSAID is associated with increased risk of
gastrointestinal and cardiovascular effects mainly due to the inhibition of prostanoid biosynthesis. NSAIDs have many applications in
pharmacokinetics and medicinal.
This review aims to examine antimicrobial property of NSAIDs (ibuprofen, aspirin, and diclofenac).
2. Materials and Methods:
All media

Case Study: Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis
Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis Jade Chapman Central Methodist University NU 500 Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis As the medical world continues to
grow and improve with technology, there continues to be new discoveries and developments with diseases. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
(NAFLD) is a condition where fat deposits are present in the liver that is not expected. This disease was able to be broken into two sub groups:
nonalcoholic fatty liver and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) (Singh et al., 2015). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the normal process for
an adult that could be facing the diagnosis of NASH. In 1980, Dr. Ludwig identified and described NASH as a disease that is "a unique entity
characterized by... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Over their lifetime they will come in contact with several people and departments to help manage their care. A patient will have several trips to the
lab, imagining department, and primary care provider. Depending on the comfort of the primary care provider a patient can be referred to a
hepatologists. This doctor specializes in the liver and can help prevent, manage, and treat this disease. A diagnosis of NASH can be life changing and
health care providers must be consciousness of this and help prevent any secondary diagnosis, for example: depression. Counseling and pastor services
could be utilized for this patient

The Use Of Bacteri Lactobacillus And Bifidobacterium Essay
For every eukaryotic cell in the human body, scientists estimate that there are about ten prokaryotic cells present, which means that more than half of
what makes up the human body is 30–40 trillion bacteria and archaea. Recent research suggests that this diverse microbiota is both directly and
indirectly responsible for human mental and physical health. As the human body develops, so does the microbe flora. Lactobacillus acidophilus (L
acidophilus), L. fermentum, L. plantarum, and L. rhanosus are just some of the dangerous sounding bacteria that are not just beneficial but essential to
proper human health. All of these helpful strains of bacteria are given the common name of probiotics. Scientists are just now beginning to understand
the immense effect of the gut bacteria in human everyday lives and they, very well, may find that through manipulation of probiotics, any disease could
potentially be inhibited/cured.
There are two major groups of probiotic bacteria: Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Lactobacillus, a rod–shaped, gram–positive bacterium, is the most
popular probiotic used and can be found in fermented foods, like kimchi, and yogurt. Bifidobacterium, a gram–positive, non–motile bacterium, is the
other probiotic choice approved for common usage. More and more bacteria are being added to the list of potential probiotics. The benefits of
probiotics range from prevention/remission of infectious diarrhea, antibiotic–associated diarrhea, crohn's disease, hepatic

The Report Of Clostridium Difficile Infection
Study Overview: Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a healthcare associated infection with significant morbidity and mortality, especially in elderly,
hospitalized patients. Antibiotic associated diarrhea (AAD) is also a complication of antibiotic therapy with detrimental effects in hospitalized patients.
The use of probiotics for primary prophylaxis of AAD and CDI in hospitalized patients is still controversial. Varying study quality as well as significant
heterogeneity make drawing conclusions from prior literature a difficult task. This study was the largest to date examining the efficacy of probiotics in
preventing AAD and CDI in hospitalized older patients in the United Kingdom. Study OverviewAuthors' affiliationsAffiliation with London School of
Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Several Hospitals with the UK Financial supportHealth Technology Assessment programme; National Institute for Health
Research, UK. No pharmaceutical industry involvement. Methods (as described by the author)Design: Type of design, blinding, treatment
allocationRandomized, Triple–Blinded (Patients, Research Team, Assessors), Placebo–Controlled Patients/Subjects: How enrolled or recruited/from
where?, Inclusion/exclusion criteria, # enrolled per group, Baseline differences5 Hospitals in the UK were included in the study. Inclusion Criteria:
Hospitalized patients в‰Ґ 65 years old, receiving 1 or more antibiotics (within past 7 days) were recruited. Exclusion Criteria: Pre–existing

Gastrointestinal Physiology In Horse
Gastrointestinal Physiology
Horses are monogstric animals with a relatively small stomach. From the horse's mouth to their large intestine, their gastrointestinal tract is similar to
that of a human's. However, past the cecum, a horse's gastrointestinal tract has more similarities to that of a cow's (Bentz, 2014). Horses are classified
as hindgut fermenters, meaning a balance of good and bad bacteria aid in the digestion of foodstuff in the cecum and large intestine (Costa et al., 2012).
The hindgut is not only a fermentation vat, but it also stimulates the immune response, protects against pathogens, production and neutralization of
toxins, and gene expression in the host's epithelial tissues (Milinovich et al., 2010). The cecal microbiome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Overtime, the term has evolved to describe a condition rather than clinical signs. Colic includes all forms of gastrointestinal conditions that cause
pain as well as other conditions that do not involve the gastrointestinal tract. Colic is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in horses. Similarly
seen in laminitis, which is known to increase the risk of colic, an identifiable change in the hindgut microbiome has been noted. Observed in a colic
study, mares had a positive correlation with increased concentrations of Firmicutes, specifically Lachnospiraceae and Rumminococcaceae, and
Proteobacteria and the prevalence of colic (Weese et al., 2015). In the same way with laminitis, the hindgut microbiome can become acidic due to
lactic acid bacteria, which can cause the more sensitive fibrolytic bacteria to lysis and die (Weese et al., 2015). By purposefully overloading a horse
with starch, Streptococcus spp. and Clostridium spp, proliferate, producing lactate and decreasing the hindgut pH, fiber digestion, and volatile fatty
acid production (Hussein et al., 2004; Milinovich et al., 2010). Changes to the microbiota have been noted to occur within the first 24–36 hours,
post–induction (Briddle et al., 2013). Even though colic is the number one killer in horses, little is known about the factors and mechanisms of the
condition. There has also been limited work conducted in regards to studying the microbial structure and

Essay on Feminism and the Neurological Body by Elizabeth...
Final: Effects of Studying the Microstructure of Human Biology on How We View Human Bodies
In her essay on "Psychosomatic: Feminism and the Neurological Body," Elizabeth Wilson addresses the role of science in the feminist theory and
gender studies by arguing that "sustained interest in biological detail will have a reorganizing effect on feminist theories of the body." In her argument,
Wilson attests that studying the microstructure of our bodies could lead us to explaining, or otherwise rethinking, how we see or understand in what
way the human bodies function. One cannot help but notice substance in her argument. The role of biology in the development of one's body is a
controversial issue and has generated much polemical debate in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is surely not uncommon to see people carry around different kinds of disinfectant sprays and other chemical products in order to reduce the amount of
bacteria and germs on their skin and in their body. However, the fact is that distal human intestine represents "an anaerobic bioreactor programmed
with an enormous population of bacteria." The study was conducted in order to assess the influence of microbiota on the energy storage in mice
raised without exposure to any microorganisms compared to the control group that had acquired a microbiota since birth. The study showed that the
control group of mice acquired 40% more total body fat than their germ free counterparts, despite the fact that the control group consumed less food
per day. This came as a result of microbiota that provide us with genetic and metabolic attributes we have not acquired in our own evolutionary
process, such as the ability to harvest otherwise inaccessible nutrients. Coming back to Elizabeth Willson's contention, study of the microstructure, in
this case the gut microbiota, has had a reorganizing effect on how we view our bodies and forced us put greater value to the role of microorganisms in
our own survival.
It is clear that the role of the gut bacteria to our fitness cannot be underestimated; however, one may argue that complexity of this topic still does not
reform our

Research Paper On Probiotics
The Best Probiotics for Children
Probiotics are live organisms such as bacteria and yeasts that are good for a person's health. Although probiotics occur naturally in your body, there
can also be found in food and supplements. Most of us think of bacteria as a disease causing micro–organism, however this is not true about all bacteria
especially probiotics. The health benefits of probiotics are numerous for children. Among other benefits probiotics have been known to protect against
viral infections and prevent allergies.
What a most of us should realize is that probiotics will help in reducing colic, acid reflux and constipation in your child. Like anything else out there
certain probiotics are the best for our babies. When you switch to the best probiotics you can help your child live a much healthy life. You can now say
goodbye to constipations, acid reflux and colic, which are the most common gastro intestine complications among children. Probiotics supplements will
definitely help your child through reducing harmful bacteria in his/her digestive system.
The best Probiotics for children
1.Hyperbiotics PRO–15 Probiotics
These probiotics are one of the best for children. You will get 15 times better results when using these than when using... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Like all probiotics these probiotic supplement helps your child's digestive tract balance of good bacteria and yeasts. This probiotic is especially good
at preventing occasional stomach problems, general discomfort and diarrhea. Diarrhea which is a common result of bad bacteria causes pain and
discomfort in children. Therefore the intake of Culturelle Kids packet daily probiotic supplements will help prevent and cure Diarrhea. The boasting
of an infant's immune system is a helpful role done by these probiotics and thanks to their special ability of maintaining bacterial levels in your child's
digestive

Essay on Obesity Alters Gut Microbial Ecology
A common theme among the concerns of today's American citizens is that of obesity. Obesity, identifiable by abnormal fat accumulation, can be
defined in absolute terms by one who has a Body Mass Index (BMI) over 30. It is estimated that over 30 percent of American adults are clinically
obese. This number has shown a dramatic increase from the 15 percent of American adults suffering from obesity in 1980. Globally, 400 million adults
are obese, while predictions place this number at 700 million by 2015. The major issue confronting this adiposity is the health conditions that
accompany states of extreme obesity. These include cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, sleep apnea, and osteoarthritis among others. The escalating
number of obese and... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
* These microorganisms help in extracting calories from polysaccharides in our diet. * They are able to break up polysaccharides that we would
otherwise not be able to hydrolyze. * Studies in mice, which also have large numbers of microbes living in their guts, have shown that there may be a
link between storing energy as fat and microbial activity. * It is thought that the microbes regulate the expression of the gut protein fasting–induced
adipocyte protein (FIAF). This protein is an inhibitor of lipoprotein lipase (LPL). * If the microbes suppress FIAF, then the level of LPL increases. *
Increased LPL levels enhance fat storage (make an individual fatter). * There exists a highly adapted range of bacteria present in the human gut that are
inherited maternally.
The hypothesis:
Obesity may be linked to differences in the microbial makeup of each individual. Individuals prone to obesity may possess microbes that are more
efficient at extracting energy from food than lean individuals.
Questions addressed by the experiment:
* How does the structure of the gut microbial community differ between individuals? * Does being a member of the same family affect the microbial
community? * Does obesity affect the community structure? If so, at what taxonomic level does this occur, and does the gut community

The Immune System : A Complex Network Of Innate And Innate...
The immune system is a complex network of innate and adaptive compartments that work together in order to protect and fight against pathogenic
invaders. The immune system also acts as a regulator of host homeostasis in order to ensure that the body is operating under optimal conditions. The
composition of microbiota is associated with the adaptive and innate immune systems, which work together in order to maintain a constant relationship
between the increasingly different microbiota and pathogens found within our body.
Under optimal working conditions, the relationship between the immune system and microbiota is interweaved between the innate and adaptive
components of the immune system that cultivates an appropriate immune response. Many immune related illnesses such as allergies, autoimmune, and
inflammatory disorders are all due to the failure in controlling misdirected immune responses against self, microbiota–derived, or environmental
antigens. Further, the use of antibiotics and changes in diet also affects the composition of microbiota.
In terms of the relationship between the microbiota and immune system during development, the fetal GI tract is said to be completely sterile. The first
exposure the immune system has to bacteria occurs when the child passes through the birth canal . The exposure that the immune system has during
this passage is what determines the long–term role of the mucosal and systemic immune system . The maternal colostrum and breast milk

Speech About Kombucha
Kombucha – The Wonderdrink That Increases Lifespan
Ever tried kombucha? This delicious tea is available in most cafes and health stores. Known as mushroom tea or the immortal elixir of life, it has
been around for over 2,000 years. Yet, it only recently became popular in America. Made from sugar and blacktea, kombucha offers a myriad of
benefits. From improved digestion to pain relief and immune support, it can boost your health on every level.
Let's see how it works and why it's good for you!
Kombucha: Magic Elixir or Just Fancy Tea?
This refreshing fermented beverage is ideal for the hot summer days. It quenches your thirst, boosts your energy, and promotes weight loss. Once
mostly a product of hippies' kitchens, it's now available ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Alternative medicine practitioners claim that it also improves sleep and prevent cancer. This fizzy drink has been around since 220 BC, so it's not just
a fad. Today, it's marketed as a health elixir that has the power to rejuvenate, regenerate, and revitalize the body.
Is Kombucha Really Good for You?
This fermented tea has been long studied for its healing properties. Rich in glucuronic acid (GA), it helps flush out toxins and fights oxidative damage.
It also prevents your cells and tissues from absorbing environmental toxins. The probiotics in kombucha can prevent and heal digestive problems, such
as heartburn, stomach ulcers, and leaky gut. They also kill candida yeast and keep it from spreading throughout the body.
One bottle of kombucha has only 30 calories and seven grams of carbs. It provides about 25 percent of the RDA of folic acid, 20 percent of the
RDA of vitamin B3 and B12, and over one billion microorganisms that promote gut health. This naturally sweet beverage has no cholesterol or fats.
Even if it's not a magic bullet, it can heal your body and prevent diseases, especially those caused by harmful bacteria and

Canadian Scientist : Dr. Jeffrey I.
Canadian Scientist: Dr. Jeffrey I. Gordon Dr. Jeffrey I. Gordon is a researcher that works out of his lab at Washington University in St. Louis called
the Centre for Genome Sciences and Systems Biology and investigates with mice and germs (The Gordon Lab, 2014). He has received many degrees
such as his medical doctorate degree and many different prizes for his works in medicine (The Gordon Lab, 2014). He has many different honours
from the Washington University and St. Louis University (The Gordon Lab, 2014). Gordon has conducted numerous experiments that include his 478
peer–reviewed publications and numerous collaborations with other researchers and scientists (The Gordon Lab, 2014). Gordon's major contributions
to the scientific community are very useful as much of what is known today about the stomach micro biome is mostly from Dr. Gordon's experiments
(Washington University, 2014). Dr. Gordon is also honoured and praised for his discovery that links nutritional health to the inner working of tens of
trillions of microbes residing within the gut (Washington University, 2014). In one of Gordon's peer reviewed publications called Molecular Analysis
of Commensal Host–microbial Relationships in the Intestine, Gordon investigates how little microbes can adapt and shape out physiology. Gordon
implanted human microbes from the gut into mice and observed the results (Gordon et al., 2005). He discovered that the microbes modulated the genes
and the mice had developed many

Human Gut Microbiome
The relationship between the human gut microbiome to health and disease is strong. Human physiology, metabolism, nutrition, and immune function
are all affected by the composition of the gut. If the composition of the gut microbiome is altered in a way that any of these functions are negatively
affected, this can lead to disease. The developments of the microbiome, its complexity, and its functionality in health and disease have been
extensively studied. In addition, the way in which it is altered has many implications in the cause of diseases, such as bowel disease, obesity, diabetes
and cancer. A healthy adult has over 1000 species ofbacteria residing in the gut (1). There is great diversity in genera of these bacteria, however the
most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dietary fiber is a source of carbohydrate that has benefits for intestinal health. It plays a role in the prevention of disease in the intestine and even
throughout the body, such as obesity, type II diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (10). Furthermore, when the bacteria in the gut ferment the fiber,
metabolites are produced, which benefit the body. Short chain fatty acids are one major end product of this carbohydrate metabolism, which act to
lower the colon's pH, inhibiting pathogenic bacteria from growing. Some other metabolites include lactate, succinate and formate. Lactate is converted
to butyrate by the bacteria in the gut, which induces mucin synthesis, which is a glycoprotein that maintains the gut epithelium integrity. Butyrate also
acts to prevent bacterial transport across the epithelium and increases tight junction assembly (11). What this means, is that the fermentation of fiber
allows these beneficial metabolites to be produced, causing a cascade of reactions that promote health and gut integrity. This shows the complex
beneficial interaction between gut microbiota and fiber intake and its role in promoting health. Gut microbiota composition has also been seen to play
a role in glycemic levels, particularly in children with type 1 diabetes. When butyrate and propionate (short chain fatty acids) are produced by the gut
microbiota, they have been shown to regulate gut hormone levels, such as

Clostridium Difficile Infection: The prescription for health
Clostridium difficile or otherwise known as C.diff. is a life threating infection that can cause a wide range of symptoms. Patients can experience
anything from diarrhea to inflammation of the colon that can lead to death. In the past few years, Clostridium difficile infection rates have increased
here in the United States causing great concern about the effectiveness of current treatments. For the past fifty years, the medical community has been
investigating other areas for better treatment options. There are major effects in the United States and Europe to help identify the role of microbial
communities in the human body. The colon requires a balance of microbial agents that assist with various functions of the body. An imbalance can lead
to C.diff., irritable bowel disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), neurological disorders, and obesity just to list a few. Many of these problems
have grown to an epidemic proportion. Both the United States and Europe have started projects aimed at the microbial communities of the body and
their roles in our health. More than a century ago the notion of microbiota working as a regulator for health and disease was already in use. They
realized that consuming large amounts of fermented milk helped with their longevity. This began the foundation of probiotics. However, the oral
probiotics that are used today are at a lower amount than what is contained in the colon. After cycling through the digestive system it is

Necrotizing Enterocolitis Case Studies
Keywords: Necrotizing enterocolitis Preterm infant Probiotics Systemic review Very–Low birth weight Abstract Objectives: Necrotizing enterocolitis
(NEC) is one of the most common and serious gastrointestinal diseases in preterm infants. The aim of this systematic review examines the effects of
probiotics on preventing NEC in very–low birth weight (VLBL) infants with a focus on the Bifidobacterium species and its strains. Methods: A
systematic review of randomized trials and retrospective studies analyzing the use of probiotics to prevent NEC in VLBW infants was conducted
using PubMed, Cochrane Central Registry of Controlled Trials, and Google Scholar (1996–2016). Trials reporting NEC involving preterm infants who
were given Bifidobacterium... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As previously mentioned, the minimum dose of probiotic should contain 106–107 CFUs per gram of the product30, 31. All trials reviewed met or
exceeded the minimum amount, however there was no standardized dose, limiting the conclusions that can be drawn from these trials. An additional
limitation is the choice to focus only on NEC as the primary outcome. In the neonatal population, NEC often goes hand in hand with sepsis and
increases infant mortality and morbidity. Past meta–analyses reported on the outcomes of NEC in addition to sepsis and all cause mortality and
morbidity; however, no benefit with probiotic supplementation was shown on decreasing the occurrence of

Research Paper On Prebiotics
Prebiotics
A prebiotic is a non–digestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited
number of bacteria in the colon thus improving host health. The prebiotic approach advocates the administration of non–viable entities. Dietary
carbohydrates such as fibres are candidate prebiotics, but most promise has been realised with non–digestible oligosaccharides, because of their
selective metabolism. In particular, the ingestion of fructo–oligosaccharides (FOS) stimulates bifidobacteria in the lower gut. As prebiotics exploit
non–viable food ingredients, their applicability in diets is wide ranging. A further approach is synbiotics, where probiotics and prebiotics are combined.
Today, only bifidogenic, non–digestible oligosaccharides (particularly inulin, its hydrolysis product oligofructose, and (trans) galactooligosaccharides),
fulfill all the criteria for prebiotic classification. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The main site of action is the colon. Thus, prebiotic should also resist the effects of various digestive enzymes and acidic conditions of the gut. Once
the prebiotic can phase through all these conditions, it helps in the stimulation of growth and the various metabolic activities of live probiotic bacteria
by fermentation itself. The target bacterial genera for the prebiotic actions are bifidobacteria and lactobacillus species. These bacterial species are able
to take as a diet of any prebiotics and then produces various metabolic end products via the fermentation process. These fermented end products have a
direct effect on health through the stimulation of host immune system as well as functions as a binding of receptor sites. The fermentation end products
can be organic acids or biologically active peptides. These fermented products have a specific role in the direct antagonistic action against the harmful
disease causing

Calcium Alginate Encapsulation
Calcium alginate encapsulation has demonstrated exemplary protective properties for probiotics exposed to low pH conditions [3]. In the above
graphs, it can be substantiated that non–encapsulated probiotics (Fig. 1) are compromised immediately when subjected to simulated stomach acid over
time. Given approximately 10 minutes, the non–encapsulated probiotic culture viability decreases drastically by 50%. Therefore, it is logical to assume
that probiotics contained in yogurt, cheese, milk, and other dairy products are feasibly non–viable post digest. In addition, this situation creates
ambiguity for the consumer that purchases an advertised probiotic product that is essentially useless. This review proposes a promising technology that
implements the use of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Probiotic or drug viability can be optimized by providing a physical barrier separating unfavourable conditions from the delicate cargo. Furthermore,
calcium alginate demonstrates non–toxic properties deeming it worthy as a promising delivery agent for probiotics or drugs. On the other hand,
limitations associated with the experiment performed include; lack of a secondary or multi– additional coating, texture, and flavour of the polymer.
Additionally, limitations associated with simulated stomach acid involve the absence of peristalsis; a primary component of smooth–muscle movement
through–out the digestive system. Future applications in regards to calcium alginate may one day implement the use of the biopolymer for; probiotic
and drug delivery, wound–sealing, probiotic dressings, and perhaps tissue engineering. In conclusion, calcium alginate exhibits exceptional protective
properties from chemical or mechanical factors and holds promise as an effective encapsulation technology for the delivery of probiotics and perhaps
drug

What Is Brain Gut Axis?
What is brain–gut axis :
The brain–gut axis refers to bi–directional communication between gastrointestinal tract and the nervous system, often involving intestinal microbiota.
It involves nerves, hormones and other molecules such as cytokines and other products of immune system.
Function: The function of brain–gut axis is to monitor and integrate gastrointestinal functions and to mediate impact of stress and emotions on gut.
Many emotions are reflected in terms of changes in gut physiology. It has been known that a symbiotic relationship between resident gut flora, nutrient
absorption and other aspects of digestion exists. In addition, it is now clear that gut flora helps with other functions, including homeostasis of the
immune system and neuro–hormonal signaling along the brain–gut axis [1, 2]. It also serves the host against pathogens, metabolism of certain drugs,
modulation of intestinal pain and some elements of fat absorption.
Intestinal microbiota: There are trillions of bacteria in gut and around 500 different species are found. Their combined metabolic activity exceeds that of
liver. They include a wide variety of host functions within and outside the git, including physiological, immunological and metabolic functions in terms
of weight gain and fat distribution. Bacterial composition and activity subject to a variety of influences including host physiology, immunology, diet,
antibiotic usage and enteric infections play a role in change of composition of

Gut Microbiology
It's amazing how in sync our bodies are when it comes to keeping us healthy. To maintain optimal health all the systems within your body need to work
closely together and support each other, if something is off balance it not only impact that specific area but symptoms can show up all over the body.
Your digestive system in particular plays a major role in your overall well being and a poor functioning digestive tract can show up through a wide
range of symptoms including skin issues, headaches, energy levels or mood, you name a symptom and it can usually be traced back to something not
right within your gut. Two major system linked to your guts health are your immune system and your hormone function – both can take a major hit if
your gut ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bone Broths are fantastic for supporting the thyroid and to help heal the gut. Containing zinc, an essential mineral to support immune function and
promotes healing within the gut and and iron, which supports thyroid function bone broths are the perfect addition to soups throughout the program.
The connection between your immune system, hormone production and digestive tract is such an important connection within the body, with your gut
health having a major influence on how other areas function. By concentrating on healing the gut you are influencing how the immune system
functions and supporting hormone production, which will get you so much closer to achieving overall health and

Fecal Transplants : The Future Medical Medicine
ENG 201, Assignment 2, Draft 2
Brandt Christopherson
October 13, 2014
Fecal Transplants: The Future in Medical Treatments
Infectious bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics, more today than ever before. Antibiotics also kill off many of the good bacteria in our gut,
and can complicating health problems. Disease often comes back in those that are elderly or have a suppressed immune system. And treatment with
antibiotics can take weeks to be effective. Doctors fear antibiotics will become obsolete as an effective cure for disease within decades (Bakken).
What if there was a far easier, safer, quicker, and inexpensive treatment is available? Fecal transplants are that answer.
Organ transplants have been successful ways of saving lives in modern society, today a whole new type of transplants are beginning and will change
the way we look at medicine – fecal transplants. Fecal transplants, technically Fecal Microbiota Transplants (FMT), as defined by the Fecal Transplant
Foundation, is a procedure in which fecal matter is collected from a test donor and placed in a patient by colonoscopy, or enema replacing the bad
bacteria with a batch of good bacteria and jump–start a patient's gut back to good health.
Since bacteria have been discovered, we have been developing antibiotics to kill them. The study of beneficial bacteria however, has only taken shape
over the past few years (Lim). Right now, inside your gut there are over 100 trillion bacteria and microorganisms that

Fecal Iplant Research Paper
Question Set 1
Q1A: In a fecal transplant, a willing and tested stool donor gives a stool sample that is then mixed with saline and strained. After this, it has to
somehow get to the insides of a patient. This is usually achieved through the methods of colonoscopy, enema, endoscopy, or sigmoidoscopy. This
procedure has the purpose of helping someone who's natural bacteria microbiome has been compromised, often due to the use of antibiotics. Once a
lot of the good, essential bacteria has been killed off, there is more room and resources for the "bad" bacteria, such as C. diff, to come in and
overpopulate the colon. This can cause serious side effects, one of which is a fatal diarrhea. Thus, with the use of a fecal transplant, if the gut
microbiome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
difficile in that when antibiotic doses were lessened, the infection would reoccur. The continued antibiotic use led to the emergence of other resistant
bacteria as well. After the fecal transplant, the patient did not have a relapse for two years until his death from another infection with MRSA. The fecal
transplant was successful in restoring the gut flora and preventing all of the other resistant bacteria that emerged from the antibiotic treatments from
recolonizing. The patient's diarrhea, which was caused by C. difficile had subsided after the treatment. This result provides evidence for fecal
transplants being effective for not only curing a C. difficile infection, but also restoring the microbiome to normal so that the other resistant bacteria
that emerged along with C. difficile are no longer a problem because the "good" bacteria can sufficiently take over and colonize.
3) Publication citation:
Hecker, Michelle, Mark Obrenovich, Jennifer Cadnum, Anette Jencson, Alok Jain, Edith Ho, and Curtis Donskey. "Fecal Microbiota Transplant Cures
C. Diff, Blocks Multidrug–Resistant Pathogens." Microbe Magazine 10.6 (2015): 231. Web.
There were 20 patients that received the fecal

The Importance Of Probiotics In The Gut
Overall health and well–being can be affected by the bacteria in the gut, and an imbalance in the digestive system can cause changes in the body and
manifest as any number of ailments, including abdominal discomfort, irritable bowel syndrome, crohn's disease skin and ulcerative colitis. Gut health
and immune system closely linked, and while bacteria are important for digestion, it can also have an effect on hormone levels, stress and
metabolism. Both good and bad bacteria are found in the gut, and it is vital to feed and supply the beneficial bacteria in order to maintain good health.
Probiotics can play a role in bringing balance to the bacteria in the gut and prevent the development of diseases, by boosting the immune system, which
in turn, promotes good health. There are a number of probiotic products on the market that provide different benefits. Lets look at the top five
probiotics and what they can do for your health.
What are Probiotics?
According to the Mayo Clinic, probiotics are good bacteria that are either the same as or similar to the bacteria that occur naturally in your body.
Probiotics can be found in some food supplements, and works by decreasing the number of "bad" bacteria in your gut that can cause infections or
inflammation and restoring bacterial balance.
Probiotics Products
BlueBiotics Ultimate Care
This supplement has 61 billion live probiotics per serving (CFU), 11 proven strains, and is promoted by numerous doctors and health professionals.
Some

Essay on E Coli and Salmonella in Swine Finishing Barns
A total of 50 commercial swine finishing barns were recruited and sampled from 5 states during June – October 2011. A total of 30 fresh fecal samples
were collected from the floor of each barn, 5 samples from 6 different pens, when the animals were at the end of the finishing phase and within 30
days of marketing. At the time of collection, barn managers were given a survey to capture data relating to antimicrobial use practices for the sampled
group of animals beginning in the farrowing phase.
Fecal samples were shipped overnight to The Ohio State University for bacterial culture of E. coli and Salmonella, and selective enrichment with media
containing cephalosporins:
E.coli: For blaCMY–2 selective E. coli culture, a 4 gram aliquot of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) was utilized for comparison of isolates for clonality. Answers from the antimicrobial use survey were
compiled and analyzed for association with recovery of blaCMY–2 and blaCTX–M genes using Chi–square and Fisher's exact tests.
Results
A total of 1,495 fresh fecal samples were collected from 50 commercial swine finishing in 5 states between the months of June and October 2011.
The barns contained an average of 1,236 pigs with an average pen density of 35 pigs/pen and had an average of 96 days on feed in the finishing barn.
The antimicrobial use survey (Table 1) indicated that ceftiofur treatment in the early phases of production was common with 58% of farrowing barns
and 72% of nursery barns administering the antimicrobial. In the finishing phase, 48% of the barns administered ceftiofur therapy to sick pigs with an
average within–barn treatment proportion of 2.2%. Administration of other antimicrobials during any or all production phases was common among the
survey responses with 88% of barns reporting delivery through feed, 12% through water, and 74% of barns reporting treatment of individual swine with
parenteral antimicrobials.
Commensal enteric bacteria containing the blaCTX–M cephalosporin resistance gene were detected in a total of 8 barns (16%); 10 E. coli isolates from
5 barns in Ohio, 12 E. coli isolates from 1 barn in Michigan, and 2 Klebsiella

The Disagreements Over the Health Effects of Probiotics Essay
Since the year 1965, the term probiotics has been used. Lilly and Stillwell were the first to describe probiotics as substances secreted by one organism,
which stimulated growth of other organisms (Gupta, 2009). It was however, Elie Metchnikoff in the 1900s who first suggested that there were health
properties in lactic acid bacteria from fermented food products (Anukam, 2007). Since then, the meaning has undergone some changes, one of the most
recent definitions is that probiotics are beneficial live microorganisms, which must be consumed in a sufficient amount for the desired health effect
(Guarner, 1998). The Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organisation has adopted this definition but there are many other organisations
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore the bacterium ability to tolerate different pH levels is a crucial factor in determining their probiotic use. Ability to attach to the gut epithelial
cells and adequate production of antimicrobial substances are also other important properties of probiotics (Granato, 2010). In terms of commercial use
and manufacturing, probiotics must be resilient and maintain cell viability during periods of processing, packaging and storage (Saarela, 2009).
The number food companies that are now using strains of Lactic acid bacteria and Bifidobacteria in their food products has increased considerably and
it is now diary probiotic products that are making between 60%–70% of the functional food market (Mohammadi, 2012). Fermented milk and yogurt
beverages are the main source of probiotics in supermarkets but there are also capsule and powder formations in addition. The popularity of these
products has increased due to the number of documented benefits of consuming probiotic bacteria and support from media and marketing.
The documented health and nutritional benefits from consumption of probiotic food products show alleviating gastrointestinal problems and many
other health benefits (Granato, 2010). Various randomised controlled trials have shown that in children with acute diarrhoea, probiotics has reduced the
duration of diarrhoea by reducing stool frequency. It has shown to be a safe intervention however the size of the

The Common Abundance Of Bacteria
FIGURE 1 Bar chart shows the mean of relative abundance of each taxa in both faecal and oral samples. Orange bars indicate faecal samples and
blue bars indicate oral samples. Faecal bars represent the mean and error bars the standard error (n=31), while oral bars represent the mean and error
bars the standard error (n=99). The most common abundance of bacteria in faecal sample were Bacteroides and while the most common abundance of
bacteria in oral sample were Streptococcus. The mean of abundance is obtained by summing up the abundance of each taxa and divide it by the total
number of samples in each faecal and oral samples respectively. Standard error is obtained by dividing standard deviation of each taxa with total
number of samples that have been square rooted in each faecal and oral samples respectively.
Result for culture dependent and independent in oral cavities:
FIGURE 2 Bar chart represents the percentage of student cohort in each taxa for culture dependent and independent data. The orange bars indicate
culture dependent data while the blue bars indicate culture independent data. Culture independent data detects all aerobic, anaerobic, facultative
anaerobes as well as obligate anaerobes but culture dependent cannot identified any of these obligate anaerobes. However, culture independent data
does not detect Staphylococcus. Percentage of student cohort is obtained by counting the amount of each taxon identified (only relative abundances of
bacteria that are

Gut Organisms
Technically, the term microbiome can refer to either the group of microbes living within a larger organism or the genes within those microorganisms.
In many cases, when we talk about the microbiome, we really the microorganisms found in humans.
Although there are microoganisms in all our of tissues, we typically think of them in terms of gut flora. Part of the reason for this is that the gut flora
vastly outnumber the microbes elsewhere in the body and are also much more diverse than average. Another reason is that many of the flora found in
the gut are known to be involved in how we digest our food.
Compared to our understanding of most microbiota living on and in humans, our understanding of our gut flora is relatively well developed. It is also
an area where it is "common knowledge" that there are microorganisms ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is complicated by the need to try to exclude host DNA from the studies.
The microbes that make up the microbiome include bacteria, viruses, fungi and archaea. Archaea were previously classified as bacteria, but new
research has found them to a distinct class of organisms, different from the other two main classes of organisms. They were originally believed to live
in only extreme environments, such as volcanic hot springs, but they have proven to be much more flexible and abundant than it was initially assumed.
They are known to have a generally mutualistic relationship to humans and to aid in digestion.
Some of our gut flora play a critical role in helping us digest certain things. For example, they ferment dietary fiber into short–chain fatty acids. They
also play an important role in creating vitamins B and K, as well as other important chemicals, such as sterols. These play an important role in our
immune function. Problems with the gut flora are known to correlate to autoimmune disease and inflammatory

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