A Note On Cellulose

A Note On Cellulose
Gene expression
Fatty Acid metabolism
(Graphs will be added)
Hepatic gene expression profiles of genes primarily associated with fatty acid metabolism for rats
fed cellulose (control) diet, FOS, β–glucan and pectin. Results represent the mean fold change (SE)
compared to control and presented as means ± SD, n = 9–10 per group.
With respect to fatty acid binding proteins, Fabp2 have shown down–regulation in all of the diet
groups compared to the cellulose (control) group (P = 0.002). (fig 6 –1) Conversely, there was a 0.5
fold down–regulation of Fabp5 in all the fibre group compared to the cellulose (control) group (P <
0·001) (fig 6–2). While, there was a 1.2–fold up–regulation of Fabp3 in the Pectin fibre group
compared to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(fig 7–2)
On the other hand, HMGCS1 showed 1–fold down–regulation in FOS group (P = 0.018) compared
to the cellulose (control) group, while in the β–glucan group (P = 0.121) group and pectin (P =
0.312) there was no statistically significant difference compared to the cellulose (control) group (fig
7–3). While, Scd1 have shown down–regulation in FOS group (P = 0.003), β–glucan group (P =
0.0018) and pectin group (P = 0.001) compared to the cellulose (control) group (fig 7–4). CRAT
have shown up–regulation in pectin group (P = 0.005) compared to the cellulose (control) group, on
the other hand, there was no statistically sigmificant difference between FOS group (P = 0.54) and
β–glucan group (P = 0.25) compared to the cellulose (control) group (fig 7–5). While, ACAT have
shown up–regulation in pectin group (P = 0.024) compared to the cellulose (control) group, on the
other hand, there was no statistically significant difference between FOS group (P = 0.23) and β–
glucan group compared to the cellulose (control) group (P = 0.181) (fig 7–5). Acadl have shown
down–regulation in FOS group (P = 0.001), β–glucan group (P = 0.001) and pectin group (P =
0.007) compared to the cellulose (control) group (fig 7–4).
Cholesterol metabolism
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Designing A Whole New Ultra Poreux Cellulose Based Material
Recent years witnessed a momentum of consumers towards products biodegradable and designed
according to more environmentally–friendly ways of the environment. On the other hand, the
increase in the price of oil and its scarcity helped bringing forward new products of natural origin.
The objective of this article which is part of this perspective is to prepare and characterize a whole
new ultra–poreux cellulose–based material, called aerogel.
Even if their discovery date of the beginning of the 1930s by Kristler, aerogels are considered at
present the most promising new materials in the field of thermal super– insulation. Not happy to be
the subject of much research in this area, their high level of nanoporosite characteristic makes them
indispensable in the development of batteries to fuel. The multitude of organic, inorganic or hybrid
materials, and the appearance of new methods of preparation and extraction offer prospects for use
in filtering system, ultrafine dust capture...
Aerogels can be inorganic (silica–based) or organic (example of resorcinol–formaldehyde). They
have a very low thermal conductivity, and are often super insulation, but they are relatively fragile
(silica aerogel) or toxic (organic aerogels). A new avenue of research was recently conducted in the
aim of developing type aerogels materials bio–sources and super insulation. Thus aerogels made
from cellulose or derivatives, or other polysaccharides were investigated (for example in the articles:
Fischer

Advantages And Disadvantages Of The Static-Culture Method
2.5.1.1. Advantages and disadvantages of the static–culture method Although static–culture appears
attractive due to its simplicity, it is not a feasible option for large–scale production due to the high
cost of labour involved (Schrecker and Gostomski, 2005) Additionally, it is not a very good tool for
investigative studies on BC production in a laboratory environment. This is because the static
cultures have to be left undisturbed during pellicle formation. And even after the pellicle has
formed, it is a challenge to even measure the pH of the medium let alone control the same. Thus,
controlling important growth parameters such as pH and substrate concentration is challenging in
this method. It has been postulated by (Borzani and Desouza, 1995) that the BC pellicle increases in
thickness due to the active cells on the upper most level. Thus after a point, the cells lack access to
medium due to the decreasing substrate flux through the increasing thickness of the pellicle under
formation. 2.5.2. The agitated bacterial culture method (agitated–bioreactor( ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
This method was first reported by (Schramm and Hestrin, 1954). They produced BC in shake flasks
to increase aeration throughout the volume and thus produced BC under agitated conditions. They
found that under agitated conditions, G. xylinus did not form a pellicle but small irregular sized
spherical balls or flocs. It's potential to be scaled up inspired further research. The rate of BC
production in such agitated cultures was two fold higher than the traditional static culture method
(Setyawati et al., 2007). Using the same principle, (Chao et al., 2000) developed a 50 L internal–
loop airlift reactor that claimed to give increase productivity at reduced power consumption under
optimum

Biofuels : An Common Type Of Biofuel
Biofuels
Biofuels can simply be classified as liquid fuels that have been derived from living or once living
organisms such as waste plant and animal matter (1).
The most common type of biofuel is bioethanol
(rarely Propanol and Butanol). It has a chemical formula C2H5OH and structure as illustrated in
Figure 1. Bioethanol is a term used to refer to ethanol derived from biomass. (1)
Biomass is organic matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen that is used to produce biofuels. It
is also referred to as any source of organic carbon that is renewed quickly as part of the carbon
cycle. Biomass is categorised into 3 types and these include sugar, starch and ligno–cellulosic based
biomass. (4)
Sugar based biomass: Biomass that is derived from crops such as sugarcane or sugar beet. Starch
based biomass: Biomass that is sourced from crops such as corn or wheat. Lignocellulosic biomass:
Also known as plant residue and is derived from woody waste such as sugarcane bagasse, corn
Stover and wheat straw i.e. non–edible parts of the plant. It is composed of mainly cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin. (4) Bioethanol: The fuel of the future
The invention of the internal combustion engine in vehicles signalled the reign of dominance of
petroleum as the premium source of transport fuel. Fast forward a few decades and our present
world is facing a spectrum of issues that questions

What Are Physicochemical Properties Of Your Drug?
1. What are the physicochemical properties of your drug (in this case, theophylline)? Only list those
properties relevant to the formulation and dissolution. 10% Theophylline is a bronchodilator used in
the treatment of asthma, it has a low molecular weight of 180.2. It is slightly acidic, when in a
saturated solution of water and has a pKa of 8.81. (Press, 2016) It contains one hydrogen bond
donor and three hydrogen bond acceptors. It is a hydrophilic compound with a logP of –0.02. It is
slightly soluble in water (solubility increased in hot water) and sparingly soluble in alcohol.
(Theophylline, 2008)
Theophylline is readily absorbed orally, parenterally and rectally. It also has a half–life of around 3
to 9 hours. (Napp, 2016)
Table 1. Physiochemical properties of theophylline.
Molecular weight 180.2 pKa 8.81
Number of HBDs 1
Number of HBAs 3
LogP –0.02
Solubility 7360 mg/L (at 25 °C)
Half–life 3 to 9 hours
2. What are the implications of using the hydrate rather than the anhydrous form of theophylline (i)
in formulation (manufacture of the tablet) and (ii) in biopharmaceutics (dissolution)? 20%
I. Manufacturing theophylline formulations come with challenges for both the anhydrous and
hydrate. For the anhydrous form, a study showed that the wet granulation of

Word Equation: Cellulose
Word Equation: cellulose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Chemical Formula: (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 5 H₂O
In a campfire, the fuel is wood, a complex natural material made up of many types of molecules, but
the main molecule in wood is cellulose with the content of 40–50%. Cellulose molecules break
down into carbon dioxide and water. These cellulose molecules are linked to each other through an
oxygen atom. The fire will catch alight when the wood is heated enough so that some cellulose
molecules break away from their oxygen links. In the heated air above the wood, the unstable
molecules react with oxygen molecules nearby. Finally, the atoms in the cellulose and the oxygen
gas recombine into carbon dioxide and water molecules. There

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Biocellulose
5. DISCUSSION
Bacterial cellulose or biocellulose (BC) is an extracellular cellulose naturally produced by many
microorganisms. BC has been considered as an alternative biomaterial since it possesses superior
qualities to other cellulose. BC exhibits many unique characteristics which are different from those
of other plant celluloses Biocellulose has chemical and physical properties that are superior to the
properties of plant derived cellulose. Compared to plant cellulose, the nanofibril network of
biocellulose has interesting properties such as excellent water holding capacity, high degree of
polymerization, high crystallinity, high purity, good biocompatibility, and excellent mechanical
properties. Therefore, due to its many unique properties, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The cost of the fermentation medium represents a critical aspect of the commercial production of
biocellulose. The cheaper substrate used instead of the commonly used sugars as glucose or fructose
might result in a lower cost of the final product. In this context, two algal substrates have been tested
such as green alga (U. lactuca) and sea grass (P. oceanic). Data confirmed that P. oceanic was the
best substrate in medium HSPO supporting the highest production of biocellulose (5.7 g/l).
Carbohydrates are the major component of seagrass and seaweeds (ca. 50–70% on a dry basis)
(Uchida, 2011), containing mostly polysaccharides to construct algal tissue. For example, brown
algae contain alginate and fucoidan as major components. Red algae contain galactan (e.g. agar,
carrageenan) as a major component. Seagrasses and green algae contain hemicellulose and cellulose
as major components. These major algal polysaccharides are known to be unfavorable substrates for
fermentation. This may be one of the reasons why algal fermentation technology has yet to be
developed. Recently, seaweed could be used as a substrate for lactic acid and ethanol fermentation,
provided that the algal tissue was saccharified with cellulase enzymes. This finding opened the
possibility of obtaining foods and related items from algal fermentation (Uchida, 2002; Uchida and
Murata, 2002; Uchida and Murata, 2004). According to all these advances in algal fermentation, we
suggest that there is a great possibility of creating a new medium for industrial biocellulose
production by G. xylinus using algal fermentation technology in the near

Cellulase Producing Microorganisms Essay
Cellulase producing microorganisms
In nature, a wide variety of microorganisms, belonging to the eukaryotic (fungi) and prokaryotic
(eubacteria and actinomycetes) groups are known to produce cellulases (Gautam et al., 2012). Their
cellulolytic systems, however, vary from the free form in the aerobes to the complexed cellulosomes
in the anaerobes. The cellulose degraders can also be classified among the mesophilic and
thermophilic groups. Their physiological characteristics determine the type of environment
inhabited by them. However, the cellulolytic potential of cellulases from physiologically diverse
microbial sources is exploitable in various applications based on their specific relevance. Table 1
shows the list of the different types ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, the foremost step in the biochemical conversion is the pretreatment of the biomass, which
involves the deconstruction of the cell wall into its components, i.e., the lignin, hemicellulose and
cellulose (Sun and Cheng, 2002; Kumar et al., 2009). The biomass can be pretreated using different
physical, chemical, biological or combination of these methods (Kumar et al., 2009). Each method
has its own advantages and limitations. The suitability of the pretreatment method depends on the
type of the biomass feedstock (Khare et al., 2015). The efficiency of the pretreatment step, however,
is the key factor determining the yield of the hydrolysis in the cellulosic ethanol production process
(Alvira et al., 2010) as it ensures the accessibility of the carbohydrate polymers for their subsequent
hydrolysis in the fermentable sugars. In the next step, i.e., the saccharification, the celluloses and
hemicelluloses are hydrolysed into C6 and C5 sugars with the help of cellulases and hemicellulases
enzymes respectively (Sarkar et al., 2012). The last step involves the conventional approach of
fermentation of C6 and C5 sugars into ethanol using either native or genetically modified
ethanologenic microbes (Gnansounnou and Dauriat, 2005).
The biomass saccharification can also be carried out using a chemical method of two–stage

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Nonwovens
Nonwovens showed up in the 1940s, and were later created with diverse progress in different
nations. Nonwovens innovation was further enhanced and grew, especially concerning bonded
nonwovens taking into account important compound fibers and engineered bonding techniques
encouraging production of better and more helpful items for specialized use, apparel and family
utilization. Nonwovens have an extensive variety of utilizations from furniture to the geo– and
chemotextiles. Nonwoven fabric is a kind of fabric which can be created by different procedures
other than weaving and knitting. Durable applications business is the biggest application region for
nonwoven materials and items followed by expendable applications market. Durable applications
incorporate home ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also biodegradable nature of cotton is an imperative quality that makes attractive and strong
candidate in a situation, where waste transfer is turning into a noteworthy concern. Flax with
properties like that of cotton, yet with better quality and modulus, is an option. Other than vehicle
weight diminishment, capacity of cotton–based car composites to diminish clamor level inside the
vehicle is a critical variable to the extent traveler is concerned and this will open an open door for a
considerable measure of new applications for such items (Mueller et al 2002; Muessig 2002). Cotton
is utilized as a part of nonwoven hygiene items including wipes, female hygiene items, diapers and
grown–up incontinence items. It is soft, comfortable, hypoallergenic and naturally absorbent; and
has greater wet strength than dry. Most hygiene products are spun laced; but cotton also may be
needle punched for wipes such as decontamination wipes, and also in its relatively unprocessed raw
state for oil absorption, such as cotton boom used in the recent Gulf of Mexico oil spill cleanup

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Mechanical Pulping
Mechanical pulping is typically used for softwood.One of the advantages of mechanical pulping is it
has a great yield around 95% from dry weight of input material,however it requires great energy,
because the resulted paper are opaque, weaker and easily to discoloration with the exposure to the
light.The mechanical pulps are more weaker than the chemical pulps, however it ia more cheaper to
produce (about 50% of the costs of chemical pulp). Moreover, they give the yield with the ranging
from 85–95%24.
Many methods used in mechanical pulping, the earliest method is groundwood process. This method
is pressed length wise against a rough, revolving grinding stone. Another process, refiner
mechanical pulp (RMP) utilizes chips are shredded into ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Chemical thermomechanical pulping involves treating softwood chips with mild sulfite solutions to
modify the lignin and partially delignify the wood prior to grinding in a refiner. High tear resistant
paper is resulted from "sulfonation" treatment compare with thermomechanical, refiner, or stone–
ground pulps. Chemical thermomechanical pulping results the decreasing of pulp yields between 85
to 90%, however, these yields are still higher than chemical pulping (40 to 56 %). Chemical
thermomechanical pulping is commonly used for manufacture printing & writing papers, tissue and
packaging boards
Alkaline and peroxide are commonly used in Chemical thermomechanical pulping. The Alkaline
peroxide mechanical pulping (APMP) gives had several advantages, such as give a good pulp
quality, eliminate a bleach plant, and energy savings compare to the conventional chemical
thermomechanical pulping process. Therefore, APMP is a good pulping method for low–density
hardwoods such as for aspen and eucalyptus28,

History of Paper
The first historical mention of paper is 104 A.D. in China. The Empress of China at that time loved
books and wanted to have a lot of them made. At the time everything was written on silk scrolls
which were extremely expensive and time consuming to make. She wanted something cheaper and
easier to use and so she asked one of her servants, a gentleman by the name of Tsi Lun to come up
with an alternative. He worked for over nine years experimenting with different things and finally
came up with hemp, mulberry tree bark, silk and old fishing nets all ground up into a mushy pulp. I
wonder how he ever thought of it; the history books don't say. The Empress was very pleased and
Tsi Lun was elevated to a high rank in the court. Unfortunately for ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
An increase in literacy in the 18'th century and the resultant explosion of print caused a rag shortage
for making paper and research began to find an alternative source of fibers from which to make
paper. The industry, unfortunately, turned toward trees which were rather abundant at the time but
getting rather scarce today because of our love of the use of paper. The reason trees were choosen
was their cellulose content. Cellulose is actually the stuff out of which paper is formed. All plant
matter has cellulose fiber. Some more so than others. Trees have a lot of cellulose.
Why Cellulose? Cunously, the answer lies in the molecular structure of cellulose and water. It is a
very interesting story that borders on magic and wizardry. Water molecules have one large proton
and two little electrons. You could think of an image like a Mickey Mouse head with two ears and
you will have an image of a water molecule. Water molecule electrons have the habit of chaining
together on the surface of water, which causes an effect called 'surface tension.' You could imagine a
series of Mickey Mouse heads joined together at their ears and you will have a picture of how this
works. This chaining process is the key to making paper. Cellulose fibers have one large proton and
one electron with a place on the proton for another electron to 'chain in' (a Mickey Mouse head with
only one ear). When cellulose is suspended in water the water molecules do not discriminate against

Using The Hydrate Rather Than The Anhydrous Form Of...
Theophylline is a bronchodilator used in the treatment of asthma, it has a low molecular weight of
180.2. It is slightly acidic, when in a saturated solution of water and has a pKa of 8.81.
2. What are the implications of using the hydrate rather than the anhydrous form of theophylline (i)
in formulation (manufacture of the tablet) and (ii) in biopharmaceutics (dissolution)? 20%
I. Manufacturing theophylline formulations come with challenges for both the anhydrous and
hydrate. For the anhydrous form, a study showed that the wet granulation of theophylline anhydrous
in conjunction with microcrystalline cellulose, led to the formation of the monohydrate form of the
drug. This is significant because the monohydrate has slower dissolution than the anhydrous form of
theophylline. Thus the method of manufacture is highly important as the study showed directly
compressed pellets had better dissolution profiles. Also it shows the importance of the choice of
excipients as pellets manufactured via wet granulation in the absence of microcrystalline cellulose
showed similar release to that of directly anhydrous theophylline.
Theophylline monohydrate has a tendency to dehydrate during the drying process, it can do so at
fairly cool temperatures of around 60⁰C. So this makes temperature an important factor in the
manufacture of monohydrate as phase transition can occur.
II. A study conducted in 1992 found

Ap Bio Water Research Paper
Water
Water is a medium for metabolic reactions and an important constituent of cells. In most plants and
animals, it makes up about 65–95% of their mass. The water molecule is referred to as a dipole, a
polar molecule, with a positive (hydrogen) and negative (oxygen) charge, separated by a very small
distance. A molecule with a separated charge is polar. A hydrogen bond; the weak attractive force
between a hydrogen atom with a partial positive (o+) charge and an atom with a partial negative
charge (o–) oxygen can be formed between two atoms. Hydrogen bonds are weak, however in large
quantities, like the large number present in water it makes the molecules difficult to separate and
gives water a wide range of physical properties vital to life. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This is known as an α–1,4–glycosidic bond.
Condensation reaction
Formation of a glycosidic bond between two glucose molecules, making maltose
Hydrolysis reaction
Hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond in maltose
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large complex polymers; a large molecule comprising repeated units, monomers
bonded together by glycosidic bonds.
Glucose is the main source of energy in cells. It is soluble in water meaning it would increase the
concentration of a cell contents and draw water in by osmosis. It is therefore converted into a
storage product, starch, which;
Is insoluble so has no osmotic affect.
Cannot diffuse of the cell.
Is a compact molecule and can be stored in a small area.
Carries a lot of energy in its C–H and C–C bonds.
Starch
Starch is the main dtore of glucose for

Plants are composed of lignocelluloses which are a...
Plants are composed of lignocelluloses which are a combination of hemicelluloses (15–35%),
cellulose (20–50%) and lignin (10–30%) on dry weight (Figure 1) .This chemical composition is
different in dicots and monocots. Agricultural residues, energy crops (sugarcane and poplar), wood
residues and municipal paper waste are abundant in lignocelluloses.
Cellulose is a complex structure composed of glucosyl units linked by β–1, 4 bonds held together by
strong intra and intermolecular hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces forming a pyranose
structure. By mild treatments, cellulose is nicked to a length of ~150nm but beyond these enzymatic
and microbial treatments is required to reach up to the stacked glucosyl units [11]. The crystalline ...
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A number of agricultural crops like wheat straw, corn stover, cotton stalk, sugarcane bagasse and
barley straw are being used these days for bioethanol production [21]. The wheat straw has cellulose
(31–39%), hemicellulose (22–24%) and lignin (16–25%) [22]. The corn stover has cellulose (39–
42%), hemicellulose (22–28 %) and lignin (18–22%) [23] whereas barley straw contains cellulose
(33–40%), hemicellulose (20–35%) and lignin (8–17%) [24].
3. Methods for pretreatment of biomass
Primary hurdle in using lignocelluloses (component of biomass) for ethanol production is location
of entrapped sugars necessary for fermentation. Other hindrances are physiochemical, structural and
compositional factors [25]. To overcome these problems, pretreatment is necessary before
fermentation so that cellulose becomes accessible in the plant fiber. This can be done through
breakage of (β–1, 4) – glycosidic linkages between its monosaccharide sugar units [26]. However,
the major challenge behind pre– treatment is its cost effectiveness. A number of agricultural crops
like rice straw, wheat, cotton stalk, sugarcane bagasse are being used these days for bioethanol
production [21]. Enzyme hydrolysis is widely used pretreatment method but there are chances of
incomplete hydrolysis, therefore other ways are being tried at the same time. Alvira [27] explained
fractionation of

What Are The Advantages Of Mechanical Pulping
Mechanical pulping is typically used for softwood.One of the advantages of mechanical pulping is it
has a great yield around 95% from dry weight of input material,however it requires great energy,
because the resulted paper are opaque, weaker and easily to discoloration with the exposure to the
light.The mechanical pulps are more weaker than the chemical pulps, however it ia more cheaper to
produce (about 50% of the costs of chemical pulp). Moreover, they gives the yield with the ranging
of 85–95%24.
Many methods used in mechanical pulping, the earliest method is groundwood process. This method
is pressed length wise against a rough, revolving grinding stone. Another process, refiner
mechanical pulp (RMP) utilizes chips are shredded into fibers between large rotating disks of a
device called a refiner. The objective of refining are to increase contact area of cell wall through
increasing flexibility and the second to increase the total surface area of fiberavaiable for bonding
through fibrillitation the external surface
The basic RMP process has evolved to employ thermal and/or chemical presoftening of the chips,
which reduces energy use and modifies ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The weaker paper or paperboard is one of the resulted damage from the fibers separated
mechanically. However, this process resulted the yield of paper per unit volume of wood is still
greater than that produced by chemical pulping, because since both lignin and cellulose fibers
remain intact. The Pulp yields from all of the mechanical pulping processes typically are near 90 to
95 percent recovery, which is a much higher yield per unit of wood than with the chemical pulping
methods because of the retention of lignin. However, paper made from mechanical pulp is
discoloured and becomes brittle with age because of its lignin content, which results in a shorter
useful life than paper made from chemical

Advantages And Disadvantages Of PLA
Despite several advantages ,PLA has some drawbacks as well, which limits its use in certain
applications3. PLA has poor toughness (very brittle material with less than 10% elongation at
break), slow degradation rate (low crystallinity), hydrophobicity (hydrophobic with a static contact
angle of approximately 80°), lack of reactive side chain groups and poor barrier properties (to
moisture and air)3. Moreover, the poor melt strength restricts the applicability of specific processing
techniques such as film blowing etc.
Several attempts have been made to improve the properties of PLA. Researchers have approached
surface modifications to enhance the mechanical properties, especially toughness, processability,
degradation behaviour and crystallization11. By the use of surface modification techniques different
reactive groups such as –COOH, –OH, and –NH2 can be introduced on the surface of PLA. Grafting
technique was utilized by Spinella et al.12, to improve the mechanical and barrier properties of the
nanocomposites. PLLA based nanocomposites with PMMA modified CNCs showed higher storage
modulus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thereafter, numerous investigations have been carried out in this area. In the homogenization, the
suspension of cellulose fibre is pumped at high pressure and passed through a thin slit, where it is
subjected to high shear forces. This combination of forces results in a high degree of fibrillation of
the cellulose fibres. The high–pressure homogenization process is depicted in Figure 6. Advantages
of high–pressure homogenization lies in easy scale–up and continuous operation. Despite these
advantages, it has drawback as well, viz. clogging of the homogenizer due to larger fibers and the
high number of passes needed to obtain

Case Study: Hibiscus Gellan Gum
1.1. Hibiscus rosa–sinens
The mucilage of this plant has disintegrating properties, it contains L–rhamnose, D–galactose, D–
galactouronic acid, and D–glucuronic acid [6,28]. Shah and Patel prepared acelofenac ODT by DC
using 6% of this disintegrant, the disintegration time was found to be 20 seconds. The results of
Swelling Ratio (SR) , angle of repose, bulk density and compressibility index were observed as 9,
26.5oC, 0.65g/cc and 16% respectively [40] which indicates excellent flow and good
compressibility according to European pharmacopeia classification [41].
1.2. Gellan Gum (Kelcogel®)
Gellan gum (figure 5) is a linear anionic water soluble biodegradable polysaccharide obtained from
Pseudomonos elodea. It consists of tetrasaccharide repeat structure [5,6]. It showed disintegrating
properties compared to that of other commercially available disintegrants. Upon solvatation, swells
rapidly –being hydrophilic– and cause tablet disintegration. At 4%, it showed good disintegration
profile and less time needed for 90% drug release compared to Ac–di–sol and Kollidone CL [42].
It is extracted from carob tree seeds. It is used as thickening, gelling, disintegrating and binding
agent [10, 43]. Malik et al studied the use of locust bean gum as superdisintegrant in orodispersible
tablets and proposed that the mechanism of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gum Karaya (other names :terculia, Indian tragacanth, Bassoratragacanth, kadaya, Kadira and
katila) occurs as a partially acetylated derivative. It is used as suspending agent, emulsifying agent,
dental adhesive, sustaining agent in tablets and bulk laxative [49]. Bansal and Sharma reported the
use of modified karaya gum in orally disintegrating tablets of ondansetron hydrochloride and found
it can be used as alternative to other conventional disintegrants, where it showed lower time of
disintegration, and better availability and price

Environmental Issues Affecting The Exploitation Of...
1–INTRODUCTION There is an increasing energy demands worldwide towards the exploitation of
renewable resources from agricultural and forest remnant. The major components of these remains
are cellulose, lignin and pectin. These materials have paid more interest as an alternative feedstock
and energy source, since they are abundantly obtainable. Large quantities of wastes are produced
every year from the industrial treatment of agricultural raw materials. Most of these wastes are used
as animal feed or burned as alternative for removal. However, such wastes usually have a
composition rich in sugars, minerals and proteins, and therefore, they should not be considered
"wastes" but raw materials for other industrial processes(Mussatto et al., 2012) (2). Using of
residues from agro–industrial sources in bio processes has aroused the interest of the scientific
community lately. Ecological issues and concerns aimed to reducing pollution have boosted the
search for "clean Technologies" to be used in the production of commodities of importance to
chemical, energy and food industries. This idea makes use of alternative materials, requires less
energy, and minimizes pollutants in industrial effluents, as well as being more economically useful
due to its reduced costs (Martins et al., 2011) (1). Agro–industrial wastes are at most composed of
complex polysaccharides that might serve as nutrients for microbial growth and production of
enzymes, several microorganisms are capable of using

Cellulose Chromatography Lab
1. Why did you select the solvents that you tested? Did your data support your hypothesis or
disprove your hypothesis?
We selected water because it is a constant and it is a common solvent, as well as we selected acetone
and ethanol, since all three of these solvents are very different from each other, such as their
structure and polarity levels. The data that we collected supports our hypothesis.
2. What explanations can you provide for your separation of the three molecules? How was the
choice of the solvent connected to the separation process?
The three molecules separated because chromatography paper is made of cellulose. Cellulose is
polar, therefore 'like attracts with like'. As the solvent interacts with the paper, it competes for ...
Evaluate which solvent is the one with the best "green chemistry" rating (using the reference in the
explanation to strengthen student understanding section). What intermolecular forces would this
solvent form with the three molecules in the

Starch, Dextran, And Cellulose
Starch, dextran, and cellulose are all made up of glucose but differ in the arrangement the glucose
molecules. Starch is made of large polysaccharide chains that are arranged in a semi–crystalline
form. The glucose in dextran is composed in a linear pattern, the chains are very straight. Lastly in
cellulose, glucose is packed tightly together in a parallel formation.
Glycogen is a branched polymer consisting of multiple side chains. The glucose is linked together
using a–(1–4) glyosidic bonds. The branches of the polysaccharide is linked via a–(1–6) glyosidic
bonds between. In relation to Amylase, the enzyme can hydrolyze glucose from glycogen because it
can remove the a–(1–4) glyosidic bonds.
Different parts of the human body are at different levels of the pH scale in relation to its function.
Specifically, the stomach is one of the most acidic parts of the body having a pH level of 1.5–3.0.
Because of its high acidity enzymes such as amylase would not be able to operate in the stomach.
According to the observations amylase has proven to work optimally at the pH level of 6–5. The
stomach is too acidic for amylase to function therefore amylase would never be able to digest starch
in the stomach. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It functions best at this level because that is the average pH level of a human. Pancreatic amylase is
meant to function optimally in our bodies therefore it works well in environments that simulate the

The Effect Of Starch And Plain Carboxymethyl Cellulose (...
Flucloxacillin is extensively used in the treatment of various infections caused by susceptible
organisms. It breaks down easily in the presence of moisture and the breakdown products are
responsible for the hypersensitivity reactions in susceptible individuals. This study sought to
investigate the effect of starch and plain carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) on flucloxacillin stability,
determine the rate of reaction for the decomposition of flucloxacillin in the presence of starch and
plain CMC and finally to determine the amount of starch and plain CMC that retards/slows down
the decomposition of flucloxacillin: Fixed amounts of flucloxacillin sodium (250mg) were mixed
with varying amounts of dried starch and dried plain carboxymethyl cellulose (plain CMC). The
formulations were put in airtight containers and kept at room temperature (25±2°C) for two and half
months. Iodimetry was used to monitor the amounts of flucloxacillin in the formulations over the
stated period. The formulations with the dried plain CMC were more stable than formulations with
dried starch. The percentage flucloxacillin breakdown for the dried starch formulations were 28.47,
24.67, 27.32 and 25.20% respectively for 75, 125, 150 and 250 mg of dried starch respectively. The
percentage flucloxacillin breakdown for the dried plain CMC formulations were 27.40, 22.63, 23.07
and 20.57% respectively for 75, 125, 150 and 250 mg of the dried plain CMC The breakdown
process followed first order kinetics. The rate

Pmh Model Essay
According to the analysis of variance SPH model study (Table 4.), it was understood that the model
was significant since its P–value is 0.1, which indicated the independent variables did not have an
effect on the dependent variable. The values for AB, AC, and BC were 0.5, 0.2, and 0.4,
respectively, showed little or no effect on glucan yield. The coefficient of determination (R2) of the
model was 0.91, which indicated that the model could represent the real relationships among the
selected reaction variables. Based on the ANOVA study of SPHP and the Model F–value of 49.87,
the developed model was significant. There was only a 0.01% chance that a "Model F–Value" this
large could happen due to noise. The "Lack of Fit F–value" of 0.69 meant ... Show more content on
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The interaction of persulfate content and time of reaction showed that high concentration of
persulfate and longer residence time caused better sugar yield, however, over 130 min no notable
change occurred in the system. It suggests that 130 min is enough for completion of reaction.
In SPH system, first plot on the left showed the interaction of persulfate and heat amount, it was
obvious that any increment was beneficial to the better sugar yield. At 80 °C, the glucose yield
increased from 10% to 18%, while the persulfate concentration increased from 0.6 M to 1.1 M for
60 min. The same pattern was observed for the interaction of persulfate content with time and
temperature with time. It suggests increasing the time of reaction will increase the potential of SPH
system for wheat straw pretreatment. The FTIR spectra of control and radical pretreated samples (in
each method two FTIR spectra were analyzed for the runs with highest and lowest sugar yield) are
revealed in Fig. 5–7. For the pretreated samples, several FTIR bands characteristic to lignin
decreased in intensity and some others related to side chain groups increased in intensity. The peaks
at 3390 cm–1 expressed to a hydroxyl group (–OH) stretching which was presented in control wheat
straw and after treatment. This band was intensified after pretreatment, this could be happened due
to more moisture

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Pervaporation
Observed first in 1919 by P.A. Kober, pervaporation, as the name delineates, incorporates
permeation of a component into the involved membrane matrix and the successive evaporation of
the permeated component into the vapour phase inside the membrane matrix. The vapour–liquid
interface is extant inside the membrane. The component from the liquid feed that permeates into the
membrane vaporizes into its corresponding vapour state in situ and gets selectively permeated to the
other side which depends on the difference between the transport rates of the components in the
liquid feed. Generally, the feed or the upstream side is at atmospheric pressure, while the permeate
or the downstream side is kept under vacuum so as to allow the selective evaporation of the target
component after permeation through the membrane (der Bruggen et al., 2015). The driving force is
the differences in partial pressures of the components on either side of the membrane. A thing of
note: the volatility difference between the feed components does not play any role whatsoever in
determining the selectivity of the components (Huang et al., 2008). The mechanism involved in
pervaporation is the solution–diffusion model.
Pervaporation membranes can be classified depending on the material used for their construction i.e
organic, inorganic and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The PDMS, PTMSP, zeolite and composite membranes have been reported to have separation
factors of 4.4–10.8, 9–26, 7–59, 12–106, respectively. However, in some cases, the separation factor
gets way higher than expected, such as a separation factor of 218 during the separation of ethanol
(98.2% permeate) over water–ethanol solution (20% by weight ethanol), using a silicate zeolite
membrane (Nomura et al., 2002). In general, separation factors are ranked in the following order:
PDMS < PTMSP < composite membranes < zeolite

Drug Profile Of Doperidone
4. DRUG AND EXCIPIENT PROFILES
4.1 Drug profile: domperidone meleate. (73, 74, 75)
Synonym
Apo Domperidone, Domidon
Description
Domperidone Meleate is a white or almost white powder. It shows polymorphism. It is specific
blockers of dopamine receptors. It is administered orally, rectally or intravenously. It is given to
relieve from nausea and vomiting, as prokinetic agent through increase in gastrointestinal peristalsis
and to increase lactation
Structure
Molecular Formula C22H24Cl N502.C4H4O4
Molecular weight– 541.98
IUPAC Name 5–chloro–1–(1–[3–(2–oxo–2,3–dihydro–1H–benzo[d]imidazol–1–yl)propyl]
piperidin–4–yl)–1H–benzo[d]imidazol–2(3H)–one maleate.
Brand Name: Avistal , Casdom , Diprodom, Domact
Half life: 7 hours
Use
It is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Magnesium sterate (76)
Synonyms
Metallic stearic; magnesium salt
Non–proprietary name NF– Magnesium stearate BP/EP– Magnesium stearate
Empirical formula– C36H70MgO4
Chemical names Octadecanoic acid; magnesium salt; magnesium stearate
Density (He): 1.03–1.08 g/cm3
Bulk volume: 3.0–8.4 ml/g
Tapped volume: 2.5–6.2 ml/g
Functional category Tablet and capsule lubricant
Description
It is a fine, white, precipitated or milled, impalpable powder of low bulk density, having a faint
characteristic odour and taste. The powder is greasy to touch and readily adheres to the skin.
Solubility
Practically insoluble in ethanol, ethanol (95%), ether and water, slightly soluble in benzene and

warm ethanol (95%)
Stability and storage conditions:
Stable,non–self polymerizable. Store in a cool, dry place in a well closed container.
Incompatibilities
Incompatible with strong acids, alkalis, iron salts and with strong oxidising materials.
Safety
Described as inert or nuisance dust. OSHA has adopted limits of 15mg/m3 for the total dust and
5mg/m3 for the respirable fraction. Dust clouds of magnesium stearate may be explosive. However,
oral consumption of large quantities may result in some laxative effect or mucosal

Domperidone Maleate Case Study
4. DRUG AND EXCIPIENT PROFILES
4.1 Drug profile: Domperidone maleate. (73, 74, 75)
Synonym
Apo Domperidone, Domidon
Description
Domperidone Maleate is a white or almost white powder. It shows polymorphism. It is specific
blockers of dopamine receptors. It is administered orally, rectally or intravenously. It is given to
relieve from nausea and vomiting, as prokinetic agent through increase in gastrointestinal peristalsis
and to increase lactation
Structure
Figure 4.1: Structure of Domperidone Maleate
Molecular Formula C22H24Cl N502.C4H4O4
IUPAC Name 5–chloro–1–(1–[3–(2–oxo–2, 3–dihydro–1H–benzo[d]imidazol–1–yl) propyl]
piperidin–4–yl)–1H–benzo[d]imidazol–2(3H)–one maleate
Brand Name: Avistal , Casdom , Diprodom, Domact
Half life: 7 hours
Use
It is in treatment of gastroesophagial reflux disease, Nausea and vomiting, Parkinson's disease, ...
4.2.7. Magnesium stearate (76)
Synonyms
Metallic stearic; magnesium salt
Non–proprietary name NF– Magnesium stearate BP/EP– Magnesium stearate
Empirical formula– C36H70MgO4
Chemical names Octadecanoic acid; magnesium salt; magnesium stearate
Density (He): 1.03–1.08 g/cm3
Bulk volume: 3.0–8.4 ml/g
Tapped volume: 2.5–6.2 ml/g
Functional category Tablet and capsule lubricant
Description
It is a fine, white, precipitated or milled, impalpable powder of low bulk density, having a faint
characteristic odour and taste. The powder is greasy to touch and readily adheres to the skin.

Solubility
Practically insoluble in ethanol, ethanol (95%), ether and water, slightly soluble in benzene and
warm ethanol (95%)
Stability and storage conditions:
Stable,non–self polymerizable. Store in a cool, dry place in a well closed container.
Incompatibilities
Incompatible with strong acids, alkalis, iron salts and with strong oxidising materials.

Pros And Cons Of Bio-Fuel
A B S T R A C T
We know that our conventional source of energy like coal, fossil fuel etc. are limited in amount so
this is creating a serious concern in front of Human civilisation. Bio–fuel is an alternative source of
energy which can provide energy to today's human growth path. In this article we have reviewed
many research work which has been done till today in subject of Biomass conversion to Biofuel and
we also presented what are the pros and cons have those technologies, which technology will be best
from both perspective economically as well as environmentally. Introduction
Energy play a vital role in our day to day life. We can't think our life without energy. Everyone who
is existing on earth want energy for surviving his life.Today our world's population is in order of
billion and it is continue to increase very rapidly so, our demand for energy is increasing drastically
in recent time. Our conventional source of energy like coal, petroleum ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
These are non–renewable. We are continuously consuming these limited resources very rapidly. Due
to this the depletion of these resources is on peak in today world. We are also depriving the
opportunity of our future generation to use this limited resources. So, this is creating a big concern
in front of all Human civilisation. So, there is a need for an alternative sources of energy which can
provide energy very efficiently, effectively and also provide a way alternative to conventional
sources of energy so that human's dependence on these resources could decline. Bio fuel is an
answer to that alternative source of energy. Now the question arises is that why bio–fuel? There are
many characteristics which is carry by this fuel which make it a good alternative source of energy.
Bio fuel is a renewable source of energy unlike conventional source of energy which is non–
renewable. This fuel has no any environmental impact. It is eco–friendly. It is biodegradable. It does
not produce any Greenhouse

Literature Review Of Related Literature About Banana Leaves
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Related Literature
Paper
The papermaking process is complicated and has far–reaching environmental impacts further than
the simple paper production process, which itself is toxic, resource intensive, and uses chemicals
and pollutants that generates major health issues and environmental degradation. Metaphorically
speaking, the deforestation is required to obtain paper pulp and the disposal of paper waste products
are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions.
Smith(2011) emphasized:
The disposal of vast amounts of discarded paper products generates another set of environmental
problems; Paper in landfills creates methane as it decomposes, and it is estimated that 25 percent of
all landfill ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Paradisiacal normalis, M. sapien–tum and M. cavendishi as well as the length, width, and thickness
of the leaf and the number, diameter, and tensile strength of leaf fibers. Samples were collected in
Dampit, Wajak and Batu, Malang, Indonesia. Microscope slides used for anatomical observations
were pre–pared using a semi–permanent method. The Retting method was applied to extract the
fibers, and fiber strength was measured using a tensile strength tester. One way Anova and the
Duncan test were used to establish the mean and other parameters of the dependent variables
(length–, width–, thick–leaf; number–, diameter–, and tensile strength of fiber). The T–test
(independent sample) was used to determine the mean diameter of fiber in adaxial and abaxial sites.
The results showed that M. Brachycarpa had the highest number of fiber cells, a wider diameter
fiber, and more adaxial fiber cells than the abaxial site. The diameter of fibers was 5 – 6 μm. M.
sapietum had the longest and widest leaves and leaf thickness was highest in M. Paradisiaca. The
tensile strength values ranged from 35 × 10−4 – 48 × 10−4 MPa. The tensile strength of the
observed species did not differ

Natural Gas Dehydration Based On Agricultural By Products
This research project emphasizes on natural gas dehydration based on agricultural by–products
known as biosorbents in a pressure swing adsorption (PSA) process, which is a widespread
industrial separation system. The commercial widely used adsorbents such as zeolites, silica gel, and
molecular sieves are costly due to high regeneration temperature and operational difficulties
regarding maintaining a cyclic process. Moreover, even though these adsorbents are being used in
industries, still a considerable amount of other species are being adsorbed along with the
preferentially species, which lead to lower selectivity. Hence, there has been a constant demand for
cost–effective adsorbent with high selectivity and equilibrium capacity.
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Outlet Tdew around −10 ◦C is usually reached. Adsorption dehydration can obtain very low outlet
water concentration of Tdew<−50 ◦C, and contaminated gases are not a problem. Adsorption,
however, requires high capital investment and has high space requirements as indicated by industrial
experts that the capital cost for an adsorption line is 2−3 times higher than that for an absorption one
[8 comparison method]. Due to sophisticated cooling systems and operational problems dealt with
methane hydrates, condensation methods is not favorable from the standpoint of energy
consumption.
Each of the methods presented has its advantages and disadvantages. Recent published works
revealed that potential biomaterials could be employed for water adsorption efficiently [ethanol and
coconut references]. [potential bioadsorbents that can be used for water adsorption are flax shive,
oat hulls, and canola meal. According to Statistics Canada, ///// tons of flax shive was produced in
Western Canada in 2013 with a commercial price of $ ///, which is much cheaper compared to those
of AC, CMC (3–120 $/ Kg), and silica gel. Canola meal, however, is one of the byproducts of canola
industries including oil extraction and biodiesel production. [Canola meal is composed of 36% crude
protein, 12% moisture, 20% neutral detergent fiber consisting of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin,
5% starch, 10% free sugar and non–starch polysaccharides, 4% crude fat, and 6% ash (Canola
council of

The Effect Of Ph Solution Of Feed Phase On The Removal...
Figure. 7. Effect of pH solution of feed phase on the removal efficiency of citric acid
Transport conditions: Feed phase: citric acid 10–2 M, pH 2–12. Stripping phase: deionized water,
pH=6.8. Membrane: 12.60 cm2 of surface area, Calix[4]resorcinarene (0.15 g/g mixture of
polymers), 0.03 ml 2–NPOE/g mixture of polymers. Values obtained after 5 days of
experimentation.
3.8 Stability of PIMs
In this study, one PIM was reused, whereas the feed and strip phases were replaced after one cycle
with fresh ones in 5 experiments and each experiment lasted from 4 days. As observed in Fig. 8. The
initial flux of PIM shows a gradual decrease with increasing of cycle's reuse, which may be caused
by the loss of carrier from membrane [37]. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Conclusion
In this study, a polymer inclusion membrane was prepared and succevally applied for the removal of
citric acid from synthetic wastewater. The mixture of CTA and CA was found to be the optimum
base polymer for quantitative transport of citric acid. Moreover, the nature of carrier especially alkyl
chain length, stirring rate, and pH of feed phase are also important factors affecting the increased
rate of citric acid transport. Hence, from results obtained it can be seen that the investigated
calix[4]resorcinarene are effective extractants for citric acid and that their extraction abilities depend
on the alkyl chain length of the substituent in the macrocycle. Choosing the appropriate length of
alkyl chain, very selective system can be designed. The excellent efficiency for the citric acid
transport by the proposed PIM system reveals its potential application for the selective removal,
concentration and purification of citric acid from different media.
References
[1] K.L. Kalra, H.S. Grewal, Fungal production of citric acid, Biotechnol. Adv., 13 (2) (1995) 209–
234.
[2] M. Pazouki, P.A. Felse, J. Sinha, T. Panda, Comparative studies on citric acid production by
Aspergillus niger and Candida lipolytica using molasses and glucose, Bioprocess Eng., 22 (2000)
353–361.
[3] A.A. Ghoreyshi, F.A. Farhadpour, M. Soltanieh, M. Abdelghani, Transport of small polar
molecules across nonporous

Developing Technologies For Fossil Fuel
ESL Course:
Bioenergy from microalgae
Introduction:
The past two decades biofuels hold much promise in alleviating climate change, greenhouse effect
and in finite amount. Their combustion produces gaseous products: carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH4) that increase the amount of solar heat trapped within the planet‫׳‬s atmosphere (T.R.
Karl, 2003). It has also been predicted that the oil reserves may run out by 2050 (Harun et al., 2010).
First generation bioethanol seemed to be alternative for fossil fuel. However, production of
bioethanol from food crops leads to impact on food supplies, as well as rainforest and arable land. It
leads to increased deforestation and food vs fuel debate (Cassman and Liska, 2007 and Fargione et
al., ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, the cultivation of lignocellulosic biomass may occupy the arable land, which is
required for the production of edible crops. On the other hand, bioethanol produced from microalgae
considered as third and fourth generation feedstock which is less resistant to conversion from plant
biomass into simple sugars. Some microalgae have high carbohydrates contents in their cell wall
and there is no lignin and hemicelluloses content, in their cytoplasm with starch as the main
carbohydrates source (Rosenberg et al., 2008 and Subhadra and Edwards, 2010). Consequently, the
conversion of carbohydrates contained in seaweeds into ethanol does not require delignification.
Moreover, the cultivation of seaweeds does not invade arable land and potable water (Mitsunori
Yanagisawa). Based on these characteristics, seaweeds have been proposed as some of the most
promising raw materials for efficient bioethanol production that would not compete with food.
Carbohydrate composition in microalgae:
Starch:
Starch acts as an energy reserve in mostly green algae and some other groups of algae. Starches
contains α–glucans and are constituted of two molecules: amylose,and amylopectin (Stick and
Williams, 2009). Chlorophyta, Cryptophyta, and Dinophyta, contains starch as their main energy
resource and its composition varies with the division. Chlorophyta composed of amylopectin and
amylose and based on amylose content Cryptophyta is

How Wood Affect The Instrument's Sound
The type of wood used in a drum will change the instrument's sound. Softer woods create smoother
tones than harder woods. Depending on the type of sound desired, the manufacturer will pick a
particular wood. Many of the softer, more pliable woods, such as spruce, require special care to
avoid breakage during use. Wood acts as a conduit to transfer vibrations from the drum head to the
acoustic chamber inside the drum. Selection When choosing wood for a drum, the maker must first
determine which type of wood will work best for his purposes. Some of the factors that go into this
choice include: the availability of the wood, its appearance and its ability to be molded and shaped.
Wood that breaks easily is not a good choice because drums have to be curved and molded to fit a
round shape. Woods that have low levels of moisture will crack easily, ... Show more content on
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Mahogany is the softest and works well for drums that have a low bass pitch, such as the bass drum.
Maple is a little harder. It works well when a medium–textured wood is required. Congas and
bongos are often made out of maple. Birch is the hardest wood commonly used and provides a
penetrating sound that is perfect for snare drums and drummers that need to cut through entire
concert halls. Additional woods such as rosewood, spruce, pine and oak are also used, and each has
its own specific

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Biomass
In order to answer this question I have to carry out an experiment. This experiment will be
compared with past studies of the conversion of biomass to biofuel.
Biomass is a term defined as plant based material. Biomass energy is derived from five energy
sources: garbage, wood, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels. Forest residues such as dead trees,
branches and tree stumps, yard clippings, wood chips and garbage are often used. It can be used for
energy production through combustion or direct burning. Raw plant and tree materials can also be
refined in order to create what are called biofuels. One example of a potential biofuel would be
wood. Wood contains a lot of potential energy but in order to create the biofuel wood energy is
derived both from the direct use of harvested wood as a fuel and from wood waste streams. The
largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor, a waste product from the industrial processes
of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.
Industrial scale biomass production is now readily being grown after an increased popularity for
biofuels. Biomass is now being grown from numerous types of plants sources, including sugarcane,
grasses, switchgrass, hemp, corn, pine, bluegum, poplar, willow, and sorghum. There is little
difference in the source that the energy is extracted from.
Biomass is a foundation which can be converted to energy (biofuel), it is potentially able to power
everything from cars to airplanes. Biomass can be converted to

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Pva And Cellulose
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives
Developing environmentally friendly polymer composites that are reliable and economical offering
all the advantages of petroleum–based plastics was the driving force behind this work. The objective
of this work was to prepare degradable composites based on polyvinyl alcohol, PVA and cellulose.
Both PVA and cellulose are available from renewable resources and the properties of PVA are
comparable to properties of polystyrene and polypropylene. Another advantage of PVA from point
of commercialization is its processing similarity to polyolefins. This particular property allows the
use of existing technology to process PVA . This has made PVA a potential replacement material in
applications .for example. At present PVA is used in variety of applications including those in
biomedical, automotive and packaging fields. The main factors that have prevented PVA from
realizing its full ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A fibril is a threadlike bundle of molecules stabilized laterally by hydrogen bonding between
adjacent molecules. The molecular arrangement of these fibrillar bundles is called Microfibrils. One
microfibril contains several elementary fibrils which are in turn composed of multiple cellulose
chains. The arrangement of microfibrils is regular enough to exhibit a crystalline X–ray pattern [17].
The microfibrils are about 10 – 30 nm wide and can contain 2 – 30,000 cellulose molecules. As
mentioned earlier, cellulose can be natural (native) or man made (regenerated). It is very difficult to
find cellulose in pure state. When derived from plant source, cellulose is associated with other
substances like lignin and hemicellulose. In addition to lignin and hemicellulose, a number of non
structural components such as waxes, inorganic salts and nitrogenous substances are also present
[18] . Figure 4 shows the schematic of hierarchical structure of wood

Evaluation Of AAnalytical Experiment
Analytical reagent grade sodium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol, AA, N,N′–
methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), AMPS, potassium Persulfate (KPS) were supplied by Tianjin
Fuchen Chemicals. Corn straws were purchased from Huimin County, Binzhou City, Shandong
Province.
1.1 Preparation of sulfonic cellulose by pretreating corn straws
Dry corn straws were ground and sieved using a 40–mesh sieve. Then, the resulting corn straw crash
was made alkaline with 15% NaOH solution at 55 °C in a water bath for 2.5 h. The resulting
solution was oxidized and bleached by H2O2, dried, and ground to get cellulose.
Cellulose was immersed in 17.5% NaOH solution and stirred for 1 h, followed by immersing for 3
h. Then, it was washed and neutralized with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the meantime, the control sample hydrogel was synthesized by AA without the sulfonated
cellulose. The formulation for the control sample is listed in Table 1. The resulting hydrogels were
dried at 80 °C in an oven for 24 h and then ground.
1.3 Measurements of hydrogels
1.3.1 Measurement of swelling ratio Q
After sieving the dried hydrogels using a 40–mesh sieve, a certain amount of sample was transferred
to a tea bag, which was further immersed in deionized water for 48 h at room temperature. After the
swelling equilibrium was achieved, the samples were weighed. The swelling ratio (Q) was
calculated by the following formula.
Q = (W1 – W0)/W0 where W0 and W1 are the mass of the dry and swollen hydrogels, respectively.
1.3.2 FTIR analysis of hydrogels
The corn straws, pretreated corn straws, and hydrogels were ground into fine powders, mixed with
KBr, and pressed into pellets for FTIR analysis. FTIR spectra were scanned in the wavelength range
400–4,000 cm–1.
1.3.3 Measuring the swelling dynamics of hydrogels
A certain amount of hydrogels was transferred to a tea bag. Then, the tea bag was immersed into
deionized water. The mass was measured at regular intervals until it become constant.
1.3.4 Salt resistance of hydrogels
NaCl, CaCl2, and AlCl3 solutions with different concentrations were prepared. The dry hydrogel

samples with the same mass were immersed in salt solutions. Salt resistance was determined by the
swelling ratio when the hydrogel

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Controlled Release
Figure. No.4: Plasma concentration vs time profile of a controlled release form.
 This means that they are actually controlling the drug concentration in the body, not just the
release of the drug from the dosage form, as is the case in a sustained–release system.
 Another difference between sustained and controlled–release is that the former are basically
restricted to oral dosage forms while controlled–release systems are used in routes like transdermal,
oral and vaginal administration.
 Periodic administration of a drug by conventional means, such as taking a tablet every four hours,
can result in constantly changing systemic drug concentrations with alternating periods of
ineffectiveness and toxicity. Controlled release systems attempt to maintain a therapeutic
concentration of a drug in the body for an extended time by controlling the rate of delivery of the
drug.
 Controlled–release systems are not necessarily target–specific, which means that they do not
'exclusively' deliver the drug to the target organ. This may be achieved by so–called targeted
delivery systems which aim to exploit the characteristics of the drug carrier and the drug target to
control the bio–distribution of the drug.
Disadvantages of Conventional dosage forms:
 Periodic administration.
 Non–specific administration.
 High systemic concentrations can be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The use of polymers in controlling the release of drugs has become important in the formulation of
pharmaceuticals. Water soluble polymers such as polyethylene glycol and polyvinylpyrrolidone may
be used to increase the dissolution rates of poorly soluble drugs. Hydrogels provide the basis for
implantation, transdermal and oral controlled release systems. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
(HPMC) is cellulose ether which may be used as the basis for hydrophilic matrices for controlled
release oral

The Use Of Xylans And Xylanases Has Grown Remarkably
In recent years, the biotechnological use of xylans and xylanases has grown remarkably (Aristidou
and Pentillä 2000; Subramaniyan and Prema 2002; Beg et al., 2001; Techapun et al., 2003). The
end–products of xylan degradation of considerable importance in commercial applications are
furfural and xylitol (Parajó et al., 1998). Xylan can be converted to β–D–xylopyranosyl and its
oligosaccharides via two types of hydrolysis: acid or enzymatic. Acid hydrolysis is often preferred
because it is faster, but it is accompanied by the formation of toxic compounds that may hinder
subsequent microbial fermentation. Furthermore, in the long run, it can lead to corrosion of the
metallic equipment that comes in contact with the acid. Recently, some industrial companies have
shown interest in the development of efficient enzymatic processes to be used instead of acid
hydrolysis in the treatment of material containing hemicellulose. Commercial xylanases are
industrially produced, for example, in Japan, Finland, Germany, Republic of Ireland, Denmark,
Canada and the USA. The microorganisms used to obtain these enzymes are Aspergillus niger,
Trichoderma sp. and Humicola insolens. Nevertheless, commercial xylanases can also be obtained
from bacteria. Xylanase began to be used in the 1980s: initially in the preparation of animal feed and
later in the food, textile and paper industries. Currently, xylanase and cellulase, together with
pectinases, account for 20% of the world enzyme market.
1.10.1

Application Of Cellulases On Juice Recovery
Application of Cellulases on Juice Recovery
Introduction
Cellulose is the most abundant compound produced from stalks, leaves, and stems (Shankar, 2011).
The use of enzymes in the food industry provides safer and higher quality products. Cellulases are
enzymes which break down the sugar cellulose. Cellulase enzymes are produced by fungi, animals,
plants, and bacteria. (Zhang 2013) The cellulase enzyme has been used for various industry
applications such as the textile industry, paper industry, and juice industry. Cellulases link beta, 1,4
linkages in the cellulose chains (Zhang 2013). There are three types of cellulase enzymes:
endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and beta–glucosidases. Exoglucanases act on the reducing or non–
reducing ends of cellulose (Zhang, 2013). Endoglucanases cut the nonreducing ends of cellulose or
the beta–1,4–bonds. Endoglucanases are also produced by bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals
(Zhang,2013). Lastly, beta–glucosidases are produced by archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and
animals and are known for degrading cellobiose (Zhang, 2013). All three forms of cellulases are
produced from animals, bacteria, and plants. The purpose of this paper will be to discuss mainly the
cellulase enzyme and its effect on the juice industry in addition to other applications of cellulase,
and how cellulase behaves in combination with other enzymes such as pectinase and xylanase.
1. Beverage Industry
Fruit contains a cell wall which consists of 10% proteins and 90%

The Derivatives Of Cellulose
Cellulose is a well known carbohydrate that is currently being impressively utilized within the food
industry. Derivatives of cellulose, can be used to improve texture, to act as edible microcomposite
films, and to provide antibacterial packaging. Some cellulose derivatives are carboxymethyl
cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose, and microfibrillated cellulose
(Belitz et al. 2009).
Cellulose is a polysaccharide derived from plant cell walls that is digestible by the enzyme cellulase
(Belitz et al. 2009). Humans can not digest cellulose because cellulase is not present in the digestive
tract, however this indigestible carbohydrate is a major component of dietary fiber and improves
digestion (Belitz et al. 2009). On the other hand, herbivores have rumen microflora that can
hydrolyze cellulose (Belitz et al. 2009).
Cellulose consists of a flat and linear structure containing hydrogen bonds that form polycrystalline
fiber bundles (Huber and BeMiller 2017). There are repeating –glucopyranosyl units bound by 14
glycosidic linkages which form pleated chains parallel to the direction of the fibers (Belitz et al.
2009). The source of the cellulose affects the degree of polymerization which can range from 1000
to 14000 (Belitz et al. 2009). The hydrogen bonds that stabilize the parallel chains cause cellulose to
have a high molecular weight and be insoluble in water, however it can be modified to become
water soluble gums (Huber and BeMiller 2017).

Hydrolysis of Macromolecules Essay
Title: Hydrolysis of macromolecules
Abstract:
This lab was designed to teach the process of "hydrolysis", a chemical reaction in which water is
added to a polymer, breaking its bonds and forming smaller molecules. A hydrogen cation and a
hydroxide anion (which once formed water) break apart and attach themselves to the ends of shorter
polymers. Hydrolysis plays an important role in our lives and in the lives of every living thing on
earth. Living organisms rely on digestion (hydrolysis) to convert food energy from polymers into
monomers, which are easier for our cells to absorb. This study was conducted to show how
polysaccharides are broken down by organisms to absorb nutrients through hydrolysis. We used
different methods to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the solution has polysaccharides like starch, iodine will bind to starch and make a new structure
that can absorb light, so we can see molecules in darker color.
Materials and methods:
Hydrolysis of Polysaccharides: (HP) 1.IKI test, Before treatment: make 1% starch and follow the
IKI test for starch, water, and glucose by testing three drops of each with one drop IKI's regent.
2.Benedict's test before treatment: Add 10 drop of Benedict's regent to three test tubes, each
including either glucose, water, or starch. The test tubes are then placed in boiling water and
resulting colors are recorded. 3.After treatment for IKI TEST and Benedict's test: Put 2ml of the 1%
starch solution into the 3 test tubes (#2.#3,#4),and then add 5 drops HCl into two tubes (#3,#4).
Place tube #2 and #4 into the boiling water and after 10 minutes remove both test tube from heat.
Add NaOH, drop by drop to test tubes #3 and #4 to neutralize the pH. Transfer 2 drops of each to
the spot plate and repeat the IKI test. Transfer 5 drops of each to the 4 new test tubes and repeat the
Benedicts test. For both methods water and glucose were used as a control. These two tests show the
presence

A Note On Cellulose

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A Note On Cellulose