For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world. Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that have only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its religious traditions. PREDYNASTIC PERIOD (C. 5000-3100 B.C.) Encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization. This took place in the late Stone Age/Neolithic period. 4 Neolithic (late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death). Mesopotamia also believe in this religion 5 Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty. ARCHAIC (EARLY DYNASTIC) PERIOD (C. 3100-2686 B.C.) The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period. In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned. OLD KINGDOM: AGE OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS (C. 2686-2181 B.C.) The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu, who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors K.

1. For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C.
to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient
Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean
world.
Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and
historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own:
Egyptology.
The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the
many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered
from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that have
only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of a
culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the
accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its
religious traditions.
PREDYNASTIC PERIOD (C. 5000-3100 B.C.)
Encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the
Egyptian civilization. This took place in the late Stone
Age/Neolithic period.
4

2. Neolithic (late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa
exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that
paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and
crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great
reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death).
Mesopotamia also believe in this religion
5
Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established: the
Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and
extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land
in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila.
King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country,
becoming the first king of the first dynasty.
ARCHAIC (EARLY DYNASTIC) PERIOD (C. 3100-2686 B.C.)
The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of
Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of
kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike
being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The
earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.
In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient

3. Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture
(largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the
Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River
provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year;
farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and
harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought
returned.
OLD KINGDOM: AGE OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS (C.
2686-2181 B.C.)
The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs.
Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked
Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary
monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone
building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis.
Pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the
Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for
Khufu, who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C. Two other pyramids
were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532
B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).
During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden
age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power
and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no
serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns

4. in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its
considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth
and sixth dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted,
partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building. After the
death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for some
94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (C. 2181-2055 B.C.)
Civil war, no central authority in Memphis, Bedouin invasions,
famine and disease.
MIDDLE KINGDOM: 12TH DYNASTY (C. 2055-1786 B.C.)
Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy,
colonizing Nubia and repelling the. The kingdom also built
diplomatic and trade relations with Syria, Palestine and other
countries; undertook building projects including military
fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-
building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom.
SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (C. 1786-1567 B.C.)
Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos
took advantage of Egypt’s instability to take control. They ruled
concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th
dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt
despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. Conflict eventually
flared between the two groups, and the Thebans launched a war
against the Hyksos, driving them out of Egypt.

5. Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was
once again reunited. Egypt restored its control over Nubia and
began military campaigns in Palestine, clashing with other
powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The
country went on to establish the world’s first great empire,
stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia.
NEW KINGDOM (C. 1567-1085 B.C.)
First peace treaty- With both the Egyptians and Hittites facing
threats from other peoples they negotiated a famous peace
treaty. This agreement ended the conflict and decreed that the
two kingdoms would aid each other in the event of an invasion
by a third party. The Egyptian-Hittite treaty is now recognized
as one of the earliest surviving peace accords
All of the New Kingdom rulers were laid to rest in deep, rock-
cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial
site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them
were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and
treasure of Tutankhamen, discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922
Tutankhamun
Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of
Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and

6. conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a
line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general
Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of
Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered
Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus.) In 31 B.C. Six
centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity
became the official religion of Rome and its provinces
(including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the
seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do
away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture
and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.
FROM THE LATE PERIOD TO ALEXANDER’S CONQUEST
(C.664-332 B.C.)
522-485 B.C. – The Persians conquered and ruled Egypt.
Cleopatra VII ruled ancient Egypt as co-regent (first with her
two younger brothers and then with her son) for almost three
decades. She became the last in a dynasty of Macedonian rulers
Well-educated and clever, Cleopatra could speak various
languages and served as the dominant ruler in all three of her
co-regencies. Her romantic liaisons and military alliances with
the Roman leaders Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, as well as
her supposed exotic beauty and powers of seduction, earned her
an enduring place in history and popular myth.
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Language

7. Egypt had writing called hieroglyphics, which is one of the two
oldest written languages (the other is Sumerian cuneiform).
Hieroglyphic is composed of some 500 symbols. A hieroglyph
can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative (which
makes clear what the sign means). The same symbol can serve
different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were for
public purposes, used on stone monuments and in tombs. It was
art, and often it was political propaganda.
Hieratic script
Demotic script
Coptic script
Religion
Religion was very important to Ancient Egyptians. To
Egyptians, all African animals were holy and were worshipped.
Because of this, Egyptians domesticated, or made pets of,
animals very early and took very good care of them.
The afterlife was also very important to Egyptians and they are
known for mummifying their dead. These mummies are

8. important to scientists today because they tell them about how
the Egyptians lived.
Ra, the sun god; Isis, the goddess of nature and magic; Horus,
the god of war; and Osiris; the god of the dead.
Agriculture and the Nile River
While they may have been publicly and socially viewed as
inferior to men, Egyptian women enjoyed a great deal of legal
and financial independence. They could buy and sell property,
serve on juries, make wills and even enter into legal contracts.
Egyptian women did not typically work outside the home, but
those who did usually received equal pay for doing the same
jobs as men.
First Working Strikes in history recorded
Even though they regarded the pharaoh as a kind of living god,

9. Egyptian workers were not afraid to protest for better working
conditions. The most famous example came in the 12th century
B.C. during the reign of the New Kingdom pharaoh Ramses III.
When laborers engaged in building the royal necropolis at Deir
el-Medina did not receive their usual payment of grain, they
organized one of the first recorded strikes in history. The
protest took the form of a sit-in: The workers simply entered
nearby mortuary temples and refused to leave until their
grievances were heard. The gamble worked, and the laborers
were eventually given their overdue rations.
36
The life of a pyramid builder certainly wasn’t easy but evidence
suggests that the massive tombs were built not by slaves but by
paid laborers. These ancient construction workers were a mix of
skilled artisans and temporary hands, and some appear to have
taken great pride in their craft.
Some Egyptian doctors had specialized fields of study.
City of alexsender.
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10. The Mughal Empire of Hindustan
The Mughal Empire ruled most of northern India from the 1500s
to the 1700s. The Mughal rulers practiced the religion of Islam.
Most of the people they ruled practiced Hinduism. Even so, the
Mughals were able to rule successfully. They worked to bring
Muslims and Hindus together into a united India.
Babur
The founder of the Mughal Empire
He was descended from Genghis Khan, who had founded the
Mongol Empire in Mongolia more than 300 years earlier.
Babur ruled Kabul (in modern Afghanistan), and in 1504 he
decided to reconquer Tamerlane's old land in northern India. By
1526, Babur used his advanced gunpowder weapons to capture
Delhi, and ruled a large empire, just as to his east the Ming
Emperors ruled China, and to his west the Safavids ruled Iran.
The Empire he founded was a sophisticated civilization based
on religious toleration. It was a mixture of Persian, Mongol and
Indian culture. Under Babur, Hinduism was tolerated and new
Hindu temples were even built with his permission.

11. Babur brought a broad-minded, confident Islam from central
Asia. His first act after conquering Delhi was to forbid the
killing of cows because that was offensive to Hindus.
When Babur died in 1530, his son Humayun took over. But the
Indian people rebelled against him, and Humayun had to hide
out with his friend Shah Tahmasp at the Safavid court. Just as
Humayun was beginning to win back his empire in 1545, he
died, leaving his general Bairam Khan and his widow, Hamida
Banu, to rule for his 13 year old son Akbar.
Abu Akbar
Babur’s grandson
Akbar worked hard to win over the hearts and minds of the
Hindu leaders. While this may well have been for political
reasons - he married a Hindu princess (and is said to have
married several thousand wives for political and diplomatic
purposes) - it was also a part of his philosophy.
He established a form of delegated government in which the
provincial governors were personally responsible to him for the
quality of government in their territory.
Akbar's government machine included many Hindus in positions
of responsibility - the governed were allowed to take a major
part in the governing.
Akbar also ended a tax (jizya) that had been imposed on non-
Muslims. This discriminatory tax had been much resented, and

12. ending it was a popular move.
When Akhbar died he left the Mughal empire covering all of
what is now northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and
Bangladesh.
JAHANGIR
Akbar's son, Emperor Jahangir, readopted Islam as the state
religion and continued the policy of religious toleration. His
court included large numbers of Indian Hindus, Persian Shi'a
and Sufis and members of local heterodox Islamic sects.
Jahangir also began building the magnificent monuments and
gardens by which the Mughals are chiefly remembered today,
importing hundreds of Persian architects to build palaces and
create magnificent gardens.
Jahangir's approach was typified by the development of Urdu as
the official language of Empire. Now, the official language of
Pakistan.
Shah Jahan
Akbar’s grandson
Taj Mahal
The most famous monument of Mughal architecture is the Taj

13. Mahal. It was built in the 17th century by Shah Jahan as a tomb
for his beloved wife, Mumtaz-i Mahal, who died in childbirth.
The Taj Mahal was begun in 1632 and completed 22 years later.
About 20,000 people were employed, including Asia’s finest
craftsmen. Famous for its perfect symmetry, it is exactly as
wide as it is high, and the dome is the same height as its façade.
By Jahan's period the capital had moved to the Red Fort in
Delhi, putting the Fort at the heart of Mughal power. As if to
confirm it, Jahan had these lines inscribed there: "If there is
Paradise on earth, it is here, it is here.”
Paradise it may have been, but it was a pricey paradise. The
money Jahan spent on buildings and on various military projects
emptied his treasury and he was forced to raise taxes, which
aggravated the people of the empire.
Aurangzeb
Expanded the empire to its greatest size.
However, mistreated Hindus and other non-Muslims.
This cost him the support of the people and eventually led the
empire to weaken.

14. All comes to an end…
By the middle of the 1700s the Mughals ruled only a small area
around the city of Delhi. The British took over this land in
1803. The last Mughal emperor was Bahadur Shah II. The
British allowed him to reign until 1857. Then they forced him to
leave India.
What did the Mughals bring to Hindustan?
Centralized government that brought together many smaller
kingdoms.
Delegated government with respect for human rights.
Persian art and culture.
Persian language mixed with Arabic and Hindi to create Urdu.
Periods of great religious tolerance.
A style of architecture (e.g. the Taj Mahal).
A system of education that took account of pupils' needs and
culture