Opioids And The Opioid Receptor Essay

Opioids And The Opioid Receptor Essay
Opioids
Student Name
Institution
Introduction
What are Opioids?
Opioids are compounds that adhere to the opiate receptors. The term, however, is often used to
describe the alkaloid opioids, which are extracted from the opium poppy. Such alkaloids include
codeine and morphine. Moreover, opioids include the drugs that are manufactured from the naturally
occurring opiates. Such semi–synthetic opiates include heroin, which is prepared from morphine,
and oxycodone, which is synthesized from thebaine. Synthetic opioids, however, include
methadone, propoxyphene, and fentanyl (Rosenblum, Marsch, Joseph, & Portenoy, 2008).
Mechanism of Action
Opioids act by adhering to the opioid receptor proteins. The receptors are involved in the pain
modulation process and occur in both the central and the peripheral nervous systems. In addition,
the receptors bind endorphins or endogenous opioid peptides, which modulate pain in the body.
Endogenous peptides are also involved in the modulation of mood and stress, as well as the reward
and reinforcement mechanisms. In studies involving rats (Raghavendra, Rutkowski, & DeLeo,
2002), the activation of the opioid receptors with Morphine produces effects such as the
sensitization of sensory nerves to the noxious stimuli.
Analgesia occurs when an opioid is clinically administered, but may be accompanied by the side
effects related to receptor activation. The effects may be mediated by the central or peripheral
nervous system, and include
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Opioids And Drug Addiction
Opioids and Drug Addiction
What Are Opioids?
Drugs that act on the nervous system to relieve pain
Chemically related and interact with opioid receptors on nerve cells in the body and brain
When an opioid interacts with opioid receptors, dopamine is released the brain interprets this as a
positive experience
Pain is dulled or goes away all together
Safe for short term use when prescribed by a doctor
Since they produce a euphoria as well as pain relief, they can be easily misused
Cause drowsiness
Relieve pain
Induce euphoria
Depress the central nervous system
Lower heart rate, respiration and blood pressure
Endorphins
Common Types of Opioids
Natural opiates
Alkaloids, nitrogen–containing base chemical compounds
Come from plants such as the

What Is Sleep Paralysis
SLEEP PARALYSIS RESEARCH PAPER
Sleep paralysis has a history that stretches over centuries, with a vast array of people experiencing it.
Some believe they have been visited by demons, or aliens in the night and attribute such events to
witchcraft or Satanism. There are references to folklore from every nation throughout history. The
Nightmare, is a painting by Henry Fuselli that dates to 1781, and depicts a chilling sleep paralysis
incidence. In this painting, a malicious spirit sits on a man's chest while the victim lies there limp
and unable to fight back. The cultural and spiritual implications of this phenomena is unique
amongst neurological ailments. Isolated sleep paralysis (ISP) is the inability to move or talk during
the transition between sleep and wakefulness, accompanied by auditory and visual hallucinations
that are often extremely hostile. These hallucinations can include a wicked existence in the room, an
impression of being touched, or hearing voices in the room. Some people see faces at the bedside.
This is typically accompanied by a perceived breathlessness. Patients describe the experience as
petrifying. Episodes tend to be more recurrent when sleeping in the supine position. ISP usually
happens when ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some people have entered sleep paralysis directly from lucid dreaming or entered lucid dreaming
from a state of sleep paralysis. The indications are that people who are experiencing both patterns
are also undergoing a greater dissociative experience in daily life. In lucid dreaming the dreamer is
aware that they are dreaming and is therefore able to control the dream. These dreams are
characterized by increased insight, and even access to waking memories. This dissociate experience
is generally positive and can leave the dreamer feeling blissful. These are directly inverted from the
intruder and incubus hallucinations of ISP (Denis & Poerio,

Major Depression And Its Effects On Social Involvement
Major Depression Depression is one of the most common therapeutic topics. There are many effects
that lead to major depression and thus require distinctive therapy methods. It is a mood disorder that
is associated with the body, emotions and thoughts (Hoeksema and rector, 2011). In order for a
person to be diagnosed with major depression, they must show at least 4 symptoms from any of the
4 categories; such as mood changes, cognitive changes, physical changes, and behavior changes;
and must have experience of depression for 2 weeks. These symptoms arise overtime and thus it is
very crucial to determine the outcome and the solution for depression. Even though the main cause
of depression is biology, social factors help derive stress that lead to depressive moods because of
situations that people face which then supports the other etiologies. Through this essay I will discuss
the social stress that causes depression through social involvement, relationships with close
individuals, and stress from work. Secondly, how parental teaching affects the child's thought
process and in the way the child learns to deal with situations. Thirdly, past traumatic events that
influences self–esteem, thought process in particular situations and other effects on depression.
Finally why social etiology explains depression more effectively over the biological and
psychological etiologies. As people carry on their everyday routine, different situations come cross
their way. There are many

Assignment : Bioassay Of Androgenic Hormones
Faculty of Pharmacy
Pharmacology Department
Assignment Topic: Bioassay of androgenic hormones
Course Title: Bioassay
Course Code: PO411
Lab Group: A1
Submitted to: Dr Mona
Prepared by: Rahma Ahmed Ahmed – 141191
Due date: 10–27–2016
– Fall 2016 –
Androgen Bioassays
Introduction:
During the recent decades, athletes were trying to enhance their performance by using exogenous
hormones such as; androgens, erythropoietin and growth hormone.
The most potent form of sports steroids is the Androgens and it is the most common type of steroids
that enhances the performance that can be detected in screening tests.
Detection of androgens is through urine screening to detect even trace amounts of androgens.
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) is a highly specific and sensitive method for
detection of steroids in the screening urine samples.
In a trial to pass the screening methods, designer androgens was created with different chemical
structures to known androgens so it cannot be easily detected by GC–MS. Designer androgens can
be detected by androgen bioassays because they can activate the androgen receptor (AR).
Therefore, androgen bioassays maybe a suitable tool for screening of biological samples suspected
to contain an androgen.
.
Receptor binding assays:
Principle: The ligand competes for binding to AR.
Receptor binding assays have been developed to measure compounds, including hormones, that are
able to bind specifically to receptors.
Procedure: the

Essay On Opiates
Opiates is combined with a set of different substances like morphine, hernia and thebaine. When it
enters the brain, enzymes convert heroin back into morphine, and so it quickly binds to so–called
opioid receptors in an individual's brain. Consequently, this action produces a sensation of pain
relief and even euphoria, this sensation are more intense than those produced by the body's own
endorphins that finally are commonly attached to these receptors
The effects of opiates on the brain can cause daytime sedation or sleepiness. Also the use of
painkillers is associated with very high risks of developing depression. In the respiratory system
opiates can produce depression in the ways and consequently decrease the respiration to the point of
causing the death.This leads to low oxygen levels, which can damage your heart. As for the
digestive system the use of this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Consequently, an individual who continues to use opioids repeatedly, the odds that he develops
dependence on the drug is very high. Once the individual develops the addiction, then comes the
dependency until, over time, he begins to feel that his body needs more and more drugs.
The most effective treatments for opiate addicts to stop use are medications and behavioral
therapies. It is very important to focus on giving the best treatment to each individual according to
the needs of each.
The medicines they use as treatment are buprenorphine and methadone. These drugs work in
combination as opioid receptors in the brain of an individual as if it were heroine but weaker, in
order to reduce the symptoms and cravings that come from abstinence. Another drug used for this
type of treatment is naltrexone, which works as an opioid receptor blocker to prevent opioid from
producing an effect on the individual.
Behavioral therapies for these types of individuals help modify behavior and expectations about
drug

The Experiments Of The Rats
Results:
For the experiment we observed a total of 8 trials. Each trial consisted of two rats. The rats were 25–
day–old Long–Evans hooded rats. Each rat was randomly assigned to one of two drug groups. The
groups were either administered 1.0 mg/kg of Naloxone or an injection of saline. Among the 8 trials,
4 of the trials the rats were given Saline, and among the other 4 trials the rats were given Naloxone
A pin response can be described as when one of the animals lies on its back , with its spinal column
on the floor of the testing chamber. The other animal in response stands above the other animal. It
appears like the one animal is flipping the other animal onto its back. The mean number of pins in
the rats that received Saline were 8.00 (x̅ =8.00). The mean number of pins in the rats that were
administered Naloxone were 1.50 (x̅ =1.50) (see figure 1). The standard deviation among the Saline
group was 4.24 (σ=4.24). The standard deviation for the groups that were administered Naloxone
were 1.29 (σ=1.29).
A rearing response can be described as when one of the animals, without touching the other animal
in the testing chamber stands on its two rear legs with both front paws lifted off of the flour of the
testing chamber. The mean number of rears in the rats that received Saline were 28.25 (x̅ =28.25).
The mean number of rears in the rats that were administered Naloxone were 1.50 (x̅ =21.75) (see
figure 2). The standard deviation among the Saline group was 7.80 (σ=7.80). The

Opioid Drugs And Their Receptor
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. History of opioid research
Opioid drugs and their receptor is one of the most extensively studying areas in pharmacology. This
field of research really began from isolation of morphine, an active ingredient of opium, by German
pharmacist Friedrich Sertürner in 1989. The compound he managed to isolate was called morphine
after Morpheus, the Greek god of dream. Later Pierre Robiquet in France isolated the second
predominant alcholoid of opium, codeine. After the discovery that morphine can be used as
anesthetic in some medical procedures, it became widely used during surgeries (Brownstein, 1993).
In 1898, the Bayer Company in Germany synthesized another opioid compound, heroin. Heroin was
a non–prescription drug, which was thought to be more potent than morphine in producing
analgesia, and more powerful than codeine in cough suppression. The legal production of heroin
was suspended in 1925 when high levels of heroin addiction were noticed (Hosztafi, 2001,
Tsisanova, 2012). In 1939, Otto Eisleb synthesized meperidine, first opioid ligand structurally not
related to morphine. This was followed by the discovery of methadone by Max Bochmühl and
Gustav Ehrhart just before the Second World War in unfortunate attempt to synthesize addiction–
free opioid (Sneader, 2005, Tsisanova, 2012). 1940s were marked with the discovery of opioid
antagonists, nalorphine and naloxone. The later compound is still widely used in research as well as
clinically

The Relationship Between Opioid And Dopamine System
The opioid and dopamine systems represent the neurochemical connection between pleasure and
pain. Opioids are important for pleasurable experience . If we observe a hedonic spectrum, we sould
see, that opioids shift it in positive direction : while sweat tastes seem sweater , bitter tastes and pain
seem less aversive. Blocking of opioid–mediated signalling results in decreased pleasantness of
rewards. Recent studies have shown, that there is a dissotiation between the way how µ–opioid and
κ–opioid – receptor related signalls modulate the perception of pain.( µ and κ come from the name
of the first discoverd ligand that attach to this receptors: µ stands for morphine and κ for
ketocyclazocine ). The activation of µ–opioid receptors induces

Opioid Receptors Essay
Opioid receptors can be separated into two different categories: classic and non–classic. Classic
consists of the Mu (), Kappa (), Delta () receptors[15]. While the Non–classic includes only
ORL1[15]. As shown in Figure 9, presynaptic neutrons contain opioid receptors are G–protein
coupled receptors with seven transmembrane helical twist alongside three extracellular and
intracellular loops[15]. Further, G–proteins are typically made of three subunits which include , ,
and . These receptors can be activated by either an endogenous peptide or an exogenous drug that
acts as an agonist[16]. In this case, morphine is an exogenous drug that can mimic the response of
an endogenous peptide such as endorphins[16]. If opioid receptors is inactive, the Ca2+ ion channels
are open which permits the flow of Ca2+ ions into the presynaptic neuron. Simultaneously, the K+
ion channel is closed that prevents any release of K+ ions to the extracellular space. ... Show more
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Once an agonist such as morphine attaches itself to the receptor and starts the activation process.
This closes the Ca2+ ion channels and opens the K+ ion channel. The release of K+ ions from the
intracellular space to the extracellular space will yield presynaptic inhibition.[15] The effects of –
opioid receptor activation results in euphoria, sedation, respiratory depression, and pain relief[16].
Once an individual receives extreme amounts on morphine, the body will not be able to manage the
activation or deactivation of the –opioid receptor. This leads to adverse effects on the individual
which includes asphyxia, hallucinations, confusion, delirium, suppressive breathing, and eventually
death[18]. Further, it was determine that the on average the minimum lethal dose for morphine is
200 mg which can lead to life threatening respiratory

Optimizing The Hypothalamic Hunger Regulation Mathematical...
OPTIMIZING AND VALIDATING THE HYPOTHALAMIC HUNGER REGULATION
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Ms. Divya1, Dr. Saurabh Mukherjee2
1Research Scholar, 2Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science, AIM & ACT,
Banasthali University, Banasthali–304022, email: jangid.divya@gmail.com
Hypothalamus has a significant effect on the physiological functions of human body like Hunger
regulation, Energy balance etc. A mathematical model is being developed which mathematically
explains the functionality of Hunger Regulation. Some hormones also acts effectively during this
process plays as important role in this model. Hypothalamic Hunger RegulationMathematical Model
(HhRM). We are using statistical optimization tools to optimize and validate this Model. The ...
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This Hunger Regulation process is simulated with the help of Hypothalamic Hunger Regulating
Mathematical Model (HhRM)[2]. HhRM is a mathematical approach for this homeostatic function
of human body.HhRM divided into five different steps. Each step represents the combination of
mathematical functions and variables. A simple binary function G (h) shows that whether the
hormones are secreted by internal organs or not. The hormonal signals explain by the random
numbers.Daubechies Wavelet function interprets the movement of Hormonal signals through Vegal
Nerve.The response to the Hormonal Signals is being generated by the hypothalamic receptors. For
this the concept of signal generation is used with scaling function with Entropy. The receptors
signals transferred to Central Nervous system.
The mathematical model HhRM is as follows: dH/dt = G^ ' (h)+f(h)D4^ ' (h)+ Em(s)Sc '(s)
WheredH/dtis the change in the processing of Hypothalamus, H with respect to Time t, G(h) is the
binary function f(h) is fractal function, D4'(h) is the Daubechies function, Em(s) is entropy measure
and Sc'(s) scaling function.
2. Objective
The objective of our study is to optimize the mathematical model HhRM. In previous version of
HhRM the simple scaling function was being used. Here our objective is to study

Substance Abuse Within Correctional Setting
Substance Abuse in Correctional Setting Assessment psychology has examined individuals who are
criminal offenders who were evaluated to determine their personalities to which they have a long
history with. Approximately well over a century ago, Münsterberg, 1908, Vaccaro & Hogan, 2004
who are all psychologists has managed a improved study on criminal offenders that will allow us all
to have an ambiguous understanding of how the process of his research in reference to the criminal
offenders testimony in court cases. In the 20th century the personality assessment was established,
which was generally exercised to govern a component for personality in criminals (Symonds, 1934).
During court cases in 1942 adults and juveniles were introduced to the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) which was disclosed that same year. Psychologists Archer, Stredny,
& Zoby, (2006); Archer, Buffington–Vollum, Stredny, and Handel (2006); Borum and Grisso
(1995); and Lally (2003) was flabbergasted to find how accurate the MMPI–2 presented itself,
which was ultimately the most universally piece of equipment acknowledged and used as evidence
for criminals, that calculated their personalities in forensic assessments. The MMPI was
authenticated well in the 70's which everyone employed extensively as solid foundation in
correctional settings as well as the use in forensic psychologists. Currently the use of assessments
were for people who were under

Reflection Of Chemistry
"Dr. Adriana, we need 70 mL of ethanol," I said confidently after computing the dilution factor
needed for an immunohistochemistry experiment. This was my first time using the molarity formula
in real life. When I first learned this formula, it had little significance because I never had to use it.
That was the way most things were to me regarding science; I was bombarded with formulas and
equations to memorize with no intention of actually using them. While I was told that I was "good"
at chemistry and was able to work hard and do well in the class, it was not until I sat in a real
medical research laboratory that my passion for chemistry began. It was quite the adjustment for me;
the answers to my questions could not be found in a book. I soon realized that memorizing formulas
would not suffice; I needed a way to visualize intricate ideas on the subatomic level. But this is what
made me love the experience – the challenge. Everything we did used chemistry concepts but took it
a step further. The goal was not to get the "right" answer; with each step we were closer to a solution
for patients struggling with cancer. This topic hit home to me because it felt as though I was
personally leave a touch on lives of each person I knew who the disease had affected. Through
working for a purpose greater than just myself, I found a new love for chemistry.
Chemistry is a very challenging field of study and would provide the obstacles needed for me to
grow as a student and young adult.

Understanding Stress During Puberty
In this experiment, the author's focused on understanding stress during puberty and the sex–specific
differences of the effects on humans through rat models. As we go through puberty, both male and
females have increased levels of sex steroid hormones. In females this causes levels of cortisol to
increase, as well as the probability of developing a mood disorder relating to stress. Past studies
have shown that this is because of the plasticity of the hypothalamic–pituitary– adrenal axis (HPA)
axis and the areas of the brain the regulate mood, such as the amygdala. They supported their
previous claim with an experiment that was done on rats where they were subjected to stressful
events, known as juvenile social subjugation (JSS), and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Autoradiography helps to visualize the CRF1 and CRF2 receptors. The sections of the brain were
incubated for 2 hours in a binding chamber that contained 500 mM Astressin 2B and 500mM CP–
154,526. The Astressin 2B helps to visualize the CRF1 receptors, while the CP–154,526 helps to
visualize the CRF2 receptors. The control group of sections of brains was incubated for 2 hours in
0.2nm 125I Sanguine. They were washed then exposed to Kodak Biomax MR film. Next, they
calculated the receptor binding density and background measurements of the lateral dorsal thalamus
and the dorsal striatum. They created heat maps of the brain sections, whose densitometry
measurements were close to the mean, using Photoshop. They performed two–way ANOVA and
post hoc Student's t–tests. They compared between subject with sex and age, as well as the "effects
of age within each sex and sex within each age."
Results
Overall the Basolateral Nucleus of the Amgdala (BLA) was the primary location for the expression
of CRF1 binding and the MePV was the secondary location for binding. CRF2 expression in the
MePV was not as intense as that of the CRF1 receptor. The MePD had less expression of both types
of CRF receptor and no expression in the CeA. They found intense expression of CRF2 receptor in
the cortical nucleus of the amygdala and choroid plexus.
Each hemisphere of the brain had no significant difference in the binding of both types of CRF
receptors. Figure 2 shows that in the binding

The Opioids And Its Effects
Introduction
The opioids produce analgesic effects no matter is endogenous or synthetic, including morphine,
codeine and methadone. (3)Endogenous opioid peptides such as endorphins, enkephalins and
dynorphins activate opioid receptors including mu–receptors (mainly), delta–receptors, kappa–
receptors and ORL1 receptors to produce different effects. One of the non–analgesic effects is the
disruption of sleep–wake behaviour by the opioids' actions on the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
(VLPO). The differences of the pharmacokinetic properties between the 3 opioids mentioned and
the possible mechanisms of sleep–wake regulations will be discussed below.
Pharmacokinetics of the opioids
The opioids are divided into subgroups based on chemical structures. (1) Morphine and codeine are
in the group that has a 4, 5–epoxymorphinan ring in each of the opioids. (1)(Fig1) The free hydroxyl
on the benzene ring linked by 2C and 2N determines the opioid activity. (3) Codeine is produced by
substituting the hydroxyl group on the carbon 3 atom on the morphine while that hydroxyl group is
responsible for binding properties. Therefore codeine is less potent. (4) Methadone is one of the
diphenylheptylamines which is relatively lipophilic comparing to morphine and codeine. (5)
(Fig1)These opioids all interact with mu opioid receptors primarily but they differ in
pharmacokinetics. (1)
Administration
The majority of opioids can be taken by oral administration. (1) However the bioavailability of the

Mechanisms of Axon Guidance
Axons are sensitive and their respond depend on the local environment. When the tectum is
removed, retinal axons grow toward the missing tissue, demonstrating that optic axons utilize these
neighbourhood signals as opposed to a long–run diffusible attractant from the tectum as they grow
along the optic tract (Taylor, 1990). In the event of a small piece of the optic tract neuroepithelium is
turned 90° preceding the axons enter it, then they become misoriented when they enter the pivoted
transplant (Harris, 1989) and correct their course of growth once they exit. These results confirm
that the neuroepithelium contains local information to which growing axons respond and that they
are not simply following gradients of attractants released by their targets (Sanes et al., 2012).
Growth cone filopodia are long, motile, and covered with receptors, also have a very high surface to
volume ratio, which can help convert membrane signals into large changes in intracellular
messengers such as calcium. Filopodia can show localized transient elevations of intracellular
calcium and these transients reduce filopodial motility (Sanes et al., 2012). Calcium transients can
be directly artificially activated in growth cone filopodia by loading neurons with a calcium caging
agent that releases calcium upon stimulation with a pulse of light (Gomez et al., 2001). Experiments
in which calcium is uncaged on one side of a growth cone generally cause the growth cone to turn
toward the side that has

Food Palatability And The Reward Value Of Nutrients
Abstract: It was originally thought that both the palatability and the reward value of nutrients are
processed in the same brain region. However, a study conducted by Wassum et al. (2009) provides
evidence that this is not the case. They found that the nucleus accumbens and the ventral pallidum
are responsible for processing food palatability while the basolateral amygdala is involved in
assigning incentive value of food rewards. Furthermore, these processes are interrupted when
naloxone is administered into their associated regions. This research is significant because it could
provide insight into why subjects continue to engage in certain behaviors despite them no longer
being "palatable" or enjoyable, such as in drug addiction, and could provide the basis for more
effective treatments of addiction.
Introduction: Food palatability refers to an organism 's subjective experience of food and can be
either positive or aversive. As a result, this is generally associated with reward "liking". The reward
value attributed to obtaining different foods plays a role in determining an organism 's actions, and is
thus referred to as reward "wanting". These "liking" and "wanting" pathways were previously
thought to be processed by similar, linked, neural structures including the nucleus accumbens and
ventral pallidum and were thought to go hand in hand (Smith & Berridge, 2007). However, many
researchers now suggests otherwise. Studies still indicate that the nucleus accumbens shell

Alcohol And The Central Nervous System
Alcohol, like many other drugs, is dose dependent, readily absorbed, and widely distributed. As a
result, alcohol affects many organ systems of the body, including the central nervous system (CNS).
Alcohol is easily absorbed, is soluble across all biological membranes, and does not bind to any
plasma proteins. There is no place in our bodies where alcohol cannot reach. Alcohol absorption
occurs between 80–90 minutes, and is affected by whether or not someone has eaten, as this will
affect the speed at which the alcohol enters the blood stream. Alcohol is metabolized similarly to
food. Approximately 85% of ingested alcohol is metabolized by the liver, 5–10% is metabolized in
the stomach, and approximately 5% is excreted, unchanged, through sweat and the lungs. Men
metabolize alcohol faster than women. This is due to the fact that women have 50% less enzymes in
the stomach that metabolize alcohol than men, and the fact that women have more body fat than
men. The blood supply to fat is much less than that found in muscles. Therefore, alcohol does not
get metabolized as quickly in individuals with a higher fat content. When alcohol is metabolized,
acetaldehyde, a poisonous byproduct, is formed. Alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol into
acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase further breaks down the poisonous acetaldehyde into
acetic acid. Some ethnicities, such as some Asian groups, have less active acetaldehyde
dehydrogenase leading to a buildup of

Different Methods Of Communicating Between Cells And Humans
As multicellular organisms became more complex they required a method of communication
between cells. Over time several methods of cell–cell communication developed. There are two
main methods of communicating between cells in humans. One is a humoral method that usually
involves hormones or other ligands (molecules that bind to larger molecules) that are released into
the blood stream and then cause a response in the target cell. The other method is by using nerve
cells an electrical signal is transferred across a large distance and will then result in a response.
Hormones are proteins whose structure is shaped in order to interact with a cells surface membrane.
They are specific to cell surface receptors and will only trigger a change in cell that has a particular
receptor. Because of this the body can communicate with certain types of call selectively as it can
produce a hormone specific to the receptors on that cell group. This is an advantage to a human as it
is a complex organism and as a result many types of cell that require coordinating in different ways.
Therefore having different hormones for different signals helps to avoid disorientation of the cells
making the organism more efficient.
Hormones are usually produced in a specific type of cell or gland. For example the hormone insulin
is only produced in Beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, the hormone travels into
the blood stream through the capillary network where it's distributed across the

Naltrexone Case Study
Drug Overview (API)
Naltrexone is the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) that belongs to a class of drugs known as
opioid antagonists which work primarily in the brain by inhibiting the effects of opioid medications
as well as alcohol. This medication can be used to treat alcohol abuse by helping people to drink less
or stop drinking altogether by curbing the addict's cravings for alcohol by blocking the endogenous
opioids associated with alcohol consumption, thereby inhibiting the euphoric effects. Naltrexone can
be used to decrease the desire to drink alcohol when used in tandem with other treatment options
such as counseling, support, and lifestyle.
1. Problem Definition (Business Issues)
Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol can have detrimental effects on a person's health and family
life, as well as contributing to poor performance in the workplace. Further, alcohol abuse can lead to
unintentional injuries and increased incidents of violent behavior that ultimately lead to an increase
in medical spending that could certainly be avoided through the use of an intervening therapeutic
agent in concert with counseling and support ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
is currently reviewing an opportunity to obtain a compound that is currently in Phase III
development for the treatment of alcoholic addiction. Discovery management would like to
determine if this new compound would address any unmet needs in the addiction marketplace.
a) Information needed
What attributes should be pursued in a clinical trial?
The attributes that should be pursued during the clinical trials by Discovery, Inc. should contain the
following.
Affinity (ligand–binding) to antagonize the euphoric effects of alcohol on the specific opioid
receptors of the brain linked to alcohol abuse
Characterization and pharmacokinetics
Therapeutic efficacy in treatment of alcohol abuse and addiction
Absence of serious side effects (AE) and toxicity
Improvement in the patient's quality of life

Effects Of Steroid Hormones And Neuropeptides On Social...
Acephalia
A Review of the Effects of Steroid Hormones and Neuropeptides on Social–Emotional Behavior
Bos, Peter A., Panksepp, Jaak, Bluthé, Rose–Marie, & van Honk, Jack (2011). Acute effects of
steroid hormones and neuropeptides on human social–emotional behavior: A review of single
administration studies. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 33 (2012) 17–35.
1. Introduction/Background Information The discovery of hormones and their function has been
relatively recent. The term was first coined by Professor Earnest Starling in 1905. He derived the
word from the Greek meaning "to arouse or excite." However, the idea of the role hormones could
be traced back as far as ancient Greece. Though Hippocrates' theory on humors has been refuted, the
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The neuro–developmental effects of these chemicals are comparatively well–known, while their
impact on human conduct has yet to be fully comprehended.
2. Goals of the study The main goal of this study was to review all of the placebo–controlled single
hormone administration studies addressing human social–emotional behavior, involving the peptides
oxytocin and vasopressin, and the steroids testosterone and estradiol. This research gives insight into
the underlying neural mechanisms and also demonstrates substantial hormonal control over human
behavior. After reviewing and discussing the placebo–controlled studies, they proposed a theoretical
model that synthesized detailed knowledge of neuroendocrinology of social–emotional behavior in
animals, as–well–as the recently gained data on humans. The study of emotional and behavioral
disorders have become more popular in the last twenty years. Characteristics of these irregularities
include: learning disabilities that are not explainable by either sensory, health, or intellectual factors;
persistently inappropriate feelings and conduct; and/or chronic unhappiness or depression
(gadoe.org). The authors of this study thoroughly analyzed the underlying neural mechanisms of
supplemental hormones and how they affect participants as opposed to using a placebo. Research
into human behavior as it relates to neuroendocrinology will be crucial to future generations and
their interrelations.
3. Methods and

Peer Pressure At The Study
Another study identified prospective links between peer pressure at the study outset, and weight
(girls) and muscle concerns (boys) one year later(Helfert and Warschburger, 2011). It was found that
adolescents' perceived pressure to be thin and friends' reports of the pressure to be thin both
predicted concurrent increases in disordered eating. Along with results from a wide range of studies,
mounting evidence implies that adolescents' experiences of a strongly appearance focused peer
environment is associated with an increased risk of developing ED symptomatology(Helfert, 2011).
Other experiences with peers that may impact body dissatisfaction and eating behaviors are
stigmatization and marginalization by peers as teasing and bullying. While teasing refers to
comments about appearance, that maybe or not intentionally hurtful. Bullying is used to describe
intentional, aggressive acts that are directed toward a victim who cannot readily defend himself or
herself, and that are repeated over time. Indeed, children's and adolescents' peers are the most
common perpetrators of both appearance shaming and bullying. Traditional, face to face bullying
peaks in late childhood and in the early phases of adolescence. With the emergence of the Internet
and mobile phone devices as important platforms for social interaction between peers, however, it
appears as if online bullying continues longer, well into the middle phases of adolescence
(Tokunaga, 2010). Experiences of appearance

Opioid Research Paper
OPIOIDS – OPIUM, OPIATES, AND OPIOIDS Opioids and opiates are both derived from opium,
a substance in the seeds of the poppy plant. Opiates are the drugs that represent opium in its purest
forms, and opioids are synthetic and semi–synthetic formulations of natural opiates (4).
Cultivation of the poppy plant for harvest of its seeds can be traced as far back as 3400 B.C. (1.)
Sumerians in lower Mesopotamia referred to the opium in the seed capsules "gil," meaning joy, and
the poppy "hul gil," plant of joy. From Sumeria, the plant of joy was introduced to Europe. Around
460 – 357 B.C., Hippocrates, "The Father of Medicine", acknowledged opium's usefulness as a
narcotic and styptic in treating internal diseases, diseases of women, and epidemics. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to a research study published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, "researchers found
that people who took opioids were more than twice as likely to have heart attacks when compared to
people who took no opioids at all". The heart attacks are most likely due to the fact that the pills of
opioids and opiates aren't designed to dissolve in the bloodstream. Therefore, even when crushed,
the fillers in the pills clump and clog the blood vessels, damming blood flow and destroying vital
tissues. This also happens with liquid form opiates including heroin. The most times, the liquids are
filled with contaminates that do not interact well with the bloodstream, including talc and coffee,
causing blockage to and from the heart, leading to heart attack and death

Prediction By Komputer Assisted Technology : Lab Analysis
In the materials and methods section; ligand preparation, target protein identification and
preparation, molecular descriptors calculation, ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and
Excretion) and TOPKAT (Toxicity Prediction by Komputer Assisted Technology) analysis were
carried out according to the previously reported method as briefly stated below.
Ligand preparation
Chemical structures of the ligands i) asperyellone [CID101600052]; ii) asperenone [CID5368642];
iii) hydroasperyellone [CID561143]; iv) CHEMBL1715716 [CID49859207] and v)
CHEMBL2152350 [CID71458428] were downloaded PubMed (www. pubmed.com) database. The
ligands were drawn in ChemBioDraw Ultra 12.0 (www.cambridgesoft.com) and subsequently
molecular mechanics (MM2) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ADME and TOPKAT analysis
Both ADME and TOPKAT analysis were performed using Discovery Studio® 3.1 (Accelrys, San
Diego, USA). ADME analysis was performed using six descriptors such as human intestinal
absorption (HIA), aqueous solubility (AS), blood brain barrier (BBB), cytochrome P450 2D6
(CYP2D6), plasma protein binding (PPB) and hepatotoxicity (HT). As for the TOPKAT analysis,
five descriptors were used which includes aerobic biodegradability (AB), Ames mutagenicity (AM),
ocular irritancy (OI), skin irritancy (SI), skin sensitization (SS) and oral toxicity (OT) in rat (LD50
in g/Kg of body weight).
Docking studies Docking studies were performed on the protein crystal structures of HMGR, HNE,
SQS, tyrosinase and XO obtained from Protein Data Bank (PDB) using the CDOCKER protocol
under the protein–ligand interaction section in Discovery Studio® 3.1 (Accelrys, San Diego, USA).
In general, CDOCKER is a grid–based molecular docking method that employs CHARMM force
fields. A protein was firstly held rigid while the ligands were allowed to flex during the refinement.

The Discovery Of Hormones And Their Function
concept of "bodily fluids," or in this case, the amount of hormones circulating in the blood directly
affecting temperament and emotions are related. Scientists continue to research the relevance of
hormones, as well as neuropeptides on human behavior. Amazingly, throughout evolutionary
history, both neuropeptides and steroid hormones were able to preserve ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This research gives insight into the underlying neural mechanisms and also demonstrates substantial
hormonal control over human behavior. After reviewing and discussing the placebo–controlled
studies, they proposed a theoretical model that synthesized detailed knowledge of
neuroendocrinology of social–emotional behavior in animals, as–well–as the recently gained data on
humans. The study of emotional and behavioral disorders have become more popular in the last
twenty years. Characteristics of these irregularities include: learning disabilities that are not
explainable by either sensory, health, or intellectual factors; persistently inappropriate feelings and
conduct; and/or chronic unhappiness or depression (gadoe.org). The authors of this study thoroughly
analyzed the underlying neural mechanisms of supplemental hormones and how they affect
participants as opposed to using a placebo. Research into human behavior as it relates to
neuroendocrinology will be crucial to future generations and their interrelations.
3. Methods and Results For the purpose of this paper, the authors did not do their own research.
They used a collection of studies that looked at behaviors and their specific connections to
hormones and neuropeptides. The first studies the authors reviewed attempted to make a connection
between evolution and naturally occurring hormones. This portion of the paper, paragraph 2,

The Role of P2X Receptors in Nociception
Introduction
Nociception is the sensation of pain which is normally a warning signal to brain in respond to a
potential hazard. Generally noxious stimulations are detected by specialised high–threshold sensory
neurons, which are refer to nociceptors. The signals are then transferred to an electrical potential and
conducted to the brain via spinal cord. However sometimes abnormal nociception can lead to a
moderate to severe pain although a noxious stimulus is missing. This kind of pain are usually trigger
by nerve injury, while the pain sensation remains after the tissue had been healed. Although the
prevalence of neuropathic pain is not significant, about 7% to 8% of the European population is
affected, and about 5% are suffering severe pain (Torrance et al., 2006; Bouhassira et al., 2008).
Normally the neuropathic pain is induced by injury of somatosensory nerves, and the pain remains
after the tissue being healed. It can bring abnormal nociception while noxious stimuli are missing,
which called dysesthesia. Beside, pain can be triggered by non–painful stimuli, which is called
allodynia). Many research has linked the neuropathic pain to neuronal damages where endogenous
ATP being released. Therefore purinergic receptors that can respond to ATP are involved. In this
essay, after a brief introduction of P2X receptors, the role of microglial P2X4 and P2X7 in
neuropathic pain will be discussed.
Purinergic receptor can be divided into two families based on their different

Chapter 1. Overview Of Opioid Use Disorders . 1.1. Diagnosis
Chapter 1. Overview of Opioid Use Disorders
1.1. Diagnosis and Classification of Substance Use Disorders There has been recent change in the
diagnosis of psychoactive substance–related disorders. In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic
Statistical Manual Version [APA DSM–5, 2013], both classification and diagnosis requirements
have changed moving from the DSM IV–TR to the DSM V. Under DSM IV, diagnosing a substance
use disorder (SUD) is performed according to two levels of severity: 1. Substance dependence
(reflecting higher severity) and
2. Substance abuse (reflecting a lower severity) [Hasin et al, 2013]. In contrast under DSM–5,
"Substance Dependence" is combined into one construct and named "Substance Use Disorders"
(SUD) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is important to note that maintaining and sustaining recovery outcomes is the most challenging.
Patients who do not meet any of the diagnostic criteria, with the exception of "strong urge to use or
craving" for at–least 3 months, are considered to be in early remission. If this period extends to 12
months, patients are considered in sustained remission. In this connection, it is important to identify
the type and level of care the patient is receiving, i.e. whether the patient is enrolled in maintenance
pharmacotherapy treatment or is living in controlled medical welfare or custodial environment. 1.2.
Classification of Opioids
Opioids are chemical compounds that exert their pharmacological effect on endogenous opioid
receptors in the brain. Endogenously circulating opioids are called endorphins, and those extracted
from natural resources like opium are called ca opiates such as morphine. The chemically
synthesised opiate analogues are called opioids (the generic term 'opioids' is used in this thesis,
herein) [UNODC 1961; UNODC 1971]. 1.3. Epidemiology
Globally, substance use is estimated as '1 in 20' in the general population (5% among those aged 15–
64 years; UNODC, 2015). While '1 in 10' of the users develop SUD (0.59– 0.6% of the population),
only 1 in 6 are able to access treatment globally. These prevalence rates remain stable, but the
landscape of substance use has changed in period between 2009 and 2013. During this period, there

Remifentanil: A Synthetic Opioid Analysis
Remifentanil (marketed as Ultiva) is a synthetic opioid analgesic that selectively binds μ receptors.
Unlike other opioid compounds, remifentanil is not metabolised by the liver but is subjected to
widespread chemical hydrolysis catalysed by non–specific esterases circulating in blood and found
in tissue (Navapurkar et al. 1998) (Said et al. 2011) (Haider et al. 1996). This makes it suitable to
administer to patients who have some degree of organ dysfunction (such as liver disease or renal
impairment) that are commonly found in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) setting (Pitsiu et al. 2004)
(Dershwitz et al. 1996). Hydrolysis at the methyl ester located on the N–acyl moiety (Figure 1)
occurs within minutes, making remifentanil an ultra–short acting opioid (onset of action occurring
around one ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2000), where high (50 μg/mL) and low (5 μg/mL) concentrations of remifentanil were added to 10
mg/mL propofol. The point at which remifentanil or propofol stability was deemed unsuitable was
when 90% of its original concentration remained (Stewart et al. 2000). It was found that the high
remifentanil concentration remained stable for longer, and that the mixture had greater stability
when stored in the syringes. A recent study conducted by the authors observed the effect of mixing a
range of remifentanil concentrations (10 – 50 μg/mL) in a stable 10 mg/mL of propofol in glass over
24 hours, as well as the effect of reconstituting remifentanil in a 0.9% saline solution in order to
decrease pH. The results of this investigation found that a remifentanil concentration of 2 μg/mL in
10 mg/mL of propofol was the most stable, and that reconstituting remifentanil with 0.9% saline
solution did have a significant positive effect on the degradation of

Opioid Receptors
Most opioid drugs will elicit these analgesic effects through the activation of the –opioid receptor
(McDonald & Lambert, 2005). The currently available drugs that interact with opioid receptors
include morphine, codeine and naloxone. A
Opioid receptors are members of the G–protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) family, which consists
of 7 transmembrane domains linked together by 3 extracellular and 3 intracellular loops (Trescot et
al., 2008). The three different classes of opioid receptors are: –opioid receptor, –opioid receptor and
–opioid receptor, which are distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems
(Trescot et al., 2008). –opioid receptors are associated with analgesia, euphoria and physical
dependence and are predominately located in the brainstem and thalamus (Trescot et al., 2008). –
opioid receptors, on the other hand, are primarily found in limbic brain topography, brain stem and
spinal cord, and are related to dysphoria and analgesia (Trescot et al., 2008). Although –opioid
receptor mechanisms are poorly understood, it has been indicated to also have psychomimetic
effects (Trescot et al., 2008).
Opioid receptors act through second messenger system, which eventually leads to the activation of
protein kinases and alterations in gene expression (Trescot et al., 2008). ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This pro–drug undergoes metabolism by CYP2C6 and is converted into the active metabolite,
morphine (Yiannakopoulou, 2015). Most of its analgesic activity is exerted through the metabolism
of morphine, therefore codeine, itself, is considered to be a weak opioid analgesic at the – and –
opioid receptors (Trescot et al., 2008). The main adverse effects associated with codeine use include
drowsiness, nausea and dizziness (Yiannakopoulou, 2015). Moreover, in severe circumstances,
codeine use can potentially result in respiratory depression and cardiac arrest (Yiannakopoulou,

Ionotropic Receptors Research Paper
Ionotropic receptors is a binding site that opens when an ion attaches to the binding site. The
ionotropic receptor is also a direct method to the ion channels. Ionotropic receptors has a channel
where molecules move in and out of the ion channel. The ions that goes into the ion channel are
made out of sodium which cause the membrane to become small.
Metabotropic receptors is receptor that is a part of the binding site of a neurotransmitter.
Metabotropic is indirect and complex method to the ion channels. Metabotropic receptor process is
also different from the inotropic receptor. When the ion channel is open the molecule move to the
ion channel then molecule attaches to the metabotropic receptor and the ion channel closes.
Autonomic nervous system is a part of the different molecules in the body such as the smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, gladder bladder, stomach, and urinary bladder. The neurophysiology is
showing the functions, the autonomic nervous system is showing how this works through the body.
There are two branches that are include in the autonomic nervous system. Those branches are called
the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The parasympathetic branch uses activity that is in the body which stores energy. For example, when
you eat something your saliva helps you to break down your food and when we swallow our food
the food goes into our stomach the fluid in our stomach helps to break down the food we eat which
gives us energy and is stored in our bodies. In this example, salvation is an example of one of the
activities that is in our book. The parasympathetic nervous system are located in the cranial nerves
and the spinal

Taking a Look at the Power of Heroin
Heroin is a powerful synthetic opium drug that falls into the schedule 1 drug category. Heroin can be
administered though injections (Intramuscular, Intravenously), inhalation (smoked), and the mucus
membrane (snorting/sniffing). It is believed that Heroin is three times more potent than morphine;
which it is synthesized off of. This is due to the two acetyl groups that added on to the morphine to
produce diacetylmorphine, or what is known as heroin today.
Heroin it mimics endogenous opioids that are found and produced naturally in the human body
(dynorphins, enkephalins, endorphins, endomorphins and nociceptin) just like morphine and the
other opium drugs. Once it mimics a natural opioid, like endorphins, it can bind to the opioid
receptors that are located throughout the body. Heroin affects all of the opioid receptors (kappa, mu,
and delta) but mostly affects the mu opioid receptors which are the strongest receptors that deal with
analgesia, and euphoria. The Mu receptors are located in brain (amygdala, medulla, thalamus),
spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system; which explains Heroin's effects on the human body.
When Heroin is administered orally it goes through 1st pass metabolism in the liver and creates a
weaker euphoric affect than when it bypasses 1st metabolism and is broken down by the kidney or
the brain; this is why users inject rather than smoke it. The two acetyl groups that are present that
was talked about before on heroin make it fat soluble, which will

Lidocaine Research Paper
As of October 2, 2017 there has been a reverified shortage of the Lidocaine Hydrochloride injection.
The generic name is Lidocaine where the brand name is Xylocaine. It is a Local Anesthetic and an
Antiarrhythmic Agent Class 1b. Xylocaine is used as a local anesthetic by infiltration, epidural or
nerve block; and it also used to treat ventricular arrhythmias from myocardial infarction. The United
States Food and Drug Administration states that this particular shortage first occurred in 2012, but
there are two recent LOT numbers affected. One being the 1% 50 mL vial package of 25 and the
other being the 2% 50 mL vial package of 25. The shortage is due to the discontinuation of the
manufacturing of the drug. The manufacturer, American Regent/Luitpold

Opioids Research Paper
So how do opioids work? Opioids attach themselves to specific proteins called opioid receptors.
These opioid receptors are found throughout the body including the brain, spinal cord, and GI tract.
When an opioid attaches to a receptor, it can reduce the perception of pain. Through this coupling
with receptors, opioids can also produce drowsiness, mental confusion, nausea, constipation, and,
depending upon the amount of drug taken, can stop respiration leading to death (overdosing). An
additional effect of some opioids is an experience of euphoria because these compounds affect the
brain regions involved in reward. Those who abuse opioids may seek to intensify their experience
by taking the drug in ways other than those prescribed. For example, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The most commonly available exogenous opioids primarily work by "high jacking" μ receptor
functionality. μ receptors can be found throughout our brain and spinal cord and control reward,
euphoria, analgesia, breathing, and nausea. These receptors are designed to be activated by our
endogenous opioids. Exogenous opioids, however, are far better at attaching themselves and
activating these same receptors. The result is an overactivation of these receptors throughout the
body. Effects of "Highjacking." Endogenous opioids work together to modulate pain by activating
different types of opioid receptors (μ, δ, κ, ORL1). In contrast, most exogenous opioids are
primarily using μ receptors to dampen pain. T exogenous opioids will disproportionately activate
feelings of euphoria and breathing by activating every μ receptor in the brain/spinal cord to
successfully diminish the sensations of pain. There is a relationship between this disproportionate
activation and our problems of addiction, dependence, and overdosing. Addiction Addiction is
disease defined by the compulsive acts an addict will demonstrate to obtain a drug so they can
achieve the "high" they need. An opioid addict is chasing the feeling of euphoria and well–being that
μ receptors

Factors That Affect The Rate Of The Pregnancy
OT plays a major role in the initiation of labor particularly during the expulsive phase by stimulating
prostaglandin release in species, specifically in the uterine epithelium. Blanks and Thornton (2003)
study revealed that secretion of oxytocin is at its maximum level during fetal delivery of pups but
the amount of OT released during expulsion of the pups varies among species. According to them,
oxytocin is at its peak at the time of delivery of the first fetus in rabbit, and throughout labor with
greater pulses overlapping with pup's expulsion in rats. Variations in oxytocin level are also seen
during the pregnancy and labor in humans. According to Blanks and Thornton (2003) several
discrepancies are present when in OT is measured in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This suggests that OT is critical for the ejection of milk but not parturition. Additionally, after
injecting OT on OT null mice and wild type mice, the start of premature labor within 24hrs was
observed at high concentrations of OT in both wild and null mice (Blanks & Thornton, 2003). With
that in mind, abnormal modification of OT action does influence the start of labor. In conclusion,
they put forward the idea that OT receptor in mice is mostly invested in the timing for the initiation
of labor. Most importantly, the OT receptor is essential for normal labor because those receptors are
found in abundance in uterine epithelium during late pregnancy promoting contractile effects. Along
with those findings, female rats that are undergone a knockout of OT, showed a decreased in
maternal care of their pups but displayed a higher level of aggression (Bales & Perkeybile, 2012).
Social rearing conditions plays a role in the binding of OT. Prairie voles, when differently handled
by experimenters a week after being born resulted in more OTR binding (Bales et al 2011). When
changing the animal's cages, experimenters carried the parent prairies vole by the scruff of the neck
and others were not touched. Those females that had careful attention and handling by the
experimenters displayed an increase in OTR binding. The same results were reported in males. They
concluded that the type of maintenance that pups received in early days after being born does affect

Opioid Addiction Case Study
Cause
Addiction is a multifactorial psychiatric disorder in which twin studies have established a
compelling case for a genetic heritability of increased susceptibility in some human hosts more than
others . Outside of genetics, addiction is partial to several environmental, behavioral, and
developmental risk factors as "neither genetic nor environmental factors act in isolation to increase
susceptibility to addiction." Thus, there does not appear to be any necessary nor sufficient factors
that are responsible for the increased likelihood of substance use/abuse and subsequent addiction.
Individual level risk factors for addiction may include low school involvement, existing mental
disorders, history of abuse or neglect, and use during adolescence ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The three stages of addiction are binge/intoxication defined by consumption and reward,
withdraw/negative affect due to absence of the substance, and preoccupation/anticipation relating to
the stage of seeking11. As such, the brain regions associated with each stage are the basal ganglia,
extended amygdala, and prefrontal cortex correspondingly. The stages of addiction are cyclical, one
leading to the next. The physical and psychological damage is magnified as the cycle is reinforced
and strengthened with time

Effects Of Thymosin On The Human Body
What are the effects of Thymosin ß–4 on the Human Body?
Nolan P. Stringfellow
Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
Jefferson Davis Campus
Abstract
Introduction
Thymosin ß–4 is a naturally occurring immunological hormone that is secreted by the thymus gland.
According to Thymosin beta 4 | ProSpec. (2011, March 01). Retrieved March 27, 2017, from
http://www.prospecbio.com/Thymosin_beta–4_7_171/ thymosin also assists in the development of
B cells to plasma cells to produce antibodies. The dominant form of thymosin, thymosin b4, is a
member of a highly conservative family of actin monomer–sequestering proteins. Thyomosin in the
body is composed of 43 different amino acids ( Ac–Ser–Asp–Lys–Pro–Asp–Met–Ala–Glu–Ile–Glu–
Lys–Phe–Asp–Lys–Ser–Lys–Leu–Lys–Lys–Thr–Glu–Thr–Gln–Glu–Lys–Asn–Pro–Leu–Pro–Ser–
Lys–Glu–Thr–Ile–Glu–Gln–Glu–Lys–Gln–Ala–Gly–Glu–Ser–OH.) ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Most of the hormones present in the human body are transported through the blood. Hormones
according to www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/nature/etc/hormones can influence the
function of the immune system and alter one's behavior. These chemical signals are the reason for
many factor including why one's arms are the same length, why one can turn food into a viable fuel,
and why one grows through puberty. Hormones are indicative of changes in target cells by binding
to hormone receptors. In this way, even though hormones circulate throughout the body and meet
different cell types, they only affect cells that possess the necessary receptors. Receptors of a
specific hormone can be found on different cells or a small number of specialized cells. Per
www.pbs.com/ the thyroid hormones act on different tissue types, stimulating metabolic activity
throughout the body. Cells can have receptors for the identical hormone, but often also possess
receptors for different types of hormones. The number of receptors that respond to a hormone
determines the cell's sensitivity to a specific hormone. The number of receptors that respond to a
hormone can change over time, resulting in increasing or decreasing the cell's sensitivity. Often in
up–regulation, the number of receptors increases to rising hormone levels, making the cell more
sensitive to the hormone. Down regulation describes when a cell is decreasing the quantity of a
cellular component. When the cells respond to a hormone, they express a specific receptor for that
specific hormone. The hormone binds to the receptor protein, resulting in the activation of a
mechanism that ultimately leads to cell type–specific responses. Receptor binding alters cellular

activity, resulting in an increase or decrease in normal body processes. According to
www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline depending on the location of the protein receptor on the

Effects Of Steroid Hormones And Neuropeptides On Social...
A Review of the Effects of Steroid Hormones and Neuropeptides on Social–Emotional Behavior
Bos, Peter A., Panksepp, Jaak, Bluthé, Rose–Marie, & van Honk, Jack (2011). Acute effects of
steroid hormones and neuropeptides on human social–emotional behavior: A review of single
administration studies. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 33 (2012) 17–35.
concept of "bodily fluids," or in this case, the amount of hormones circulating in the blood directly
affecting temperament and emotions are related. Scientists continue to research the relevance of
hormones, as well as neuropeptides on human behavior (J.R. Tata). Amazingly, throughout
evolutionary history, both neuropeptides and steroid hormones were able to preserve their molecular
structure, and their effect on cross–species sexuality. An estimated 450 million years ago, the
neurotransmitter oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVT) were present in the earliest phyla, and their
varied functions are similar in both animals and humans. Much like OT and AVP, the steroid
hormones, testosterone (T) and estradiol (E) play a significant role in

Nursing Case Study
Corrective surgical entry points: Wound recuperating quality is critical in the achievement of
restorative surgery. (Lu, Jin and Pang 2006) analyzed the impinging of FGF2 on coiled repair in 50
female patients who accomplished restorative surgery. Every single surgical entry point were perfect
cuts, and self–controls (another incisional twisted on a similar patient) were utilized. In the
treatment amass FGF2 was connected once every day until expulsion of lines, beginning with the
primary postoperative day. Wounds because of laser reemerging were spread with FGF2 twice day
by day until the point that normal de–crustation happened. The control gather was subjected to
regular dressing change until expulsion of fastens. The outcome ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
After debridement of the injuries, FGF2 was showered on the injuries and they were sutured the
following day. Wound dressings were changed frequently. The control bunch was dealt with
likewise, however without the utilization of FGF2 shower. Mending time was wholly shortened in
subjects with dehiscence measurement 6 cm in estimation or beneath activated with FGF2
comparing with the control assemblage. Interestingly, in patients with dehiscence measuring 5 cm or
more optional suturing was embraced. In this experiment there was no carping comparison in the
FGF2 treated assemblage connected with their single control gathering: it is likely that this control
gathering's abbreviated recuperating time, contrasted with the control bunch with dehiscence
measuring 5 cm or less, was because of auxiliary suturing. (Why is FGF Not used consistently in
today repair techniques?) Fibroblast development factor 2 (FGF2) is an exceptionally bottomless
development factor found inside the peri–cellular network of articular chondrocytes, however
contemplates examining its part have been clashing. The paper announced by Yan and partners in
the past issue of "Arthritis Research and Therapy proposes" that distinctions in reactions to FGF2
are in all probability because of changes to be determined between the two noteworthy articular
types of FGF receptors, FGFR1 and FGFR3. They demonstrate that the

Experiment : Melting Point And Percent Yield Of Dimethyl...
A. Melting Point and percent yield of Dimethyl Fumarate Dimethyl Fumarate was not successfully
created during the course of this particular experiment, likely because of a failure of the bromine to
mix with the other components of the test tubes. It was observed that the bromine had formed a
separate fraction at the top of the rest of the test tube contents, and because of this the necessary
reaction could not occur in substantial amounts for a precipitate of dimethyl fumarate to form. The
amount of bromine that was in contact with the dichloromethane and dimethyl maleate was simply
too small for a significant reaction to occur. The data discussed below is sourced from Alexander
Boley. Alex reported the melting point range to be 94–97°C, with an accepted range of 102–105°C.
The lower boiling point is most likely due to the compound not being dried sufficiently before the
melting point was tested. Alex also reported isolating 0.348 grams of dimethyl fumarate. Since he
utilized 0.5 g of dimethyl maleate solution, and the accepted density of dimethyl maleate is 1.153
g/ml, the theoretical maximum amount of dimethyl fumarate that could have been obtained is
0.5765 g; dimethyl fumarate would be present in the same amounts as it's steroisomer because of
their identical constitution, so dimethyl maleate's density is a valid input for calculating the final
amount of product. The result indicates that his percent yield was 60.36%. The percent loss
indicated could be attributed to

Opioids And The Opioid Receptor Essay

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