Β-D-Pentaacetate Synthesis

Β-D-Pentaacetate Synthesis
The β–D–Galactose inhibitors were all made from β–D–Galactose pentaacetate (15), BF3 ∙ Et2O in
DCM and three different alkyne containing alcohols (propargyl alcohol, 3–butyn–1–ol, and 4–
pentyn–1–ol). Saturated aqueous NaHCO3 was used to neutralize the solution and after washing and
drying the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure to give the galactose inhibitors.
16 (Scheme 6) was purified by column chromatography (10% MeOH/DCM). The product, however,
came too quickly off the column and wasn't purified enough. A second column (1% MeOH/ DCM)
was done to purify it further. The yield was 46%.
17 (Scheme 6) was purified by column chromatography (1% MeOH/DCM). The NMR showed that
there was still a bit of the starting alcohol present. A second column (1% acetone/DCM) was done to
separate the alcohol from the galactoside. The yield was 45%. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This product also had some 4–pentyn–1–ol in it. A second column (10% MeOH/PE) was done to
achieve a better separation. The yield was 43%.
16 gave the best separation as compared to 17 and 18. It was difficult to separate the alcohols from
the
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Synthesis Lab Report
Results and discussion
Synthesis
Synthesis involves reaction of substituted salicylic acid hydrazide 1 with substituted benzoyl
chloride 2 which resulted in the formation of substituted diacyl hydrazines (3a–f). Cyclization of
substituted diacyl hydrazines was carried out using Lawesson reagent, which resulted in formation
of 2,5–Disubstituted–1,3,4–thiadiazoles (4a–f). 2,5–disubstituted–1,3,4–thiadiazoles undergo
reaction with different aromatic aldehydes to form different novel Schiff bases. The compounds
were purified by repeated recrystallization from ethanol and then dried under vacuum [24, 25]. The
scheme for synthesis is explained in Figure 1. The structure of all the synthesized derivatives was
confirmed by IR, 1H NMR and elemental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From the results, we can conclude that the synthesized compounds were moderately active against
tested microorganisms with the range of MIC values for S. aureus (0.5–19.6 µg/mL), S. epidermidis
(3.4–20.4 µg/mL), M. luteus (2.1–21.6 µg/mL), B. cereus (3.6–24.8 µg/mL), E. coli (0.09–25.1
µg/mL), P. aeruginosa (2.2–22.6 µg/mL), A. niger (1.2–25.2 µg/mL). The compound 5–(2–
Mercaptophenyl)–2–(N–benzylidene–4–aminophenyl)–1,3,4–thiadiazole 6f was found to exhibit the
most potent antimicrobial activity with the MICs of 0.14, 3.4, 2.1, 3.6, 0.09, 2.2 and 1.2 µg/mL
against S. aureus, S. epidermidis, M. luteus, B. cereus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa and A. niger
respectively and also more active than Ciprofloxacin and Ketoconazole against S. aureus, E. coli, A.
niger. It can be clearly said that 6f showed significant results as compared to others as per SAR
studies when compared to standard drugs Ciprofloxacin and Ketoconazole. Other compounds 6a–e,
7a–f also showed good antibacterial and antifungal activities. The compound 6f showed maximum
activity which might be due to para substitution, electron withdrawing group, ortho substituted
sulfahydril group in disubstituted 1,3,4–thiadiazole. While the other compounds, though they
contain electron donating group, ortho substituted hydroxyl group unfortunately produced weak
antimicrobial activity (Table–3), (Fig.

Aldehydes And Ketones Lab Report
Purpose:
In this experiment, there are five known compounds given and one unknown compound. The known
compounds are: aldehydes, ketones, primary and secondary alcohol, and ester. The Dumas method is
used to determine what the unknown substance is. Both Aldehydes and Ketones are similar in a way
that they both have carbonyl groups in their Lewis structure; the only difference between the two are
that aldehydes are quickly oxidized into carboxylic acids whereas it more difficult to achieve.1
There are three different types of alcohols; there are primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. This
experiment only tests for primary and secondary alcohols because tertiary alcohols react at a fast
rate with the Lucas reagent. Depending on the type of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Once the unknown solution and Lucas' reagent are incorporated, the beaker forms a cloudy solution
within two minutes of heating it in hot water on a hot plate. The unknown substance is not an
aldehyde because there is not formation of silver deposits at the bottom of the beaker when Tollen's
reagent is added to the beaker. The unknown solution would not be a ketone because no
crystallization forms when the reagent phenylhydrazine is added, and the unknown solution would
not be an ester because it does not have the distinctive fragrance that a ketone solution would have.
Lastly, the unknown solution would not be a primary alcohol because no reaction occurs when the
beaker in heated on a hot plate.1
After recording the atmospheric pressure, the temperature, the volume of the flask and determining
the weight of the volatized liquid, the ideal gas law is used to determine what the molar mass of the
unknown compound is. When using the ideal gas law formula, instead of using the number of moles
(n) in the equation, it is replaced with mass over molar mass. This equation is then rearranged to
calculate the molar mass of the unknown solution. The mass calculated for the unknown solution is
61.74

Synthesis of Adipic Acid Essay example
Experiment 8: Synthesis of Adipic Acid
Performed November 8th & 10th
By
Jennifer Seitz
Organic Chemistry 344
Section 803
Fall 2011
Objective: The purpose of this experiment was to synthesize adipic acid from cyclohexanol via an
oxidation reaction that was catalyzed by sulfuric acid. Purity of the product was assessed by
measuring the melting point.
Physical Properties/Structures:
Name | Formula | Molecular Weight (g/mol) | Boiling Point (0C) | Melting Point(0C) |
Density(g/mL) | Hazards | Sodium Dichromate Dihydrate | Na2Cr2O7 . 2H2O | 297.98 | 400.0 |
357.0 | 2.35 | –Eye/skin irritant–Affects Respiratory System | Water | H2O | 18.02 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 1.00
| N/A | Sulfuric Acid (98%) | H2SO4 | 98.08 | 337.0 | ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The oxidation reaction between cyclohexanol and sulfuric acid was successful in that it did in fact
yield the adipic acid product but unsuccessful in the amount that was yielded, with a percent yield of
only 35.0%. This yield may have been low due to both experimental and technical errors. One of the
major causes of the low yield most likely had to do with the fact that the temperature went below
55.00C and above 65.00C during certain points of the reaction. When the reaction temperature goes
above 65.00C, it causes the yield of adipic acid to be lower due to further oxidation. When the
reaction temperature goes below 55.00C, it causes the yield of adipic acid to be lower due to the fact
that the amount of energy is not high enough to activate oxidation of the reaction. Some of the
product also most likely was lost during both the crystallization and recrystallization process. Since
adipic acid is somewhat water soluble, some of the product most likely moved with the water that
was used to rinse it through the filter out of the Buchner funnel during vacuum filtration. This error
could have been reduced had the

Why Do Vegetable Oil Cause Cancer?
For decades, health professionals have been warning us how bad butter and lard was. However,
previous study debunked this myth and discovered an even worse concern: vegetable oil is linked to
cancer.
According to a study from the researchers of De Monfort University Leicester (DMU), sunflower oil
and corn oil produce aldehydes when heated at levels 20 times higher than the standards set by the
World Health Organization. Aldehydes are an organic compound usually related to various diseases
such as cancer and dementia.
The study was based on a 20 years of research wherein Bioanalytical chemistry and Chemical
pathology Professor Martin Grootveld of De Montfort University noted that frying fish with corn or
sunflower oil had more toxic aldehydes than what is safe. He explained that oils undergo chemical
reaction when heated–oils rich in polyunsaturated fats produce larger amounts of aldehydes while
those rich in monounsaturated fats generate less, and saturated fats the least. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The government is still suggesting oils rich in polyunsaturated fats–and that apparently is the wrong
advice.
With these findings, Grootveld counselled that people should start avoiding fried food or choose oil
that will give off lower levels of these toxic products. Coconut oil is found to contain the least toxic
with 90 percent healthy fats.
On the other hand, olive oil generates a lower concentration of toxins and produces other
compounds which are less hazardous for human consumption; other oils such as rapeseed, butter,
lard and even goose fat also generate smaller concentration of aldehydes. He also suggests removing
excess oil in cooked food by using paper towels and keeping the oils in a cupboard and away from
light. Oils should not be reused so that unhealthy side–products will not

Experiments
EXPERIMENT 1: REACTIONS OF ENOLATE IONS WITH CARBONYL GROUPS
Aims
In this experiment we used two techniques for the reactions of enolate ions with carbonyl groups.
One technique used was Doebner reaction and the other technique used was Claisen–Schmidt
reaction. Therefore the aim of this experiment is to synthesize trans p–methoxycinnamic acid and to
synthesize dibenzalacetone via an aldol condensation reaction between acetone and benzaldehyde.
The products would be recrystallized using ethanol, then characterized using melting point analysis.
Introduction:
In this experiment we learnt on carbonyl compounds, enols and enolates. We also learnt two
different techniques to test the reactions of enolate ions with carbonyl groups which ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
A blue litmus paper was used to test. The blue litmus paper turned red when tested. The flask with
the solution was cooled again. The organic acid was then collected using vacuum filtration. Once
collected, the organic acid was washed with cold water and air dried briefly. Lastly, the product was
recrystallized from ethanol. The mass of the crude product, mass of p–methoxycinnamic acid and
the melting point range of p–methoxycinnamic acid was measured and it is shown below.
Mass of crude product 4.44g mass of p–methoxycinnamic acid 3.72g melting point range of p–
methoxycinnamic acid 169.3,172.8
Table 2
b) A solution of sodium hydroxide (3g) in water(30ml) an ethanol (25ml) was prepared and stirred in
a 250ml conical flask that was maintained at 20–25ₒ in water bath. Benzaldehyde and A.R acetone
were mixed and divided into two portions. The accurate masses of the starting materials,
benzaldehyde and A.R acetone are shown below. benzaldehyde 3.2g acetone 1.1g
Table 3
Half of the benzaldehyde– acetone mixture was added in one portion while stirring the solution
vigorously. At this stage, a precipitated was formed after a few minutes. After 15 minutes, the
remaining benzaldehyde– acetone mixture was added and the mixture was stirred for a further 30
minutes. After 30 minutes, the precipitate was collected by vacuum filtration and washed with cold
water until the washings were

Chromic Acid Lab Report
I. Chromic Acid Test
Hydrocarbon Observation Reaction equation and deduction
Acetaldehye Slow reaction with the forming of greenish –black solution. Heat is released during the
reaction. CH3CHO + H2CrO4 → CH3COOH + Cr2O3
Aldehyde present in the solution.
Benzaldehye No reaction occurred. C6H5CHO + H2CrO4 → no reaction.
Acetophenone No reaction occurred. C6H5C(O)CH3 + H2CrO4 → no reaction
Ketone presents in the solution.
3–pentanone No reaction occurred. CH3CH2COCH2CH3 + H2CrO4 → no reaction
Ketone presents in the solution.
Isopropyl alcohol Greenish–black solution with black precipitate obtains in a short period. Heat
release during the reaction. CH₃CHOHCH₃ + H2CrO4 → CH3COCH3 + Cr2O3
Present of the secondary alcohol.
1–propanol React vigorously with chromic acid to produce a pale green solution with black
precipitate. Heat is released during the reaction. CH₃CH₂CH₂OH + H2CrO4 → CH3CH2CHO +
Cr2O3 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Unknown A No reaction occurred. May be present of ketone and benzene ring without free
hydrogen atom.
Unknown B No reaction occurred. May be present of ketone and benzene ring without free
hydrogen atom.
Unknown C React rapidly with chromic acid to form a green solution with black precipitate. Heat is
released during the reaction. It can be a primary alcohol, secondary alcohol or aldehyde.
II. Tollen's

Pentanal Vs 1 Pentanol Essay
Pentanal and 1–Pentanol A compound contains atoms from two or more elements chemically
bonded to form a different and new substance. The two compounds Pentanal and 1–Pentanol
originate came from two separate functional groups. Pantanal comes from the functional group
Aldehydes which are an organic compound containing a Carbonyl functional group and is attached
to Hydrogen and one R group. On the other hand 1–Pentanol comes from the Alcohol group, which
is also an organic compound which is Hydroxyl functional group with the basic structure of (R–
OH). 1–Pentanol has a boiling point of about 138C which is much greater than the Pentanal with
102C which caused by having OH polar group and it also allows 1–Pentanol to form hydrogen
bonds with water, therefore increasing its intermolecular forces and eventually creating a high
boiling point. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The aldehyde group in pentanal is polar and because none of the Hydrogen atoms are directly
bonded to oxygen so no Hydrogen bonding is possible. From the other hand 1–pentanol is an
alcohol with five carbon atoms with the molecular formula C5H12O, also 1–Pentanol is both
Hydrogen donor and accepter which causes an increase in the boiling point. (Smith, 2001) The
figure below shows the similarities in the two compounds Pentanal and 1–Pentanol that they both
have the same number of carbon atoms with the same arrangement. The difference is on that end
carbon atom where two Hydrogen atoms are removed to make the aldehyde group. Everything else
stays the same, as well as the position of the functional group and the number and their

The Synthesis Of 13 Butadienes
CHAPTER TWO RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2.1 Synthesis of 1,3–butadienes
Dienes can be synthesised from aldehydes and ketones using the Wittig reaction. The Wittig reaction
facilitates the synthesis of new carbon–carbon double bonds at specific locations in aldehydes and
ketones (Bernard & Ford, 1983). The overall reaction mechanism is shown in Figure 1.
Protocols for synthesising 1,3–butadienes from aldehydes and ketones have been established in the
literature. The synthesis protocol proposed by Greatrex et al. (2014) was used and reactions using
several aldehydes (cinnamaldehyde, piperonaldehyde, and 2–chloro–benzaldehyde) were
successfully performed to synthesise the required butadienes 1, 2, and 3, Scheme 2.
The general approach involved transforming the aldehydes at the site of the carbonyl group. Use of
an appropriate triphenylphosphonium halide (methyl for cinnamaldehyde, and allyl for piperonal
and 2–chloro–benzaldehyde) afforded the correct 1,3–butadiene. Deprotonation of the
triphenylphosphonium halide was achieved using potassium tert–butoxide reacted under an
atmosphere of nitrogen. An observable colour change was observed on addition of the
triphenylphosphonium halide to the solvent, and subsequently on the addition of an aldehyde.
Reactions were followed by thin liquid chromatography (TLC), and the butadienes were purified via
chromatography (1 and 2 via column chromatography, and 3 via dry flash chromatography). Both
the e– and z– isomers of the butadienes

Table 1 Organizes All Observational And Statistical Data
Table 1 organizes all observational and statistical data throughout the experimentation. Mass and
volume amounts from various reagents were based upon these values and therefore are insignificant
in a table. Each beginning, intermediate, and final product demonstrated shows the initial mass
recorded before the next reactionary process began. At the end of each experimentation set, a dollop
of sample was utilized to examine IR peaks and melting point range. The IR peaks displayed are the
peaks present in the experimental samples that support the pure identity of the product. General
observations during and after procedures were noted and are displayed above.
Figure 4. IR spectra of benzaldehyde
Figure 5. IR spectra of benzoin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DISCUSSION
The first place to start on overall success of the experimentation would be the IR and melting point
values. If the IR and melting point reveal to match exactly with literature values, the whole of
experimentation can be deemed successful. Unfortunately, the reality is not as simple, for even a
slight impure peak or skewness in melting point shows flaw in the sample product. Benzaldehyde
was the first chemical in question. For this lab example, pure benzaldehyde was provided. For
exemplary purposes, the IR of benzaldehyde was taken to track the peak alterations that could occur
in later steps. The melting point provides further evidence of the purity of the benzaldehyde, but
purity was assumed and therefore melting point was not taken. Benzaldehyde is a simple aromatic
compound with a aldehyde group; therefore, expected peaks are the aromatic ring constituents, C=O
bond representative of aldehydes, and C–H bonds representative of aldehydes. According to the
expected literature values in place for this functional groups, benzaldehyde was sufficiently pure,
containing all the correct values. With the correct IR spectrograph available, all following IR
samplings follow stepwise in junction with the first. Further skewness can thus be considered flaw
in procedure and not benzaldehyde. Benzoin condensed from a catalyzed reaction with Vitamin B
and benzaldehyde, mixed with various basic and acidic

To Synthesize a Fragrance Used Commercially in Two Steps...
What's That Smell? Due Date/Submission Date: 02/17/2014 I. Purpose To synthesize a fragrance
used commercially in two steps by using a chemoselective reduction reaction, and a polymer–
supported reaction. II. Reaction Equations and Mechanisms III. Calculations Part 1 Theoretical
Yield 1) (1.62 g ethyl vanillin x 154.16 g ethyl vanillyl alcohol) / (166.18 g ethyl vanillin) = 1.503 g
ethyl vanillyl alcohol 2) (0.3 g NaBH4 x 154.16 g ethyl vanillyl alcohol) / (37.83 g NaBH4) = 1.223
g ethyl vanillyl alcohol Percent Yield = (1.03 g / 1.223 g) x 100 = 84.2% Melting Point Range ( ̊C):
83.9, 84.4, 85.0 Melting Point Average ( ̊C): 84.43 Rf Values Starting material = 4.0/5.5 = 0.73 Final
product = ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While we refluxed the solution there was no color change, the solution stayed clear. After gravity
filtration the solution stayed clear. After roto vap, solution was a milky brown color. IR spec data
showed a weak OH peak as well as strong C–O stretches around 1200 cm–1. V. Discussion
Questions: 1. Our percent yield for alcohol was 84.2% which is average. We rushed through our
vacuum filtration and probably did not let the solid dry long enough and might have not transferred
all of the solid to the vacuum filtration from the beaker. 2. The TLC results showed two different
spots that traveled different distances on the TLC plate, one for ethyl vanillin and one for ethyl
vanillin alcohol which proves there is no evidence of the starting material in our final product. The
product (ethyl vanillin alcohol) was more polar and interacted more with the solvent than our
starting material (ethyl vanillin). This increase in polarity is due to the extra alcohol group in the
ethyl vanillin alcohol and the smaller Rf value also indicates it is more polar and pure than the ethyl
vanillin. 3. The IR spectrum of the starting material shows a medium/strong C–O bond at around
1500cm–1, also the starting material shows a strong C–H bond at around 3000cm–1 and another
medium C–H bond at 2865cm–1 indicating an aldehyde group whereas the product does not. The IR
spectrum of the product shows a two weak broad O–H peaks at around

Chemistry : The Aldol Reaction
Aldol Reaction The aldol reaction is a means of forming carbon–carbon bonds in organic chemistry.
Discovered independently by the Russian chemist Alexander Borodin in 1869 and by the French
chemist Charles– Adolphe Wurtz in 1872, the reaction comvines two carbonyl compounds to form a
new B–hydroxy carbonyl compound. These products are known as aldols, from the aldehyde +
alcohol, a structural motif seen in many of the products. Aldol structural units are found in many
important molecules, whether naturally occuring or synthetic. For example, the aldol reaction has
been used in the large–scale production of the commodity chemical penaerythritol and the synthesis
of the heart disease drug Lipitor. The aldol reaction unites two relatively simple molecules into a
more complex one. Increased complexity arises because up to two new stereogenic centers are
formed. Modern methodology is capable of not only allowing aldol reactions to proceed in high
yield but also controlling both the relative and absolute configuration of these stereocenters. This
ability to selectively synthesize a particular stereoisomer is significant because different
stereoisomers can have very different chemical and biological properties. For example, stereogenic
aldol units are espcially common in polyketides, a class of molecules found in biological organisms.
In nature, polyketides are synthesized by enzymes that effect iterative Claisen condensations. The
1,3–dicarbonyl products of these

Should Electronic Cigarettes Be Harmful?
Despite various claims via online websites and advertisements, electronic cigarettes are not a safe
alternative to regular cigarettes. Often advertised as having no dangerous chemicals, many people
would think that they are completely safe because of these misleading ads. However, electronic
cigarettes still have toxic chemicals inside of them, and even more that are created when smoking
them. The biggest reason cigarettes are addictive is because of a drug called "nicotine" inside of
them. This drug creates a feeling of pleasure in the brain, but it is short lived, turning that pleasure
into irritability and eventually addiction. Besides nicotine, e–cigs also have other ingredients such as
aldehydes (which kills cells around the mouth and throat), nitrosamines (which can cause lung
cancer), and even some metals. Because of these dangerous chemicals that are still present in
electronic cigarettes, they are not a safe alternative to cigarettes, the presence of nicotine being the
biggest reason. The nicotine drug is "a toxic colorless or yellowish oily liquid that is the chief active
constituent of tobacco" (Definition of Nicotine in English). This means that it is dangerous (harmful
to health), and is the main ingredient in cigarettes. Dr. Ananya Mandal, MD, says "Nicotine is a
chemical compound that is present in tobacco. When tobacco is smoked, nicotine is absorbed
through the wall lining of the small air sacs in the lungs. When sniffed or chewed, it is absorbed
through

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Haloalkanes
Draw 5 haloalkanes on the board and get students to do the first one on their mini whiteboards name
it and identify if it is primary secondary or tertiary. Once everyone has correctly got the first one
student can continue with the others.
Students write on their mini whiteboards whether haloalkanes will have higher or lower melting /
boiling points than alcohols by identifying what type of bonding is present.
Place a haloalkane in a beaker of water and identify if it soluble. Students in pairs reason why the
observations are seen.
Uses of haloalkanes – CFC's as fire extinguishers and the impact on the environment. Haloalkanes
are used as monomers.
Notes–
Haloalkanes are named the same as alkanes but the halide is numbered and named ... Show more
C1–C2 are gases at room temperature. C3–C4 are volatile liquids. C5 > are solids at room
temperature.
Amines have a lower melting / boiling point compared to alcohols as they have hydrogen bonding
between N–H. Nitrogen has a much lower electronegativity than oxygen so the hydrogen bonding of
alcohols are much stronger resulting in higher melting / boiling points.
Small molecule amines are soluble in water. As the alkyl chain increases the solubility decreases.
Primary amines can react with a haloalkane to form a secondary amine via a substitution reaction.
CH3NH2 + CH3CH2Cl (heat) CH3NHCH2CH3 + HCl
The secondary amines can react with a haloalkane to produce a tertiary amine.
For alkanes, alkenes, haloalkanes, amines and alcohols – draw a mini reaction scheme that shows
the formation and reactions that they can produce. Schemes should identify that alcohols are
oxidised to aldehydes, carboxylic acids and ketones depending on the starting material and type of
reaction used.
Systematic name is alkanals but aldehydes is used as it means alcohols dehydrogenated. Aldehydes
have the functional group HC=O. Question stick to where in a molecule must an aldehyde be?
Systematic name for ketones is alkanone. C=O is the functional group. Question stick for where in
the molecule must the ketone be?
Students practising naming do the first one as a class then

Grignard Corey-Seebach Reactions Lab Report
Carbon–Carbon bonding reactions in chemistry are important because they allow the diversity and
generation of larger molecules. Aldol additions and Grignard reactions are few of many well
understood methods for generating carbon–bonds bonds.1 The products of aldol additions are
formed from ketone and aldehyde groups under acid or basic conditions. Catalyzed by these
conditions the ketones undergo tautomerization between keto–enol forms, the enolate reacting with
a neighboring aldehyde. The new bond is created between the alpha carbon of ketone and
electrophilic center of the aldehyde by electrophilic addition. With Grignard reactions, an
organomagnesium carbanion reacts with another electron withdrawing group such as a carbanion.
Because Grignard ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Initially the cyanide donates its available electrons to the nucleophilic carboxyl group in the process
breaking a Pi bond and pushing those electrons to the oxygen. Addition of a base is added as a
workup step to remove the most acidic hydrogen at the carbon center. It is this step where the role of
the carbonyl is reversed with carbon achieving a nucleophilic state. The nucleophilic carbon can
attack another benzaldehyde forming a benzoin compound. Through work up steps the cyanide
catalyst is removed leaving behind the final

CHM2123 Lab 5
Lab 5 Oxidation of an alcohol CHM2123 Introduction: Oxidation is a key reaction in organic
chemistry. Oxidation of an alcohol can produce aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids. One of the
methods of oxidation is an aldol reaction through carbon–carbon bonds. The oxidation oxidizes
primary alcohols to aldehydes and secondary alcohols oxidizes ketones. Tertiary alcohols are
converted to the common oxidizing agents. Scheme 5.1: Aldehydes can be oxidized easily to
carboxylic acids in aqueous medias and could cause over–oxidization because there is an extra
hydrogen adjacent to the aldehyde. Though over–oxidization of carbonyls is possible with
aldehydes, it is not possible with ketones. Ketones lack the easily removed hydrogen that is ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
D: 2.70g/mL M: 184.23g/mol v=1.0mL D=m/v m=D(v) m=2.70(g/mL)(1.0mL) m=2.70g n=m/M
n=2.70g/184.23g/mol n=0.0147mol TLC Plates: S: Starting Material C: Co–Spot Rx: Reaction Rf:
Reference Rec: Recrystallization Discussion: In the first part of the lab, the goal of this experiment
was to carry out an oxidation of diphenylmethanol with a solid oxidant that is composed of KMnO4
and CuSO4. 1.0mL of diphenylmethanol was placed into a flask with 4g of oxidant (5:3
KMnO4:CuSO4.5H2O) and mixed together with a rod instead of a magnetic stirrer because it might
over stir it and heat it up too much. We wanted the flask to be warm and not too hot. After the flask
was clamped with a condenser into 400mL of boiling water. The condenser was to prevent solution
evaporation which is to cool the flask and doesn 't allow the solution to evaporate. The flask was

Chromic Acid Test Lab Report
This lab tested known substances against an unknown substance in order to determine the molecular
makeup of the given unknown substance. The unknown substance benzaldehyde was determined by
conducting six test followed by Proton NMR, C13 NMR and IR Spectroscopy reading. Test 52 D:
2,4–Dinitrophenylhydrazine, determined that the unknown product was a ketone and test 52 H:
Acetyl Chloride indicates the presence of a secondary or primary amine. Based on 52 D: Chromic
Acid Test 1, 52 H: Chromic Acid Test 2 and 52 C: Bromine in Methylene Chloride it was
determined that the unknown substance followed an substitution reaction mechanism as well as
contained an alcohol and aldehyde functional groups, table ___. The molecular components of the
unknown where further narrowed down using IR, C13 NMR and proton NMR. ... Show more
The aldehyde present within the unknown substance was also identified within the previously noted
52 D: Chromic Acid Test 1. An aldehyde was also present within the C13 NMR reading at 180 ppm–
140 ppm. All three Spectroscopy readings indicated the presence of an aromatic compound. Using
molecular weight of 106.12g/mol the molecular formula was determined to C7H6O. Using the
discovered molecular compounds from the test described above with the molecular formula it was
understood that the unknown compound was benzaldehyde Figure

Why Do Monosaccharaides Contain Aldehyde
In the first test for monosaccharaides using Benedict's solution, glucose was the positive control and
it turned a brownish red color. Water was the negative control and it stayed blue which was the color
of the Benedict's reagent (Benedicts test image 1). This supports the hypothesis that
monosaccharaides contain aldehyde groups. Three disaccharides, maltose, sucrose and lactose were
tested next for a free aldehyde group, which would mean they were reducing sugars according to the
hypothesis. Maltose and lactose both turned brownish red which means they are reducing sugars and
sucrose did not change colors which means it tested negative and is a non–reducing sugar
(Benedicts test image 2). This is shown in Benedict's test results for unknown substances table. ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lugol's test was utilized to test for polysaccharides. Starch turned black and the negative control of
water stayed brown, the color of the iodine being used to test (Lugol's test image 1). Maltose,
sucrose and lactose all tested negative. However, glucose tested positive. This was an error because
glucose is a monosaccharide. The test was repeated and it was found that the test tube had not been
properly cleaned and there was leftover starch in it. The test was repeated and glucose tested
negative this time. These results are displayed in Results of Lugol's test for known carbohydrates
table. This result supported the hypothesis that glucose is a monosaccharide not a polysaccharide.
Only starch tests positive because it has a helical shape while the rest are

Essay On Macromolecules
Introduction
This lab is designed to find the identity of the macromolecules present in an unknown solution,
#257, by observing how starches, glycogens, sugars, and protein react with different chemical
indicators in order to relate the results to the unknown solution. The first test is the iodine test for the
polysaccharides starch and glycogen. Starch, which is the normally stored carbohydrate in plants, is
made up of two portions, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a single chain of glucose units, the
monosaccharides which make up carbohydrates like starch and glycogen, held together by links
called α–1,4 glycosidic linkages, usually forming helical coils. Amylopectin, however, has glucose
units held together by α–1,4 glycosidic linkages and α–1,6 glycosidic linkages, causing it to have ...
Animals store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen, a much more branched polysaccharide than
starch, and has branching every 8–10 glucoses. This forms shorter, choppier helices than those of
starch (Kumar J, 2007). When iodine atoms from the solution are introduced to starches and
glycogen, they more strongly bind to starch due to the longer helical coils of the amylose, causing a
colour change. The pale yellow iodine solution turns a strong blue in the presence of a starch,
whereas it turns reddish brown in the presence of the weaker glycogen (Harisha, 2006). The positive
controls for this test are the glycogen solution for the presence of glycogen and the starch solution
for the presence of starch; since water contains neither, it is the negative control. The second test
performed is Benedict's test to determine if reducing sugars are present in solution. Benedict's
solution contains sodium carbonate, sodium citrate, and copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate and has

Unknown 33A Solubility Analysis
The physical attributes of Unknown 33A were that it was a white, crystal, and solid that had a sweet
cherry smell. As for Unknown 33B, the physical attributes were that it was a beige, yellowish color
liquid that was translucent and had a viscosity similar to water. Also, the liquid was homogenous
and smelled sour and similar to mildew.
The purpose of using solubility analysis on an unknown is to narrow the possible unknowns given
based on the solubility analysis. Acetone was a control for ketone and was soluble in water. Hexanal
was a control for an aldehyde and was insoluble in water due to intermolecular forces, such as an
increased amount of hydrophobic area rather than hydrophilic area. As a result, by identifying the
solubility of the

Aldol Reaction Lab
In this lab experiment, a Crossed aldol reaction was performed with an unknown ketone and
aldehyde to give a–hydroxyketone that was dehydrated spontaneously. Using NMR Spectroscopy
and melting point determination of the carbonyl product, the unknown reagents were determined to
be p–anisaldehyde and acetone. Techniques such as extraction and washing, gravity and vacuum
filtration were used to filter out the impurities from the precipitate and collect the purified product.
Proton NMR and melting point determination were methods used to verify the identity of the
starting carbonyl compound.
To begin with, it is important to recognize the properties of the reactants and their roles in
facilitating the reaction. In general, an Aldol reaction is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the aromatic protons were hard to distinguish due to their overlapping nature and
resonance. At the same time, there was still enough evidence to verify that the unknown aldehyde
was p–anisaldehyde using the number of signals, the chemical shifts, the proton integration, and the
splitting patterns. The expected number of signals was roughly 5 peaks, however there were some
impurities present in the NMR spectrum. The aromatic region contained the peaks of Hb and Hc
with a chemical shift and an integration value of 7.570 and 6.931 ppm respectfully. With that, the
protons Hd and He were very distinguishable from the rest of the spectrum due to their large J–value
of 16. This J–value sign indicates that there are alkene protons that are Trans to each other. Normal
alkene protons show up in the NMR spectrum around 4–6. Because protons Hd and He are in an
extended conjugation system (right next to the benzene ring), their signals may overlap with others
in that region. However, they can still be distinguished. Hd was determined to be more downfield
because it is next to a benzene ring and has more of an ability to resonate as opposed to He . Hd was
the most up field, a singlet, and had a chemical shift and integration value of 7.697 ppm and 0.96
respectfully. He was the more upfield one and had a chemical shift and integration value of 6.975
ppm and

Ketone Synthesis Lab
Main purpose of this lab is to do different tests to identify of an unknown aldehyde or ketone
solution. Procedure: To identify the unknown solution, the physical properties were observed such
as state, color, odor, and boiling point. Then, the functional group tests were performed. First,
Potassium Permanganate/ Baeyer test was performed to test for any unsaturation of double bond,
triple bond, alcohol, and aldehyde. For this test, 2ml of 95% ethanol, 4 drops of unknown, and 2
drops of 1% KMnO4 solution were added in a small test tube. Color of solution was observed and
recorded. Second, Chromic acid test was performed to find any presence of alcohol in the unknown
solution. For which 1.0ml of acetone, 1 drop of unknown, and 1 drop of

Wittig Reaction Lab Report
Chapter Two – Results and Discussion 2.1 Synthesis of 1,3–butadienes 1,3–butadienes can be
synthesised from aldehydes and ketones using the Wittig reaction. The Wittig reaction facilitates the
synthesis of new carbon–carbon double bonds at specific locations in aldehydes and ketones
(Bernard & Ford, 1983). The overall reaction mechanism is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. The Wittig
Reaction – Formation of a transitional oxaphosphetane and resultant formation of a new carbon–
carbon alkene bond resulting in the synthesis of 1,3–butadienes from aldehydes and ketones.
Protocols for synthesising 1,3–butadienes from aldehydes and ketones have been established in the
literature. The synthesis protocol identified by Greatrex et al. (2014) was ... Show more content on
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034 100 5% 6 2.947 0.707 17 4% a) Yield determined by purity determined from 1H NMR spectrum
analysis following isolation by column chromatography. Table 4 –Summary of 1,2–dioxines
synthesis reaction outcomes The general approach involved transforming each of the 1,3–butadienes
at the site of the terminal alkene bond via reaction with the singlet oxygen. Meso–
tetraphenylporphyrin was used as the photosensitiser to generate the singlet oxygen. The prepared
butadienes were added to a volume of dichloromethane and cooled using a water–cooled jacketed
flask. Reactions were followed by TLC and reaction times varied for each reaction based on
observations. Reactions were ceased on the basis of an increasing prevalence of a new product
appearing at the baseline of the TLC. Products of the reactions were purified via column
chromatography. Two cycloaddition products were observed in each reaction. These were the 1,2–
dioxine resulting from the Diels–Alder [4+2] cycloaddition reaction, and an aldehyde resulting from
the ene cycloaddition

Evaluation of L – Proline as a Catalyst for an Asymmetric...
Evaluation of L – Proline as a Catalyst for an Asymmetric Aldol Reaction Abstract This reaction is
divided into two parts. In the first part acetone, L – proline and 4 – nitrobenzaldehyde are reacted to
give (R)–4–hydroxy–4–(4–nitrophenyl)butan–2–one as the major product along with (S)–4–
hydroxy–4–(4–nitrophenyl)butan–2–one. The identity of the product is confirmed by IR spectra of
the product which gives peaks at 1073.94 cm–1, 1330 cm–1, 1515.05, 1600.13 cm–1, 1708.25 cm–
1, 2930.82 cm–1and broad peak at 3418.10 cm–1. The mass of the product is 0.013 grams which
gives a percentage yield of 29.81%. The melting point of the product is not taken due to minimal
product. In the second part of the reaction excess reagents are used and the ... Show more content on
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| 53.491 | 5 mL | | | | Ethyl Acetate | 88.11 | 10 mL | 101.805 | – 83.6 | 77.1 | MgSO4 | 120.37 | | | 1124
| | CH2Cl2 | 84.93 | 4.5 mL | 70.47 | – 96.7 | 39.6 | DMAP | 122.17 | 0.0075 grams | 0.061 | 110 – 113
| 162 | Pyridine | 79.10 | 0.075 mL | 0.931 | – 41.6 | 115.2 | (–) – MTPA – Cl | 252.62 | 0.125 mL |
0.400 | | 213 – 214 | 0.1 M HCl | | 2.5 mL | | | | Sat. Bicarbonate sol | | 2.5 mL | | | | Brine | | 2.5 mL | | |
| Reaction 1. Dissolve 24 mg of L – proline in 5 mL anhydrous DMSO/acetone (4:1) for 15 minutes.
2. To this solution add 60 mg of 4 – nitrobenzaldehyde and stir the mixture for at least 30 minutes.
Product Isolation 3. After the reaction is complete, dilute with 5 mL of saturated ammonium
chloride solution and extract the product with 10 mL of ethyl acetate. 4. Dry the organic layer over
MgSO4, separate the drying agent by gravity filtration and evaporate the solvent in a rotary
evaporator. Product Purification 5. Purify the product by flash chromatography using 50%
petroleum

aldol reaction Essay
Aldol In this preparative lab, an aldol (trans–p–anisalacetophenone) was produced from the reaction
between p–anisaldehyde and acetophenone with the presence sodium hydroxide. The reaction also
showed the importance of an enolate and the role it played in the mechanism. Sodium hydroxide
acts as a catalyst in this experiment and is chosen because of its basic conditions and pH. The
acetophenone carries an alpha hydrogen that has a pKa between 18 and 20. This alpha hydrogen is
acidic because of its location near the carbonyl on acetophenone. When the sodium hydroxide is
added, it deprotonates the hydrogen and creates an enolate ion. This deprotonation creates a
nucleophilic carbon that can attack an electrophilic carbon (like a parent ... Show more content on
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The initial product is the beta–hydroxyketone, which rapidly undergoes dehydration and creates the
final product, trans–p–anisalacetophenone. Technically, both the carbonyls cannot be mixed together
with sodium hydroxide to get one product. We will get a dominant product of trans–p–
anisalacetophenone. This reaction is an exception and we get away with it. P–anisaldehyde and
acetophenone together only make one enolate. This helps our exception, but there are still two
carbonyls. With our weak base, we should be worried about acetophenone reacting with itself but
we are not. This is due to steric hindrance, like I stated earlier. Aldehydes are better electrophilic
carbons and therefore the ketone will react with the aldehyde faster than reacting with itself. It will
quickly form the product trans–p–anisalacetophenone because it is the favored product. We do not
have to use expensive LDA, we can use the weaker base and get away with it. The reaction took
place in a conical vial and .2mL of each of the reactant samples were added to it along with some
95% ethanol. Two drops of NaOH were added shortly after and stirred at room temperature for
fifteen minutes. The vial was cooled in and ice bath and crystallized. Vacuum filtration was
performed to filter the crude product. The crude product was recrystallized using methanol and
filtered again. We made one change to the procedure and instead of using .7mL of ethanol we

Formal Report Exp 9
University of Santo Tomas
Faculty of Pharmacy
Organic Chemistry Laboratory
APPLICATION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TEST TO CLASSIFY HYROXY– AND
CARBONYL–CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
Jane Catherine SP. Villanueva, Edenn Claudine C. Villaraza, Lorenz Oliver C. Villegas and Cristel
Bernice T. Wee
Group 10 2G–Medical Technology Organic Chemistry Laboratory
ABSTRACT
Hydroxyl group refers to a functional group containing OH– when it is a substituent in an organic
compound. It is also known as the characteristic functional group of alcohols and phenols. On the
other hand, carbonyl group refers to a divalent chemical unit consisting of a carbon and an oxygen
atom connected by a double bond. It is known as the characteristic functional group of aldehydes ...
Other organic compounds that contain –OH groups but are not alcohols are phenol (C6H5OH) and
acetic acid (CH3COOH). These compounds are not alcohols because they are acidic. The term
alcohol, then, is another representation of a type of electronic structure in the molecules of
substances. [3] [4]
Phenols are aromatic compounds in which a hydroxide group is directly bonded to an aromatic ring
system. They are very weak acids, and like alcohols, form ethers and esters. The main phenols are
phenol itself, cresol, resorcinol, pyrogallol, and picric acid.
Phenol itself (C6H5OH), also known as carbolic acid, is a white, hygroscopic crystalline solid,
isolable from coal tar, but made by acid hydrolysis of cumene hydroperoxide, or by fusion of
sodium benzenesulfonate with sodium hydroxide. Formerly used as an antiseptic, phenol has more
latterly been used to make bakelite and other resins, plastics, dyes, detergents, and drugs. [4] [15]
The hydroxyl– containing compounds used in the experiment were ethanol, n–butyl alcohol, sec–
butyl alcohol, tert–butyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, and benzyl alcohol.
Ethanol also known as ethyl alcohol is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic, agreeable odor.
In dilute aqueous solution, it has a somewhat sweet flavor, but in more concentrated solutions it has
a burning taste. Its low freezing point has made it useful as the fluid in thermometers for

Gelatin cryogel sheets (5%) were synthesized using...
Gelatin cryogel sheets (5%) were synthesized using glutaraldehyde as the cross–linker. The
aldehyde groups of glutaraldehyde form covalent imine bonds with amino groups of gelatin. Initially
different concentrations of gelatin were used (4%, 5%, 6% and 8% respectively). On physical
examination of the cryogels produced with these concentrations, it was observed that at higher
concentration of gelatin polymer (8%) the rate of polymerization was very fast and hence cryogel
sheets formed were not proper. As the percentage of gelatin was increased the amount of cross–
linker required was low i.e., the amount of cross–linker required decreases with increase in
monomer concentration. Increase in polymer concentration also leads to less elasticity ... Show more
Decrease in glutaraldehyde cross–linker on increasing the polymer precursor might be happening
due to the increased probability of colliding polymers and cross linking agent in this unfrozen liquid
microphase where all chemical reactions take place. More probability of colliding might be
decreasing the amount of glutaraldehyde required to crosslink polymers for gel synthesis. It was also
observed that if the amount of glutaraldehyde used was more than the optimum concentrations
(Table 1.1), the gel formed lack porous network and were tough and brittle. When the
glutaraldehyde concentration was reduced and kept lower than the optimized one, the gels were
weak in mechanical strength. This observation suggests that there seems to be some competition
between the nucleation process which takes place in frozen regions and gelation process which takes
place in unfrozen liquid microphase. When the concentration of glutaraldehyde was lower than
optimum, nucleation process dominates the gelation process and the gels formed were weak due to
large pores and less polymer wall formation by cross linking of polymers. When glutaraldehyde
quantity was taken more than optimum, gelation dominates the nucleation process and the gels
formed were without any pores and were brittle. Figure 1.1A shows the digital images of optimized
gelatin sheets. Figure 1.1B and 1.1C shows that at an optimized polymer and cross–linker ratio

Diels-Alder Reaction Lab
[4+2] Cycloaddition:
The Diels–Alder Reaction
Brittany Patmon
Procedures completed with:
Ahria Rachell, Cody Leonard, and Luke Harrison
TA: Joseph Osazee
April 10, 2016 Abstract:
Introduction:
In 1950, Otto Diels and Kurt Alder, a research student under Diels, were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for their work on the discovery of a reaction that is commonly practiced still to this day1.
The reaction that is presently known as Diels–Alder reaction involves dienes reacting with alkenes
to form cyclic compounds1. Diels–Alder reactions are among the most resourceful in organic
synthesis due to the fact that they are relatively simple to carry out, produce a high amount of
product, and the compounds produced are highly stereo–specific2. The ... Show more content on
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The solution was subsequently arranged into a reflux apparatus which included a wet paper towel in
order to prevent vapor loss. The solution was refluxed at a temperature ranging from 180°C–185°C
for thirty minutes via sand bath. The contents of the micro–test tube were then cooled to room
temperature followed by an ice bath in order for crystals to form. The crystals were then collected
via suction filtration using a Hirsch funnel. The product was washed with ice–cold xylene (3

Test 12 Different Aqueous Solutions Containing Macromolecules
Introduction
The purpose of this lab was to test 12 different aqueous solutions containing macromolecules, 11 of
which were controls while the final one was an unknown. Three different test were carried on each
of the 12 samples. The first was an iodine test for the presents of either starch and glycogen in the
sample. Iodine is a clear colourless liquid before being added to any of the solutions. The way starch
is identified is by the solution turning blue–black.The solution does this because of the amylose in
the starch, amylose and amylopectin are the two parts that make up a starch, amylose is made up of
200 to 5,000 alpha –D–glucose, which coil into a tight spring structure(Toole, 2004). When the
iodine is added it is pushed by the starch into the middle of this coil this creates a tight helix and this
turns the solution black/ dark blue.(Ophardt, 2003) The way Glycogen is identified is when the
solution turns reddish–brown. Glycogen is very similar to amylopectin as it is made up of alpha
glucose units joined at 1–4 and 1–6 and it is a branched structure. (Toole, 2004) Iodine affects
glycogen similarly as it does amylose.
The second test that is being preformed is the Benedict's test, this test if for reducing sugars in the
solutions. A carbohydrate that has a free aldehyde(carbon double bonded to an oxygen, a hydrogen
attached as well as a one open R group) functional group as part of its molecular structure is know
as a reducing sugar.(Simon et al, 2015) In the

Diphenylmethanol Lab Report
CONCLUSION Overall, the experiment result concluded that the initial hypothesis stated that pure
diphenylmethanol would be synthesize from the Grignard reagent phenylmagenisum bromide when
reacted with benzaldehyde would be close to theoretical percent yield of 100% was rejected. The
measured actual mass was 0.99 g of diphenylmethanol which was relatively low to theoretical mass
of 2.708 g of diphenylmethanol. This further concluded to quite low percentage yield of 36.56% of
final product diphenylmethanol. As mention earlier, the low percentage yield could be due do many
experimental and human errors such as reaction not efficiently reached completion, spillage of water
incident in the surrounding as well as any moisture left within the apparatus ... Show more content
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If a student performing lab 5 accidently used acetone as the reaction solvent instead of diethyl ether
the acetone will react with the Grignard reagent and form a tertiary alcohol. As mention earlier,
Grignard reaction is carried out by a solvent that stabilizes the Grignard reagent. So, diethyl ether
are aprotic as it cannot hydrogen bond with themselves therefore, it is capable to solvate and
stabilize the reagent with the helped of Mg–Br bond containing partial positive charge and the
diethyl ether C–O bond containing partial negative charge. Whereas, acetone which is a polar
solvent as well as aprotic could not be used because the electrophilic double bond on the carbonyl
carbon would attack the nucleophilic Grignard reagent giving a tertiary product. Acetone is a
simplest form of ketone and as mention earlier, ketone reacted with Grignard reagent form tertiary
alcohol as their final product. Thus, it is very important that the solvent should not only be polar and
aprotic as well as have the ability to stabilize the Grignard reagent by acting as Lewis base. Acetone
is not capable of stabilizing the reagent leading it to react with

Diel-Alder Reaction Lab
Introduction: The Diel–Alder reaction is a concerted cycloaddition between a diene and a
dienophile. The first people to investigate this were Otto Diels and Kurt Alder, they were able to
reported large variety of the dienes which turned out to be useful and so the procedure was named
after them. This method is an efficient way to build rings that are stereospecific. A Diel–Alder
reaction involves cyclic rearrangement of bonding electrons and forming and breaking bond(s)
simultaneously. The reaction happens with in a single transition state. It has the smallest volume of
all the other starting materials that are use during this reaction. Diel–Alder reaction is updraft
reaction, which is starts when you add heat. During this reaction, it ... Show more content on
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This involves breaking bond and creating another ring to it. The lab has revealed that the reaction
occur and it has form the final product of cis–Norbornene–5, 6–eno–dicarboxylic anhydride but it
was as accurate it supposed to due to some mistakes that had happen during synthesis of the
reaction. The data has been collected is prove that reaction has happen but doesn't have a great
product at the end. The crystallization techniques will be applied more accurately to other synthesis
and will make difference in getting final product amount that is suitable for the experiment. Lab did
accomplish as it set out to be but just human errors during the process made product amount and
purity less than

62 Aldehyder
Esmeralda Curiel Organic Chemistry November 11, 2014 Experiment 62 – The Aldehyde Enigma
INTRODUCTION In the Cannizaro reaction an aldehyde is simultaneously reduced into its primary
alcohol form and also oxidized into it 's carboxylic acid form. The purpose of this experiment is to
isolate, purify and identify compounds 1 and 2 which contain 4–chlorobenzaldehyde, methanol, and
aqueous potassium hydroxide. Compounds 1 and 2 are purified by crystallization. . The purified
product will be characterized by IR spectroscopy and melting point. As detailed in Pavia 's Organic
Laboratory techniques the reaction is expected to proceed via the following reaction: Aqueous ...
For the organic layer, we had a melting point range of 240–243°C. For the IR spectra, we did note
the C–Cl bond although there was not an OH bond present. ANALYSIS The reaction involves a
nucleophilic acyl substitution on an aldehyde, with the leaving group concurrently attacking another
aldehyde in the second step. First the Potassium hydroxide attacks a carbonyl, which forms a
tetahedral intermediate which then collapses when attacked by another hydroxide. The carbonyl is
formed again when its hydride attacks another carbonyl. In the final step of the reaction, the acid
and alkoxide ions formed exchange a proton. In the presence of a very high concentration of base,
the aldehyde first forms a doubly charged anion from which a hydride ion is transferred to the
second molecule of aldehyde to form carboxylate and alkoxide ions. Subsequently, the alkoxide ion
acquires a proton from the solvent. 4– chlorobenzoic acid which was the aqueous layer has a
theoretical melting point of 240–243°C, the organic layer, 4–chlorobenzyl alcohol has a theoretical
melting point of 68–71°C. During our experiment we were unable to collect any data for the organic

Carboxylic Acid Lab Report
Carboxylic acid synthesis, reactions and pharmacological activity Carboxylic acid is organic
chemical compound that contain a functional group that is carboxyl group –COOH which is made of
hydroxyl group and carbonyl group both attached to the same carbon which is attached to hydrogen
atom or alkyl group thus the general formula of the carboxylic acid is R–COOH with R represent
alkyl group or a hydrogen atom. Carboxylic acid functional group is partly ionized in solution so it
is a weak acid, however it's acidity is considered as the chef chemical characteristic of it as it is
generally more acidic than the other organic compounds that contain hydroxyl group and more
acidic than the common organic functional groups but it is generally weaker than the common
mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All acid derivates can be hydrolyzed by water to yield carboxylic acids, the condition of this
reaction are vary wildly from mild to severe conditions as it depend on the compound that is
involved. The easiest acid derivate to hydrolyzed is acyl chloride because it require only the addition
of water, carboxylic acid salts can be hydrolyzed simply at room temperature by the addition of
water and strong acid such as hydrochloride acid (HCl) on the other hand carboxylic nitriles, esters
and amides are less reactive and must be typically heated with water and a strong base or acid to be
converted to carboxylic acids, if a base is used then a salt is formed instead of an acid which can be
easily converted to an acid by the addition of hydrochloric acid, the amides are less reactive and
require more vigorous treatment and nitriles can be partly hydrolyzed under milder

Anion Of An Aldol Reaction In Which An Enolate Ion Formed By
An aldol reaction is an addition reaction in which an aldehyde or ketone is attacked by an enolate
ion of the same compound (Klein, 2015), but can also be an enolate ion of another compound. The
enolate ion formed is due to an anion coming in to deprotonate the alpha carbon of a carbonyl
compound (Klein, 2015). The general result of an aldol addition is always a β–hydroxy aldehyde or
ketone, but can also undergo condensation as it sometimes loses a small molecule or water or an
alcohol group which will produce a different product altogether. This reaction can also serve as a
chain elongation as it forms a new C–C bond (Mayo, Pike, & Forbes, 2015). The hypothesis for this
aldol reaction was to yield dibenzalacetone, a bright yellow precipitate, with a 1:2 molar ration of
acetone and benzaldehyde (Handayani & Arty, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the stepwise mechanism, as shown in figure 1, an enolate is formed in the acetone compound
when a hydroxide ion deprotonates its alpha carbon due to benzaldehyde's absence of an alpha
carbon with any available protons. The carbon anion then proceeds to attack the carbonyl carbon on
the benzaldehyde carbon, which then results in a chain elongation as well as the oxygen receiving its
lone pair of electrons causing an instability issue. The oxygen then attacks a water molecule, taking
a hydrogen atom to produce an alcohol group. This is the general condition of a simple aldol
reaction (Klein, 2015). However, another hydroxide ion deprotonates the alpha carbon which is
centered between the alcohol and carbonyl groups, creating another

Diels Alder Reaction Lab Report
Organic Chemistry–Diels Alders Reactions Introduction Diels–Alder reactions are organic chemical
reactions which involve [2 + 4] cycloaddition. The cycloaddition takes place between the conjugated
dienes and the substituted alkenes (dienophiles). This interaction between the dienophiles and
conjugated dienes result in the formation of substituted cyclohexene system. In 1928, two scientists
(Kurt Alder and Otto Diels) jointly invented Diels–Alder reaction. This invention enabled them to
receive the award (Nobel Prize in Chemistry) in 1950. Diels–Alder reactions are used in organic
chemistry to prepare compounds with 6–membered systems. Diels–Alder reactions are also
fundamental in the synthesis of compounds with TT systems like imines and carbonyls. The
application of Diels–Alder reactions in TT systems leads to the formation of heterocycles in a
reaction referred to as the hetero–Diels–Alder reactions. In some specific conditions, Diels–Alder
reactions are reversible. The reversible Diels–Alder reactions are called the retro–Diels–Alder
reactions. Diels–Alder ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The dienes are capable of containing various substituents. Though, Diels–Alder reactions only
proceed when dienes are in s–cis conformation. However, the Diels–Alder reactions can proceed
when the butadienes are in s–trans conformation. The dienophiles contain 'masked functionality,' for
example; the dienophiles participate in Diels–Alder reaction with the dienes inserting 'masked
functionality' onto the resultant molecule. Several reactions occur to transform this 'masked
functionality' into a suitable group. The dienophiles can take part in Diels–Alder reactions by either
'normal demand' or 'inverse demand' Diels–Alder reaction. In 'normal demand,' Diels–Alder
reactions, the dienophiles contain electron–withdrawing group conjugated to the alkenes. In inverse
demand, the electron–donating group is in conjugation with

Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde
Vidallon, Mark Louis P. Date Performed: February 20, 2012 CHEM44.1 2L Date Submitted: March
12, 2012 MIXED–ALDOL CONDENSATION Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde I. Introduction
Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde or 3–phenyl–2–propenal is the major constituent of cinnamon
oil, extracted from several species of Cinnamomum (C. verum, C. burmanii, C. cassia), under the
family Lauraceae, a group of evergreen trees. Cinnamon bark (particularly C. verum) yields 0.4–
0.8% oil, which contains 60–80% cinnamaldehyde, 4–5% sesquiterpenoids (α–humulene, β–
caryophyllene, limonene and others), eugenol, cinnamyl acetate, eugenol acetate, cinnamyl alcohol,
methyl eugenol, benzaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, cuminaldehyde, monoterpenes (linalool, pinene, ...
To characterize the synthesized product using its boiling point, results of simple chemical tests and
derivatization reactions, along with the determination of the melting points of the hydrazones and
comparison of the hydrazones using their RGB values. II. Materials and Methods A. Reagents The
following are the reagents were used in the experiment: Benzaldehyde Acetaldehyde 15% sodium
hydroxide solution Sodium chloride 95 % ethanol solution 40% sodium bisulfite solution 2, 4–
dinitrophenylhydrazine Nitric acid Ice B. Apparatus and Equipment The following are the apparatus
and equipment were used in the experiment: 50–mL round–bottom flask 50–mL beaker 10–mL
graduated cylinder 10–mL pipet Pasteur pipet Micro distilling flask Test tubes Evaporating dish
Thermometer Bunsen burner Microreflux Watch glass Iron ring Iron clamp Iron stand Separatory
funnel Wire gauze Hot plate Electronic top loading balance Fisher–Johns melting point apparatus
III. Schematic Diagrams C. Synthesis of Cinnamaldehyde (in round–bottom flask) 3.06mL – cool in
ice bath + 3.00mL 15% NaOH + 0.50mL dropwise with swirling + 3.00mL 15% NaOH + 0.50mL
dropwise with swirling + 3.00mL 15% NaOH + 0.68mL dropwise with swirling – reflux for 10–15
minutes – cool to room temperature – cool in ice bath – separate layers Organic layer , very minimal
(in 10–mL graduated cylinder) Aqueous layer very minimal, unreacted H2O with

Iodoform Test Lab Report
The identification and characterization of the structures of unknown substances are an important
part of Organic Chemistry. In this experiment a sample of an unknown aldehyde or ketone was
obtained. From this sample two solid derivatives were prepared. Their melting points were obtained
and compared to those listed in the Table of Aldehyde & Ketone Derivatives. From this the
unknown sample was identified. As additional aid a Benedict's test and Iodoform test were used.
These are functional group tests used for distinguishing between aldehydes, ketones and methyl
ketones. A Benedict's test tests positive for aliphatic aldehydes and negative for aromatic aldehydes
and ketones. An Iodoform test tests positive for methyl ketones and acetaldehyde ... Show more
This was accomplished through functional group tests, preparation of two solid derivatives and
determining their melting points and making careful observations. The unknown sample was
determined to be cinnamaldehyde due to the odor it produced when the various tests were
performed. Even though the melting points obtained from the Dinitrophenylhydrazone and
Semicarbazone derivatives were not close to the melting points of cinnamaldehyde (255℃ and
215℃ respectively) the odor gave a clue to the unknown compound. The melting point differences
could have been due to human error handling the glassware and following the lab manual
instructions.
Synthesis/

Diels-Alder Reaction Lab Report
Introduction: The process of synthesizing cyclic compounds is a common task presented in the field
of organic chemistry. The Diels–Alder reaction consists of a conjugated diene bonding with an
alkene in which two new σ bonds are formed and two π bonds are broken, yielding a cyclohexane
product1. This type of reaction is useful in the field for several reasons; the reaction produces a high
yield, produces two new stereocenters, and is stereospecific1. For a diene to participate in the
reaction, two conditions must be met. The diene's double bonds have to be conjugated and in the s–
cis conformation2. If a bicyclic product is desired a cyclic diene can be used1. This reaction results
in the formation of a six–membered ring3. Diels–Alder reactions ... Show more content on
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Xylene was found to be a good solvent for this reaction because of its low freezing point and high
boiling point2. The endo– stereoisomer was the major product because it contains the most overlap
between π bonds. The efficiency of this reaction was found by calculating the % yield of the final
product. The % yield of the Diels–Alder reaction was 31.55%. The observed melting point was
261.5–262°C which is close enough to the literature value of, 262–264 °C to be considered a pure
product. Over all it can be concluded that the Diels–Alder reaction performed yielded a pure
product, but failed to produce a high %

Essay about Wittig Reaction: Synthesis of Trans-Stilbene
The purpose of this experiment was to perform a wittig reaction, the horner–emmons wittig
specifically, reacting an aldehyde with an ylide to make an alkene. This particular variation of the
wittig reaction has several advantages: It gives only the trans product; it uses a much milder base
that is easier to handle; and it gives a water soluble byproduct which is easy to separate from the
product. The reason that these advantages occur is a change in the structure of the ylide. Instead of a
tripheylphosphine ylide, we use a diethylphosphonate ylide. The protons are much more acidic and
its byproduct is negatively charged.
The reason why we chose to create trans–stilbene is become of its many practical applications.
Stilbene exists as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This modification is similar to a standard Wittig reaction in that the first step, which has already
been done for you, is the reaction of a trialkyl phosphite with a suitable alkyl halide as shown below
in two steps:
In the first step the trialkyl phosphate acts as a nucleophile and, in a typical Sn2 reaction, forms a
phosphonium salt. The salt is unstable and a halide ion X displaces R in the Sn2 manner to form a
dialkylphosphonate. It is the phosphonate that, in the presence of base, is converted to a Wittig–like
reagent. Normally the Wittig reagent is an ylid and neutral, but the modified Wittig is analogous to
the carbanion of an aldol intermediate. Due to its resonance forms, the phosphonate anion is able to
attack the carbonyl much like acarbanion in an aldol reaction to give an oxyanion species. This is
where the analogy with the aldol reaction fails. The oxyanion undergoes a reaction analogous to
nucleophilic substitution at an unsaturated center to form the olefin, normally as the E isomer, and a
water soluble phosphonate anion. In this particular experiment, diethyl benzylphosphonate is used
with benzaldehyde as the carbonyl component. Since phase transfer conditions are used, we can use
a weaker base, the hydroxide ion. The reactivity o the anion formed is very high, resulting in
excellent yields of trans–stilbene. The trans form of Stilbene is more favored than the sterically
hindered cis form. Although

Β-D-Pentaacetate Synthesis

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