Development studies 103 conflict and peace studies

DS 103: DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES
PEACE, CONFLICT AND DEVELOPMENT
2/15/2021 1

DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
Definition of key concepts
Conflict is a relationship between two or more parties
(individuals and groups) who have or think they
have incompatible goals
• Conflict between groups is normally called social
conflict, when related to political issues are called
political conflict; it is called violent conflict when it
poses a threat to society.
2/15/2021 2

A conflict exists when two people
wish to carry out acts which are
mutually inconsistent
A conflict is caused by the actual or
perceived opposition of needs, values
or interest
2/15/2021 3

Definition of concepts (Cont…)
• Conflict settlement –
The achievement of an agreement between
conflicting parties on political level which
enables them to end an armed conflict but
which does not necessarily fundamentally
alter the underlying causes of the conflict
• Conflict Resolution –
Refers to activities undertaken over a short
term and medium term dealing with, and
aiming at overcoming, the deep rooted
causes of conflict, including the structural,
behavioural or attitudinal aspects of the
conflict
2/15/2021 4

Definition of concepts Cont…
• Conflict Management –
Refers to activities undertaken to limit,
mitigate and contain open conflict
• Conflict transformation -
Refers to all activities, actions, and
initiatives created to tap the immense
energy generated by conflict for
making better relationships
2/15/2021 5

The term is used in preference to ‘conflict
resolution’ in order to emphasize the fact
that conflicts are rarely ‘resolved’ as
such, but merely ‘transformed’ through
peaceful political processes
• Peace making
• Refers to those activities that are
employed to reduce or resolve
conflict, during or after a conflict
situation
2/15/2021 6

These include: reconciliation initiatives,
peace talks, signing of agreements,
training or dialogue workshops
• Peace building
Refers to all big and small activities,
actions, thoughts, and initiatives to
ensure there is peace and harmony in
society
2/15/2021 7

Definition of concepts (Cont…)
• Development –
is a process directed at outcomes that
involve improved standards of living and
greater capacity for self-reliance in
economies that are technically more
complex and more dependent on global
integration than before
2/15/2021 8

Types of conflicts
Relationship conflicts:
Occur because of the presence of strong
negative emotions, misperceptions or
stereotypes, poor communication or repetitive
negative behaviors
 Data conflict:
Occur when people lack information necessary
to make wise decisions, are misinformed,
disagree on relevance, interpret information
differently, or have competing assessment
procedures
2/15/2021 9

Types of conflicts
Interest conflicts:
Are caused by competition over perceived
incompatible needs
 Result when one or more of the parties believe
that in order to satisfy his or her needs, the
needs and interests of an opponent must be
sacrificed
 For an interest-based dispute to be resolved,
parties must be assisted to define and express
their individual interests
2/15/2021 10

Types of conflicts
Structural Conflicts
 Caused by forces external to the people in
dispute
 Limited physical resources or authority,
geographic constraints (distance or proximity),
time (too little or too much), organizational
changes, and so forth can make structural
conflict seem like a crisis
 Structural conflicts will often have structural
solutions
2/15/2021 11

Types of conflicts
Value conflicts:
Are caused by perceived or actual
incompatible belief systems
Values are beliefs that people use to give
meaning to their lives
Values explain what is "good" or "bad,"
"right" or "wrong," "just" or "unjust
2/15/2021 12

Causes of conflict
Structural Factors
How conflict is set up:
Authority relationship (The boss and
employees beneath him/her)
Common Resources (Sharing the same
secretary)
Goal Differences (One person wants
production to rise and others want
communication to rise)
2/15/2021 13

Causes of conflict
Personal Factors
Communication barriers, conflict
management styles, Cultural differences
Emotion, perceptions and personalities
Skills and abilities, values and ethics
2/15/2021 14

The Conflict Resolution Process
The following are eight steps involved in conflict
resolution:
1. Create an effective atmosphere:
Personal preparation, timing, location and
opening statement
2. Clarify perceptions:
Sort the parts of the conflict, avoid ghost
conflicts, clarify what if any, listen carefully,
recognize the other needs and values
2/15/2021 15

Conflict Resolution Process (Cont..)
3. Focus on individual and shared needs:
 expand on shared needs
 Realize that you need one another in order to
successful resolve conflicts
4. Build shared positive power:
This promotes building together and
strengthening partnerships.
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5. Look to the future and learn from the past:
Don't dwell on negative past conflicts or
 you won't be able to deal positively in the
present or the future
 Try to understand what happened in the past,
and avoid repeating the same mistakes over.
6. Generate options
 Beware of preconceived answers
 Make sure options are workable for all parties
involved
 Set aside disagreements and focus on options
that seem most workable
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7.Develop doables:
Doables are specific actions that have a
good chance at being successful
steps that never promote unfair
advantages on any sides
actions that meet shared needs
2/15/2021 18

8. Make mutual benefit agreements
Instead of demands, focus on developing
agreements and find shared goals and
needs
Build on "doable" things by working on
the smaller stepping-stone(way in)
solutions
Pay attention to the needs of the other
person in addition to your own interests
2/15/2021 19

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN AFRICA
PEACE-MAKING AND PEACE-AGREEMENT
Conflict resolution: The process of solving
the problem of conflicts in Africa
Conflict resolutions constitutes short-
term and long term measures.
2/15/2021 20

PEACE-MAKING AND PEACE-AGREEMENT (Cont…)
Short-term measures include: process of
peace making and peace consolidation in
situations of violent conflicts
Short-term measures are called reactive
conflict prevention, that is taking
measures after the conflict has already
become violent
2/15/2021 21

• Long-term measures include: processes
of conflict prevention through
democratization, equitable socio-
economic development and regional
integration & effective leadership
The long-term measures are regarded as
proactive, that is steps taken before the
conflict has escalated (rise up)
2/15/2021 22

In Africa most of the justifiable conflicts
have taken place in the 1980s and 1990s
when armed movements were forced to
take up arms, get into the bush and fight
against dictatorial regimes under one
party and military states
Such regimes could not be removed
through peaceful means
2/15/2021 23

Peace-making process
• Particularly in Africa in there have been
two main types of peace making process:
1. The internal-based type
a) One arising from victory of one of the
conflicting parties. e.g. the victory of the
Tanzanian army over the Idi Amin army in
Tanzania vs Uganda war of 1978-79
2/15/2021 24

 Within Uganda the victory of Museveni’s
movement over the Obote government ended
with the overthrow of Obote’s regime and the
establishment of Museveni’s regime in 1986.
 Kabila’s victory over Mobutu in the civil war in
the Democratic Republic of Congo
b) The second arising out of the mutual
negotiations between the conflicting parties
e.g. in Sudan in 1997
2/15/2021 25

2. The external-based type of peace making
process
 Normally carried out through external
mediators/or facilitators
 External mediators are required under
conditions whereby it is rather difficult for the
conflicting parties to come together and carry
out mutual negotiations
2/15/2021 26

External mediation is often regarded as a
delicate and complex process:
It has to take into consideration issues of
interference in internal affairs of the
country in which the conflict is taking
place
Acceptability of the mediator by all the
conflicting parties and the origin of the
mediator whether from the same region
or outside the region.
2/15/2021 27

• Mediators should be people of special
qualities
should be people who are credible and
who can establish appropriate structures
for negotiation
• External mediation has been a common
in Rwanda and Burundi due to the deep-
rooted nature of their conflicts
2/15/2021 28

 On the Rwanda conflict the mediation
was carried out by the Government of
Tanzania through the initiative of the
former president, Ali Hassan Mwinyi
• Mediation took place in Arusha between
1992 and 1993
• The mediation in Burundi was carried out
through the facilitation of the late
Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere
2/15/2021 29

LONG TERM MEASURES OF PEACE-MAKING
Democratization
It has been argued that one of the
underlying factors for conflict e.g. Africa
as a whole is low-level development in
democracy
Democratization has been a characteristic
feature in Africa during the last ten years,
that is from the late 1980s to the 1990s
2/15/2021 30

LONG TERM MEASURES OF PEACE-MAKING(Cont…)
One of the most conspicuous features of
the democratization process has been the
rapid growth of multi-party politics and
the civil society
With the exception of Uganda and Libya
which have adopted a non-party political
system, the rest of African countries have
gone into multipartism with proliferation
of many political parties in some of the
countries
2/15/2021 31

LONG TERM MEASURES OF PEACE-MAKING (Cont…)
Economic Transformation
Necessary to ensure long-term and
sustainable solutions to the problem of
ethnic conflicts in the RGLs (Region of
Great Lakes )
The underlying causes of ethnic conflict in
the region is the nature and character of
underdeveloped economies and the state
of poverty among the people
2/15/2021 32

The economic crisis in Africa started in
half of the 1970s to the 1980s
The establishment of an authoritarian
one-party and military states with
justification that will facilitate national
unity and faster socioeconomic develp
But actually these state poorly managed
the economies with tendencies of
corruption
2/15/2021 33

• Two aspects which were crucial for
effective economic development include:
Capacity building in terms of individuals
and institutions through training and
transformation or reforms as short-term
measures
long-term measures involve undertaking
agricultural and industrial revolutions,
regional economic integrations, and
establishment of democratic
developmental states in Africa.
2/15/2021 34

Leadership:
Leadership qualities should include
commitment to the building of democracy
and effecting socio-economic dvpt,
accountability, honest, and transparency
Through such commitments it is expected
to provide collective leadership with
strong link between the leaders and the
people
2/15/2021 35

Regional integration
• Is taken as important phenomenon in the
process of putting ethnic conflicts to the
end in the RGLs and Africa as a whole.
• Regionalism is therefore the best solution
because the higher the level of
regionness the lower the degree of
conflicts
2/15/2021 36

• Regional integration is necessary because
it can ease ethnic tensions existing within
the state since threats of domination by
some small groups over some smaller
groups would disappear
2/15/2021 37

Peace and Development
• One concept or idea that often
complements peace studies is
development
• Peaceful development can be a set of
many different elements such as good
governance, health care, education,
gender equality, disaster preparedness,
infrastructure, economics, rule of law,
human rights, environment and other
political issues
2/15/2021 38

• THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION
2/15/2021 39

DEVELOPMENT ISSUE 3: RELIGION
AND DEVELOPMENT
2/15/2021 40

RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT
Definition of religion
Emile Durkheim has argued that religion
consists of obligatory beliefs united with
definite practices which relate to the
objects given in the beliefs.
2/15/2021 41

Nature of religion
Many theories developed by scholars
tried to explain nature of religion in
human community. The theories are:
Functional analysis theory
Conflict analysis theory
Refraction theory
2/15/2021 42

Functional analysis theory
• According to Emile Durkheim, religion
would not persist if it did not perform
vital function in provision of moral order
through which there are sacred objects
of words that people held in awe (fear)
that stands against the profane or the
ordinary objects or words that are not
sacred.
2/15/2021 43

Functional analysis theory
In this functional analysis religion takes
up other important roles such as:
It is a social element that “cement” a
community by bringing people together
for rituals
It provides an emotional support for
uncertainties of world by giving a sense
of meaning and purpose for existence
2/15/2021 44

It reinforces important norms of society
through teaching of Quran, Bible etc.
It teaches important norms (murder,
incest) that are incorporated by laws and
scripture
It is helpful during problematic stages of
life e.g. puberty, marriage, death and
problems associated with rituals
(pabtism)
2/15/2021 45

Conflict Analysis Theory
 This is according to Karl Marx who
considered religion as a dysfunction,
conflict approach whereby religion is
taken as to be having a false
consciousness that alienates human
being from potential of life.
Define religion as “opium of the masses”
Religion act as a means of control for the
ruling class
2/15/2021 46

Refraction Theory
This theory proposes that people create
gods.
It speaks of man creating his own image
This means human being fear and
worship the very gods they have created
2/15/2021 47

What typical examples of efforts taken so
far by religious institutions to foster the
development?
Establishment of learning institutions e.g.
Schools, colleges and universities
Establishment of health service provision
centers e.g. Clinics, hospitals, traditional
medicines
Supporting peoples facing hazards like famine,
floods, hunger, war, bombs, orphans, etc
2/15/2021 48

What typical examples of efforts taken so
far by religious institutions to foster the
development? Cont…
 Running different income generating
plans/activities e.g. Free contributions, shops,
business etc.
 Establishment of non interest banking systems
 Establishment of different organization for
guidance and counseling in different
development issues from local to national
levels. e.g. DCT, CCT BAKWATA etc.
2/15/2021 49

DEVELOPMENT ISSUE 5:
DECENTRALIZATION AND
PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT
2/15/2021 50

Decentralization is defined as the transfer
of authority and responsibility for public
functions from the central government to
subordinate or quasi-independent
government organizations and/or the
private sector
2/15/2021 51

Types of Decentralization Cont…
1. Political Decentralization
 Aims to give citizens or their elected
representatives more power in public
decision-making.
 It is often associated with pluralistic
politics and representative government,
2/15/2021 52

The concept implies that the selection of
representatives from local electoral
jurisdictions allows citizens to know
better their political representatives and
allows elected officials to know better the
needs and desires of their constituents
2/15/2021 53

2. Administrative Decentralization
Seeks to redistribute authority,
responsibility and financial resources for
providing public services among different
levels of government
It is the transfer of responsibility for the
planning, financing and management of
certain public functions from the central
government and its agencies to field units
of government agencies,
2/15/2021 54

subordinate units or levels of
government, semi-autonomous public
authorities or corporations, or area-wide,
regional or functional authorities.
The three major forms of administrative
decentralization: deconcentration,
delegation, and devolution
2/15/2021 55

Types of decentralization cont…
Deconcentration
The weakest form of decentralization
Redistributes decision making authority
and financial and management
responsibilities among different levels of
the central government
2/15/2021 56

Delegation
Central governments transfer
responsibility for decision-making and
administration of public functions to
semi-autonomous organizations not
wholly controlled by the central
government, but ultimately accountable
to it
2/15/2021 57

Devolution
The government transfer authority for decision-
making, finance, and management to quasi-
autonomous units of local government with
corporate status.
Devolution usually transfers responsibilities for
services to municipalities that elect their own
mayors and councils, raise their own revenues,
and have independent authority to make
investment decisions
2/15/2021 58

3. Fiscal Decentralization
Financial responsibility is a core
component of decentralization
local governments and private
organizations must have an adequate
level of revenues –either;
raised locally or transferred from the
central government– as well as the
authority to make decisions about
expenditures
2/15/2021 59

4. Economic or Market Decentralization
Privatization and deregulation shift
responsibility for functions from the
public to the private sector
2/15/2021 60

Privatization and deregulation allow
functions that had been primarily or
exclusively the responsibility of
government to be carried out by
businesses, community groups,
cooperatives, private voluntary
associations, and other NGO’s
2/15/2021 61

Privatization
Can include:
Allowing private enterprises to perform
functions that had previously been
monopolized by government;
Contracting out the provision or
management of public services or
facilities to commercial enterprises
indeed,
financing public sector programs through
the capital market
2/15/2021 62

Choosing the Most Appropriate Form of
Decentralization cont…
 Decentralization can help cut complex
bureaucratic procedures and it can increase
government officials' sensitivity to local
conditions and needs
 Moreover, decentralization can help national
government ministries reach larger numbers of
local areas with services; allow greater political
representation for diverse political, ethnic,
religious, and cultural groups in decision-
making
2/15/2021 63

Choosing the Most Appropriate Form of
Decentralization cont…
 Decentralization increase political
stability and national unity by allowing
citizens to better control public programs
at the local level.
Disadvantages of decentralization
It can result in the loss of economies of
scale and control over scarce financial
resources by the central government
2/15/2021 64

Disadvantages of decentralization cont…
 Weak administrative or technical capacity at
local levels may result in services being
delivered less efficiently and effectively in some
areas of the country
 Administrative responsibilities may be
transferred to local levels without adequate
financial resources and make equitable
distribution or provision of services more
difficult
2/15/2021 65

Disadvantages of decentralization cont…
Decentralization can sometimes make
coordination of national policies more
complex and may allow functions to be
captured by local elites
Also, distrust between public and private
sectors may undermine cooperation at
the local level
2/15/2021 66

Participation & Decentralization
Have a symbiotic relationship.
Successful decentralization requires some
degree of local participation
The process of decentralization can itself
enhance the opportunities for
participation by placing more power and
resources at a closer, more familiar, more
easily influenced level of government
2/15/2021 67

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