My Research Interests Lie In Cell Signaling, And More...

My research interests lie in cell signaling, and more...
My research interests lie in cell signaling, and more broadly, in sensory processing. My interest in
cell signaling has evolved from early studies I conducted on the human A1 adenosine receptor
(hA1AR). In this first exposure to G–protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, I aided in
determining those amino acid residues within the fifth transmembrane–spanning region of the
hA1AR that were accessible from the ligand–binding crevice using the substituted–cysteine
accessibility method (SCAM). Utilization of SCAM entailed modification of the native hA1AR
receptor by mutating single amino acids in the targeted GPCR region to cysteine. So altered GPCRs
were then allowed to react with hydrophilic, cysteine–specific methanethiosulfonate ... Show more
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elegans). To do this I participated in the design and creation of a Par–6 green fluorescent protein
(GFP) expressing transgenic nematode. I cloned the par6 gene from an existing C. elegans cDNA
library and fused the product to GFP. I also performed in vitro pull down and in vitro kinase assays
to determine whether Par–6 protein complexes with proteins implicated in calcium signaling.
Most recently I performed research to identify key proteins involved in the termination of the
signaling pathway of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGCs). The distinctive
photoreceptive properties exhibited by ipRGCs are due to the activity of the GPCR, melanopsin,
which is expressed in these cells. I contributed to our knowledge of melanopsin signaling by aiding
in the identification of an isoform of the downstream effector phospholipase C by conducting the
immunohistochemical experiments that confirmed the RT–PCR and physiological data collected by
my colleagues. This work was published in the 2008 article "Melanopsin Ganglion Cells Use a
Membrane–Associated Rhabdomeric Phototransduction Cascade".
Little information existed regarding termination of the pathway however and to address this
deficiency, I used both biochemical and electrophysiological techniques in a body of work that
culminated in my doctoral thesis. By introducing a series of mutations into C–terminal tail of
melanopsin, I was able to
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Caffeine Stereotypes
"Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that produces its primary effects via antagonism of
the A1 and A2 adenosine receptor subtypes" (Butler, 2009). Effects of chronic ethanol exposure and
withdrawal on the brain are heterogeneous and continue to be accepted that it can alter function, and
destiny of receptor proteins. These changes can make you vulnerable to different behaviors and
seizures, and alcohol craving in humans. There has been speculation of whether there was a sex
difference in the neurotoxicity produced by different receptors during ethanol withdrawal. The
current studies were made to find the effect of non–specific adenosine receptor antagonism with
caffeine in male and female rats (Butler, 2009). Eight–day old male

Sleep Deprivation And Academic Performance
Sleep Deprivation and Academic Performance in Adolescents
Sleep deprivation is an increasing issue with adolescents. Statistics show that 60% of high schoolers
report extreme daytime sleepiness. 20% to 33% of those high schools report falling asleep in class at
least once during the week. Daytime sleepiness is only a small issue about sleep deprivation in
students. Sleep deprivation negatively impacts school performance adolescent students because it
interferes with brain development, create mood swings and affect body development and immunity
to sickness.
Sleep deprivation disrupts neural development. Brain development is needed for all academic
activities. Sleep deprivation inhibits the brain and makes learning harder. In the academic ... Show
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waking up on the wrong side of the bed. In the academic journal, Day–to–Day Variation of
Subjective Sleep Quality and Emotional States Among Healthy University Students–a 1–Week
Prospective Study, Péter Simor, Kendra Krietsch, Ferenc Köteles, and Christina Mccrae, did an
observational study of The relationship between emotional state and sleep quality using
undergraduate student at the Budapest University. In their introduction they state that many studies
have proven the relationship between emotion state and sleep quality. "Cross–sectional studies
consistently show that negative emotional states like psychological distress, high negative and low
positive affect, and hostility are related to poor sleep quality, while constructs related to positive
affective states like well–being, optimism, and self–esteem are linked to good sleep quality." This is
just the beginning of the findings in their observational study.
In the conclusion to their academic journal, they state the finding of sleep quality predicting the
emotional state of the participants. For Example, poor sleep quality strongly correlated with high
negative emotions and low positive emotions. However, In the graph below you can see Simor,
Krietsch, Koteles, and Mccrae found that negative daily emotional states does not predict sleep
quality.
Regardless, students go home with hours of homework each night and are also expected of many
other things from family members. Such as holding a job,

Adenosine Research Paper
Abstract
Adenosine is an antiarrhythmic and anti–inflammatory drug that works as a free base or a 5'–
triphosphate which blocks the AV node. 6mg to 12mg of adenosine converts all episodes of PSVT
involving the AV node within 30 seconds of administration. It is a useful drug for patients with
broad or narrow QRS complex tachycardia. Like any other drug adenosine contains some temporary
side effects such as flushing, chest pain and dysponea. Adenosine is a drug used to treat certain types
of irregular heartbeat. It is an antiarrhythmic and a nucleoside as it slows the electrical conduction in
the heart. Adenosine also slows heart rate and normalizes heart rhythm. Some medical conditions
may interact with adenosine such as pregnancy or breast feeding. Adenosine is a purine nucleoside
composed of a molecule of adenine involved to a ribose sugar molecule. It is widely found in nature
and plays an important role in biochemical procedures. Common side effects of this drug include
shortness in breath, dizziness and faint. Serious side effects are lowering blood pressure and
worsening dysrhythmia. Certain SVTs can be stopped with ... Show more content on
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After reviewing the investigations with adenosine for the conversion of paroxysmal
supraventrucular tachycardia (PSVT) to regulate whether the suggested dosing approach of 6mg
followed by 12mg is cost–effective in real practice. It was observed that 65% change rate to sinus
rhythm with the early dosage of 6mg adenosine (95% CL, 54% to 75%) and based on subsequent
cost investigation it was determined that the current approach should not be replaced by a 12mg first
approach and if the packaging of adenosine was changed so that 12mg cost less than twice 6mg.
(Davis R,

The Negative Effects Of Cognitive Enhancing Drugs
Cognitive enhancing drugs, or nootropics, are a category of substances that have been purportedly
shown to positively impact a user's cognitive performance in areas such as memory, creativity,
motivation, and attention1. Some cognitive enhancing drugs (CED) include common medications
such as Adderall, methylphenidate, modafinil with the majority of these substances, either
prescribed to patients who have attentional disorders such as ADD and ADHD or memory disorders
such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's due to these positive impacts on cognition. CEDs can
additionally be obtained online or in store as over–the–counter supplements2 and are not only
restricted to prescription medications. Due to the shown cognitive enhancement these ... Show more
Yet, there are those that believe CED usage is unfair to the students that do not take CEDs, as they
do not have added cognitive benefits of their CED using counterparts. There is research that
suggests the consumption of common CEDs‒ methylphenidate and modafinil‒ does not have a more
significant impact on the overall cognitive performance of individuals involved in cognitively
demanding tasks than the caffeine in a standard cup of coffee5. It was found that consumption of
CEDs methylphenidate (2 x 20 mg), modafinil (2 x 200 mg), or caffeine (2 x 200 mg) during a
cognitively demanding task resulted in an increase in cognitive performance when compared to the
placebo trials5. There was no significant difference between the increases in cognitive performance
between any of the CEDs and, while a wide range of CEDs was not tested, the fact that there was no
significant difference between the fair CED, caffeine, and the unfair CEDs, methylphenidate and
modafinil, should be some indication as to the overall fairness of these substances. So, while it is
clear that there are cognitive increases in performance from these CEDs, these overall increases are
similar to the increase seen from the caffeine in a cup of coffee. But there are no claims of
unfairness from

Traditional Herbal Medicines Used For The Treatment Of...
Radix Paeoniae Alba (RPA), a well–known Chinese herbal, ('Bai–Shao' in Chinese) has been widely
used in Chinese Medicine for thousands of years. It is made from the root of P. lactiflora after
boiling in water and peeling off the bark (China Pharmacopoeia Committee, 2010). Its constituents
have been recognized as valuable traditional herbal medicines used for the treatment of diseases
with a long history in TCM (Fang et al., 2009). Empirical evidence suggests that various peony root
preparations have broad therapeutic benefits for pain, muscle spasm, inflammation, menstrual
dysfunction, and neurodegenerative disorders, stroke (Wu 1985; Wu et al. 2010; Guo et al.2012).
These therapeutic benefits are believed to be mainly derived from its major constituents that possess
multiple pharmacological properties, in particular neuroprotective effects. To date, more than 15
constituents have been identified from this Chinese herbal material, including the isomers
paeoniflorin (PF) and albiflorin (AF), are the main representative monoterpene glycosides
(structures see Fig. 1). Figure 1 The structures of albiflorin and paeoniflorin. The loss of
neurological functions is caused by massive loss of neurons resulting from stress reaction and other
reasons. Up to now, several hypotheses have been put forward, such as Ca2+ overload, oxidative
injury, excitotoxicity, protein misfolding, apoptosis (). A complex interplay between different factors
and signal cascades results in neuronal cell

Other Medications Case Study
Other Medications FK352, an adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, is a new medication class which
could serve as a novel therapeutic option in IDH management. Guidelines for its correct indications
and further multicenter studies need to be worked upon (9, 28 of 3). L–arginine supplements in
uremic patients are an attractive possibility in the amendment of endothelial dysfunction and
vascular responsiveness. It is postulated that in the future, selective inhibitors of inducible forms of
NO synthase will be beneficial in the treatment and prevention of IDH and dialyzer membrane
reactions (10 of 3). Other commonly employed drugs that can be used to potentially mitigate IDH
include non–selective α1/β1 agonists including caffeine, ephedrine, ... Show more content on
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Routine monitoring for anemia and iron deficiency must be undertaken in all HD patients. The
treatment of anemia includes erythropoiesis–stimulating agents and/or IV iron. The selection of the
individual therapy depends on the severity of anemia and on the presence of iron deficiency. The
indications for treatment are based upon US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)–issued
guidelines for ESA administration, although are occasionally modified in selected individuals. The
treatment of anemia among dialysis patients should be individualized. The most common approach
for treatment of anemia in patients undergoing dialysis can be obtained by following the Kidney
Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) guidelines (PMID 25018948). b) Sodium Modeling
Intermittent sodium administration, high sodium concentration in the dialysate (≥ 140 mEq/L), and
sodium modeling (a method wherein the initial dialysate sodium concentration is set high at the
beginning of the dialysis session and gradually tapered during the session) are very efficient and
well–tolerated procedures applied for episodic hypotension. Their effect is explained by halting the
rapid decline in plasma osmolality and minimization of osmotic fluid loss into the cells (19 of 3). A
recent meta–analysis has indicated that stepwise (as opposed to linear) sodium profiling was more
effective in reducing IDH

Why Is Caffeine Good Or Bad?
Is caffeine good or bad? This research will test if caffeine is good or bad for humans. Caffeine does
not only have a negative effect, but can also have a positive effect, but how much is too much
caffeine? "Recent studies have generally found no connection between coffee and an increased risk
of cancer or heart disease. It protects you from Parkinson's disease, type 2 diabetes and liver disease,
including liver cancer. It also appears to improve cognitive function and decrease the risk of
depression"– (Hensrud, 2014) Meanwhile Good Health says "Caffeine is a stimulant that increases
your heart rate and metabolism. Evidence shows that a high consumption of caffeine over a long
period of time increases your blood pressure and that caffeine is addictive"– (2009). ... Show more
Several studies have indicated that people who drink more than 4 cups of caffeine coffee a day is
linked to an early death. Jon Kelly says: "Caffeine is according to the New Scientist, the planet's
most popular "Psychoactive drug" more than 90% of adults are estimated to use it every day. The
number of people seeking emergency treatment after ingesting caffeine doubled to more than 20 000
in 2011." Carpenter says: "A tablespoon– about 10 grams of caffeine– will kill you. Recounting the
unfortunate story of a college student who went into a seizure and died after chasing down
spoonful's of caffeine with an energy drink." With this research we will find out if the problem is
with the caffeine or the health of the

Gsk Annual Report 2010
Do more, feel better, live longer
GlaxoSmithKline Annual Report 2010
Contents
Business review P08–P57 Governance and remuneration P58–P101 Financial statements P102–
P191 Shareholder information P192–P212
Business review 2010 Performance overview Research and development Pipeline summary
Products, competition and intellectual property Regulation Manufacturing and supply World market
GSK sales performance Segment reviews Responsible business Financial review 2010 Financial
position and resources Financial review 2009 Risk factors Governance and remuneration Our Board
Our Corporate Executive Team Governance and policy Dialogue with shareholders Internal control
framework Committee reports Remuneration policy Director terms and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Website GlaxoSmithKline's website www.gsk.com gives additional information on the Group.
Notwithstanding the references we make in this Annual Report to GlaxoSmithKline's website, none
of the information made available on the website constitutes part of this Annual Report or shall be
deemed to be incorporated by reference herein. Cautionary statement regarding forward–looking
statements The Group's reports filed with or furnished to the US Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC), including this document and written information released, or oral statements
made, to the public in the future by or on behalf of the Group, may contain forward–looking
statements. Forward–looking statements give the Group's current expectations or forecasts of future
events. An investor can identify these statements by the fact that they do not relate strictly to
historical or current facts. They use words such as 'anticipate', 'estimate', 'expect', 'intend', 'will',
'project', 'plan', 'believe' and other words and terms of similar meaning in connection with any
discussion of future operating or financial performance. In particular, these include statements
relating to future actions, prospective products or product approvals, future performance or results
of current and anticipated products,

Essay on Caffeine Effects In The Brain
Caffeine Effects In The Brain
Caffeine acts in a multitude of ways in the brain. The most recent studies explore the cooperative
effects of adenosine and dopamine, as well as the increase in calcium in the interstitial fluid and
possible accumulation of cyclic adenosine monophospate. The most popular discussions of earlier
studies of caffeine demonstrate its antagonistic effects on adenosine receptors. While it has been
reported that adenosine receptors are located throughout the brain, the various subtypes can be
found in very specific areas.
Studies have also shown that caffeine reactions in the brain are based on the localization of
adenosine receptors, dopamine receptors, and the amount of caffeine. ... Show more content on
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(Garrett, 1997; Myers, 1999) According to the
Pacific Nueropsychiatric Institute "caffeine inhibits phosphodiesterase breakdown of cyclie 3',–5'–
adenosine monophosphate. (Pharmacology, caffeine, 2) Again, this occurs only in large quantities
that have yet to be naturally found in vivo. (Myers, 1999) Keep in mind that if cyclic AMP had a
greater than normal concentration in the synaptic cleft, it would continue to breakdown adenosine
which has a depressant effect on functions in the brain. For example, adenosine in the central
nervous system inhibits neurotransmitter release and depresses locomotor activity, however with
higher concentrations of cyclic AMP there is less adenosine so, the effects on the biology of the
brain are an enhanced neurotransmitter release, and stimulated locomotor activity (Garrett, 1997).
Another way caffeine acts on the brain is indirectly through the dopamine receptors. As stated by
Garrett and
Griffiths (1997), "Although caffeine does not bind directly to dopamine receptors a number of
conflicting reports suggest that caffeine can either decrease or increase dopamine release" (p.535).
For example, "Caffeine significantly decreases dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels in the
striatum, hypothalamus, and frontal cortex, but increases DOPAC levels in the nucleus accumbens"
(p.535).
Caffeine also is responsible for significant

Global Sleep Cycle
Sleep Function: Global and Local Regulation of Sleep Cycles
Introduction Sleep is commonly referred to as a global state, one which engages the entire nervous
system. The states of sleep and wakefulness are highly interconnected and share common
physiological mechanisms; however, there are distinct differences in the neurochemical pathways
that underlie them. The notion that sleep is a global state is supported by evidence that the
interrelated states of sleep and wakefulness engage a multitude of neuronal pathways and
components. These networks of neuronal transmitters and receptors extend throughout the brain;
from the brainstem to the basal forebrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex. The onset of
sleep and wakefulness is known ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During states of arousal and wakefulness, information is encoded in the neocortical and
hippocampal networks in the form of memories (Frankland et al., 2005). The networks that are
activated during wakefulness are subsequently reactivated during SWS via SWA, which leads to
synaptic downscaling and memory consolidation. A study conducted by Peigneux and colleagues
(2004) provided evidence that presents a positive association between improvement in post–sleep
retrieval activity performance and the amount of hippocampal SWA that an individual experiences
during SWS. This study suggests a correlation between the reactivation of wake–active neuronal
networks via SWA and memory improvement during SWS. In addition to the overnight evaluation
of memory consolidation, short–term evaluation of memory across the first day, which included a 90
minute sleep period between training and performance of the retrieval activity, also demonstrated a
positive correlation between the amount of SWA that occurred during the sleep period and the
success of the retrieval activity performance (Peigneux et al., 2004). Moreover, a study conducted
by Marshall and colleagues (2004), also examined the manipulation of memory consolidation during
sleep and found a positive association between hippocampal SWA and the performance of a

Is Coffee A Stimulant Or Addiction?
Life, although it is full of complexities, is a wonderful gift from God. As a result of its complexities,
the people created a way to cope with all these stresses. This way was expressed in coffee. But soon
a problem developed and an important question had to be answered. Is coffee a stimulant or an
addiction? A stimulant is a drug that boosts the level of mental and physical energy in our body,
increases alertness and produces a very nice mood by stimulating the central nervous system.
Moreover, they lessen the feeling of tiredness and give you a boost of self confidence. This is why
stimulants are known as 'uppers'. Normally, the stimulants are used in certain psychiatric conditions
and mostly for medical situations. Doctors ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A person must be convinced that caffeine is addictive and that it is slowly destroying his body. Then,
we look for substitutes other than coffee like green tea which is healthier and contains far less
caffeine than the coffee does. Always try to take a power nap for about twenty minutes which is
better than a cup of coffee to help a person to continue the day. Don't cut the caffeine from your
body at once. Cut it gradually or else your body will not resist the caffeine's temptations and the
whole plan for overcoming the adduction will be a failure. Lastly, a fit body will never need any sort
of a stimulant

Adenosine Function In The Body
Function in the body Adenosine primarily acts in the central nervous system. It promotes sleep in
the evening and assists the brain to wake up in the morning. The concentration of adenosine is
highest in the brain during waking hours and it builds up the longer a person is awake. Since the
ATP reserves are depleted and stored in the brain, it results in the buildup of adenosine in the brain.
When a person is asleep, adenosine is metabolized by adenosine deaminase, which results in a
decreased concentration in the brain in the morning which causes a person to wake up. In the brain
there are several receptors for adenosine, one being the A1 receptors which are mostly in the
cerebellum, it helps with memory storage. A2 receptors are in the striatum ... Show more content on
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For example, in 1991, Mahan found that adenosine is involved in memory storage in the cerebellum,
and how it is used on the thalamus where the brain uses it for a relay center to the cortex. In 1989,
Phillis found that adenosine can act a neuroprotective agent against a seizure induced injury. Finally,
James and Richardson in 1993 found that after the stimulation period when ATP and ADP drop to
increase the levels of adenosine. There are many other scientists who made and are making
groundbreaking discoveries on this neurotransmitter; however, those are a few interesting

Assessment Of Patients With Suspected Stable Angina
1.3.10 Assessment of patients with suspected stable angina Chest pain is a very common symptom,
and around 20% to 40% of the general population will experience chest pain in their lives(149). In
the UK, up to 2 % of visits to a general practitioner are due to new onset chest pain (150).
Approximately 5% of visits to the emergency department are due to a complaint of chest pain, and
up to 40% of emergency hospital admissions are the result of chest pain(149, 151). Approximately
52,000 new cases of angina per year are diagnosed in men and 43,000 in women. The incidence of
angina increases with age(123). A recent systematic review of observational data (6 studies) found
that the total mortality rate in angina patients was 2.8% to 6.6% per annum(121). At present it is
thought that stable angina does not cause permanent myocardial damage. However prompt diagnosis
and treatment is important to prevent further complications. Initiation of pharmacological
intervention has been shown to retard plaque disease progression and to stabilise the surface
endothelium(131). Traditionally men are considered to be at high risk. However Hemingway et al
reported that women have a similarly high incidence of angina when compared with men.
Additionally women with stable angina have an increased long–term coronary mortality when
compared with women from the general population (122, 124). Angina is associated with clinical
events that can affect prognosis, for example Von Arnim et al

Long And Short Term Effects Of Caffeine
Caffeine is the most widely consumed drug in the world (Harland 2000). This naturally occurring
substance found in more than 60 plants is ingested mainly through coffee and tea (Harland 2000;
Malek et al. 2006; Paluska 2003). 100mg of caffeine is found in the average cup of coffee (Paluska
2003). Concerns on the long and short term effects of caffeine, have arisen as a result of its
popularity and social acceptability. (Harland 2000; Poehlman et al. 1985).
30 to 60 minutes after caffeine consumption, it's concentration has reached a maximum in the body
(Paluska 2003). Caffeine has many physiological effects as it has the ability to enter all tissues and
cross the brain–blood barrier (Paluska 2003). As a result of its beneficial properties

Caffeine Synthesis
Caffeine is a stimulant drug and the most widely–consumed mid–altering substance in the world.
Most of the effects of caffeine are thought to be traceable back to its action as an antagonist at
receptors for adenosine, a neurotransmitter. Caffeine binds to adenosine receptors and blocks
adenosine from binding there and activating the receptor; thus, it reduces activity at the adenosine
receptor. Although there are four subtypes of adenosine receptor, most of caffeine's effects are
thought to be due to its antagonistic actions at the A1 and A2A subtypes. Its ability to produce
wakefulness may be especially due to actions at the A2A receptor subtype. How exactly the
antagonism of the adenosine receptor translates into the effects of caffeine

Von Willebrand Disease ( Vwd )
Von Willebrand disease (VWD) is a genetic disorder that will occur when an individual has limiting
amounts of the von Willebrand factor (VWF) or they have abnormal forms of it. This disease can
also be associated with having low plasma levels. It is one of the world's most common bleeding
disorders. It is so common, that it can be found all over the world, it is known to affect 1% of the
world's population. VWD is also a very unique disorder because it can affect various animal species
like dogs and pigs. is known as one of the most common bleeding disorders. It is known to affect
1can also be found in various animal species, like dogs and pigs. This is a silent disease because
many people don't even know they have it. But, when someone who is suffering from VWD starts
bleeding, they will undergo severe bleeding. Just because an individual might not present with
symptoms, doesn't mean they won't suffer from the severe bleeding consequences. This lack of
knowledge is due to the fact that the symptoms of VMD are so mild. This factor can either be
missing or it can just be defective. VWF is known as a clotting protein
(https://www.hemophilia.org/Bleeding–Disorders/Types–of–Bleeding–Disorders/Von–Willebrand–
Disease). The Finnish doctor, Erik von Willebrand was the man who found this disease. He
discovered this disease by observing families in the Aland Islands. When observing this families, he
was able to describe this disease, but he wasn't able to distinguish it from a

The Effects Of Caffeine On Children 's Performance On...
In the neocortex, acetylcholine (ACh) stimulates arousal and plays a major role in attention and
working memory (Jones, 2008). Neuropsychological studies on caffeine report increased arousal,
alertness, increased energy and concentration (Smith, 2002; Ruxton, 2008; Brunye´ et al., 2010)
even at doses as low as 50 mg, which is comparable to the amount of caffeine in a cup of tea. It has
been indicated that even in low doses caffeine improves performance on attention tasks (Brunye´ et
al., 2010a). However, caffeine intake has also been associated with anxiety, nervousness, irritability,
insomnia and even panic attacks (Bruce et al., 1992; Lieberman, 1992; Sicard et al., 1996) . During
an elevated plus maze test of anxiety in rats, it was found that high doses of caffeine brought a
remarkably increased anxiety–like behavior (Jain et al., 2005).
Similarly, nicotine improves cognitive performance by improving learning, memory and attention
(Levin and Rezvani, 2002; Swan, 2007). In a social interaction test for anxiety, nicotine was shown
to have an anxiolytic effect at lower doses and an anxiogenic effect at high doses (File et al., 1998).
Analysis of the EEG power spectrum, in the present work, revealed a significant increase in delta
wave while theta, beta–1 and beta–2 waves showed a significant decrease. Delta and theta
frequencies are dominant during sleep and drowsiness, alpha frequency dominates during relaxed
wakefulness, and beta frequencies occur during intense mental

A1 Receptors In The Nervous System: A Case Study
In the nervous system, adenosine plays a role with neurons and homeostasis. In terms of its role in
neuro–modulation, adenosine receptors A1 and A2A are both needed in order to control
glutamatergic synapses. In the brain, the A1 receptor is made to stimulate excitatory conduction, and
the A2A receptor supports neuroplasticity. Adenosine is responsible for neuro–modulation as well as
in controlling diseases in the brain. Therefore, adenosine's A1 receptor has a role in
neurodegeneration and it also controls neurodegeneration if it is activated in the brain, whereas the
A2A receptor, if blocked, improves brain diseases in different neurodegenerative disorders such as
Parkinson's, ischemia, Alzheimer's disease and in some psychiatric disorders as well. Due to the fact
that the A1 and A2A receptors have roles in neuromoldulation and neuroprotection, it still remains
unclear whether A1 and A2A's neuro–protection is mostly from glutamatergic responses, or if it is
from homeostatic roles of the receptors related to controlling metabolism. Although the mechanism
of this is uncertain, it seems that targeting adenosine receptors could be used as a mechanism to
control neurological as well as psychiatric disorders. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, adenosine contributes to paracrine signals in order to coordinate actions of metabolism.
Homeostatic regulation by adenosine occurs in brain tissue it has two roles (neuromodulation and
homeostatic coordination) and it has been a challenge to unravel both these

Reverse Transcriptase Polmerase Chain, Reaction is an...
Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, also known as RT–PCR, has been recognized as a
reliable, accurate, and sensitive method for quantifying gene transcription. Polymerase chain
reaction, also known as PCR, is considered an essential tool in molecular biology that allows for the
amplification of nucleic acid sequences. Specifically, the three main consecutively repeating steps in
PCR are denaturation, annealing, and elongation. If the reaction runs with 100% efficiency, there
will be a two–fold increase in target amplicons after each cycle of PCR. Therefore, with n cycles of
the reaction, the copy number of the target sequences will be 2n. However, one of the main
disadvantages of conventional PCR, also called end–point PCR, is that the results of amplification
can only be visualized after all the cycles of amplification are complete (Nestorov 326). Therefore,
in recent years, modifications of conventional PCR methods have been developed to improve the
performance and specificity of the technique. One such example is RT–PCR, which has many
advantages over conventional PCR methods. For instance, RT–PCR is a quantitative method for
determining gene expression levels, while endpoint PCR is only semi–quantitative. Additionally,
through RT– PCR, data can be collected during the exponential phase of the PCR amplification
process, in which the PCR reaction is not limited by enzymatic activity or substrate concentration.
Alternatively, in end–point PCR, data is

Caffeine as a Drug Essay
Waking up to a hot cup of coffee, relishing the cool tingling sensation of a cola with your lunch, or
relaxing in the afternoon over a cup of tea, all have similar ingredient caffeine. Caffeine has been
consumed ever since the 2700 BC, with its conjunction in tea, for the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung.
In 575 AD, the first use of coffee beans where in Africa where it was used as currency and food.
Even more today, caffeine consumption has become an integral part of millions of people's daily
lives. According to David Weaver, "Caffeine and theophylline are among the most widely consumed
neuroactive substances. These drugs are consumed most frequently in beverages, but also are
present in certain over–the–counter diet aids, 'alertness ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Especially students that depend on caffeine to support their study habits should carefully monitor
such information. Many college students use caffeine byproducts such as sodas, coffee, and caffeine
pills as supplements to maintain a more alert state. However, a lot of students lose count of how
many cups of coffee or soda they have intake. Students tend to gear their consumption of these
caffeine products by the products' effectiveness rather than their caffeine dosage. This may result in
the abuse of this substance, however minimal deaths have been reported due to this.
In most cases, overdoses will result in tremendous discomfort and rarely cause death or permanent
damage. However, a number of people have died from an overdose of caffeine. According to DSM–
3–R, the toxic dose or lethal dosage to kill fifty percent of the population is estimated at ten grams.
Although the lethal dose varies between each individual the basic guidelines tend to fall at one
hundred and fifty milligrams per kilogram of body weight. A more animated description of the lethal
overdose would range from fifty to two hundred cups of coffee or fifty caffeine pills. In lethal
overdoses physiological effects such as seizures, tachycardia, or cardia arrhythmia can occur.
Tachycardia and cardia arrhythmia can also occur with an intake of greater than one thousand
milligrams of caffeine. Dosages between five hundred

The Depletion Of The Rat Model Of Monoamine
In the present study, the rat model of depression induced by reserpine was used to evaluate whether
caffeine could treat depression or exaggerate it. The present data revealed that the daily reserpine
treatment for 30 days induced a significant decrease in the cortical and hippocampal serotonin,
norepinephrine and dopamine levels. In addition, a decrease in the motor activity was observed. This
was indicated from the data of the open field test that exhibited a significant decrease in the number
of line crossings, number of rearings and number of groomings and a significant increase in the time
spent in the central square and freezing time. Immobility is a state/posture that reflects the condition
of hopelessness and despair (Holmes, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As a consequence to the oxidative catabolism of cytosolic dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin
by monoamine oxidase, the cellular oxidant, hydrogen peroxide is produced (Youdim et al., 2006).
In addition, monoamines, particularly DA and NA can undergo spontaneous oxidation in the
cytoplasm, and this may lead to the damage of cellular structures ( Wasik et al., 2009). The
byproducts of these reactions include a number of potentially neurotoxic species, such as hydrogen
peroxide and ammonia ( Barros–Mi˜nones et al., 2015). In particular, hydrogen peroxide can trigger
the production of reactive oxygen species and induce mitochondrial damage and neuronal apoptosis
(Bortolato et al., 2008). The present findings revealed that reserpine induced oxidative stress in the
cortex and hippocampus. This was indicated from the significant increase in lipid peroxidation
(MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) levels together with the significant decrease in reduced glutathione
(GSH). Under such conditions of inhibition of VMAT–2 induced by reserpine and the effect of
monamine oxidase, the oxidative catabolism may explain the present oxidative stress induced in the
cortex and hippocampus of rat model of depression. Malondialdehyde is produced from
decomposition of products of lipid peroxidation (Gaweł et al., 2004). Thus, the observed increased
MDA levels may arise from the attack of the neuronal membrane phospholipids by free radicals
produced from monoamine catabolism. In addition, the

Flx Case Study
Send Orders for Reprints to reprints@benthamscience.net
672 Current Alzheimer Research, 2014, 11, 672–680
Fluoxetine Improves Behavioral Performance by Suppressing the Production of Soluble "–Amyloid
in APP/PS1 Mice
Abstract: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder of the central
nervous system. Cur–
rent approaches for AD treatment only ameliorate symptoms. Therapeutic strategies that target the
pathological processes
of the disease remain elusive. Fluoxetine (FLX) is one of the most widely used antidepressants for
the treatment of de–
pression and anxiety associated with AD, however, it is unknown if the drug affects the pathogenesis
of the disease. We
showed that FLX improved spatial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although most cases of AD are sporadic in nature, about 5–10% result from an inherited familial
form caused by the expression of mutant genes of amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1
(PS1) and presenilin 2 (PS2) [3].
Despite recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology, there are no medical
approaches that can cure AD. All current medications available for the treatment of the disease only
improve the symptoms of AD to varying
*Address correspondence to these authors at the Mental Health Center
Shantou University, North Taishan Road, Shantou, Guangdong 515063,
China; Tel: 86–0754–82902014; Fax: 86–0754–82510525;
E–mail: huangqj@stumhc.cn and Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of

Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, 1E7.31 Walter C. Mackenzie
Health Sciences Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2B7;
Tel: 1–780–407–6503; Fax: 1–780–407–6804; E–mail: xinmin@ualberta.ca
#These authors contributed equally to this work.
extents [4, 5]. Antidepressants, which are widely used for treating major depression, have been
proved effective in handling depressed moods and anxiety in AD patients [6–8].
Compared to other antidepressants, fluoxetine (FLX) has a better safety profile and fewer side
effects [9], which make it one of the most desirable antidepressant medications for treating AD
patients [10, 11]. In addition, FLX improved the memory and cognitive function of patients with
mild cogni– tive impairment

Effect of caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, epinephrine on Daphnia
03 – 31 – 2006
RESULTS:
In this experiment the effect of different hormones on heart rate of _Daphnia_ was examined. It was
investigated which substances act as stimulants and which substances act as depressant. Initially,
_Daphnia_ was placed on depression slide under the microscope and the average heart rate was
determined. Subsequently, _Daphnia_ was treated with different type of hormone and the effect on
Daphnia heart rate was observed. It was investigated which substances act as stimulants and which
substances act as depressant. Daphnia was treated with aged water, caffeine, ethyl alcohol, nicotine,
and epinephrine, and their effect on heart rate of Daphnia was observed. The results are posted on
table 1:
Table 1: Average heart ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Heart rate of daphnia fell from an average of 274.455+/–26 beats per minutes to an average
246.868+/–71 heart beats per minute. After performing Mann–Whitney U statistical test, this
difference in heart rate was found to be statistically not significant.
In last procedure, the effect of epinephrine on Daphnia heart rate was observed. The result is posted
on figure 5:
Figure 5: Effect of Epinephrine on average heart rate of Daphnia
From figure 5 it can be seen that before the addition of epinephrine, Daphnia had an average heart
rate of 277.663+/–18 heart beats per minutes. However, when epinephrine was added, the average
heart rate was decreased to 291.467+/–57 heart beats per minute. However, after performing Mann–
Whitney U test, it was found that after the addition of epinephrine, no significant difference was
observed in Daphnia's heart beats.
Mann–Whitney U statistical testing was performed to see if the result obtained for the difference in
heart rate of Daphnia before and after the addition of stimulant was significant. The statistical test
for the difference in heart rate of daphnia observed after the addition of aged water is shown on table
2:
Table 2: Mann–Whitney U statistical testing for the difference in average heart rate of Daphnia

before and after the addition of aged water:
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
B
B
A
194
200.67
204
204.68
259
260

264
264.67
273.3
277.2
278
283.4
285

How Does Theophylline Affect Metabolism?
Introduction: In this essay, we will be writing about the drug theophylline and its biochemical
function at the level of the molecule, how it affects metabolism by inhibiting the functions of
enzymes. The essay will similarly look at the uses and adverse effects of the drug in treating specific
disease conditions, thereby explaining its effect on metabolism. Finally, we consider why
theophylline is classified as an allosteric inhibitor.
Theophylline Drug as Natural and its Chemical Structure
The drug theophylline is used in the treatment of asthma, bronchospasm, and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) (WebMD, 2017). Theophylline belongs to a group of chemicals called
xanthine which functions as central nervous system stimulants; act on the kidneys to produce
diuresis, cardiac muscle stimulants and as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What allosteric enzyme inhibitors do is that they act as modulators, attaching themselves to a
molecule that will alter the binding site for the enzyme and make it unusable and as a result the
enzyme becomes inactive. Theophylline inhibits the activity of the enzyme phosphodiesterase,
which forms part of a group of enzymes that degrade the phosphodiester bond (DrugBank, n.d.).
Additionally, theophylline relaxes the pulmonary blood vessels and reduces the airway's
responsiveness to the drugs' histamine, methacholine, adenosine, and allergen. Theophylline inhibits
type III and type IV phosphodiesterase (PDE), the enzyme responsible for breaking down cyclic
adenosine monophosphate (AMP) in smooth muscle cells, resulting in bronchodilation.
Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated
bronchoconstriction. According to the DrugBank (n.d.), in inflammatory conditions, theophylline
activates histone deacetylase to prevent transcription of inflammatory genes that require the
acetylation of histones for transcription to

Endergonic Reaction Lab Report
Every reaction is categorized as exergonic, endergonic, or at equilibrium. In order for the reaction to
be categorized the value of G needs to be calculated. The G value is known as the Free Energy
Change (Campbell pg. 147). If a reaction releases energy and is spontaneous, then it is considered
exergonic; and if a reaction absorbs/requires energy, then it is considered endergonic (Campbell pg.
147). When a reaction is exergonic, its G is less than 0, negative, because that means that the
potential free energy of the products is less than that of the of the products, while, in endergonic
reactions, the free energy of the products is more than that of the reactants, making the G positive,
greater than 0. However, when the free energy of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although reactions that require 7.3 kcal/mol (meaning that they are endergonic) may be driven by
the hydrolysis of one mole of ATP, it is very unlikely. Reactions within the body happens in an open
system, meaning that energy goes in and out constantly and each reaction affects another in some
way (Campbell pg. 148). When a reaction proceeds, depending on its reactants and products, some
may require energy and some may release and the total value of free energy, G, is calculated by
G(final) – G (initial), making the G the overall value (Campbell pg 148). Since its the overall value
of G, as the reaction proceeds it may need more than 7.3 kcal/mol during a process, but then release
some energy towards the end, making the overall reaction require exactly 7.3 kcal/mol. Because of
this, reactions that require exactly +7.3 kcal/mol of energy, will most likely not be driven by the
hydrolysis of ATP.
D. Exactly –7.3 kcal/mol
Incorrect. As mentioned for choice B, reactions with negative G values, are exergonic, meaning that
they release energy at the end of their reactions (Campbell 147). Since the reactions that have
exactly –7.3 kcal/mol as their G value, it is negative and these reactions are exergonic– thus they do
not require energy to proceed– making the energy from the hydrolysis of ATP not affect the
completion of these reactions. If a reaction does not require energy to proceed, then it would not
need the hydrolysis of ATP to drive the reaction, resulting this choice being incorrect.
E. More than +7.3

Are Diet Drugs Are Safe For People? Essay
Many people like to take shortcuts to lose weight to improve their self–esteem and body image. One
shortcut that many people result to is the use of weight–loss aids. These pills and drugs really help
people lose weight in the short run by involving many chemical processes, but in the long run, these
drugs have the potential to become dangerous to people's health. Even though the results are
appealing, people still do not know how the diet drugs affects their health. Through past experiments
and observational studies, the testable question is: are diet drugs are safe for people? There is a trend
in diet drugs that most drugs contain lots of caffeine, which has many great benefits that deal with
weight loss. The most prominent aid that caffeine gives to people is the increase of metabolism
because caffeine is an alkaloid which makes it a metabolite (Ashihara, Sano, & Crozier, 2007). The
process of speeding up the metabolism starts when the kidneys in the digestive system break the
caffeine (C8H10N4O2) into waste, theobromine (C₇H₈N₄O₂), theophylline (C₇H₈N₄O₂), and
paroxetine (C19H20FNO3); the fluorine atom in paroxetine comes from excess fluorine from
kidneys (Ashihara, Sano, & Crozier, 2007). All three products, especially paroxetine, increase blood
flow, athletic performance, and rapidity of weight loss (Ashihara, Sano, & Crozier, 2007). In an
observational study made by Dovey, the results show that most people gain "about 16 percent of
activity" from the caffeine in diet

In 2014 They Had Issued Over 486,000 Shares Where Each
In 2014 they had issued over 486,000 shares where each one cost around .28 cents. "When they
originally began, most of their funds came from healthcare investors and funds" (SEC, 4). In the
SEC it states that they have been able to have raise over 108 million in preferred stocks, 99.9 million
in cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities and have a deficit of 25.5 million. On the
balance sheet for 2015 the assets of the company are $101,603 in 2014, which is an increase of
2014's numbers of $12,529. On the S1 as of 2015 Corvus has had a total of 15,767,250 shares and
common stock equivalents which has increased from the 4,196,494 from 2014. Since Corvus
Pharmaceuticals recently began and offered a lot of stock options it has ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Market Sector The market sector Corvus Pharmaceuticals is currently in is in the healthcare sector
of the economy. The price is of their stock is $9.99 and it has kept going up They are developing
drugs that are involved with cancer which means the competition is great. After looking at Morning
Star it looks like Amgen Inc., Celgene Corp, and Gilead Sciences Inc. are some of the competitors in
their field. All of them have had positive cash flows, and they're stock prices are significantly higher
than Corvus's stock price. Corvus currently has a negative cash flow, but is still in the stages of
development so over time that will begin to change if the drugs they produce successfully work
during the trail runs.
Strategy
On the S1 Corvus Pharmaceuticals main strategy is to "become a leader in the field of immuno–
oncology treatments for multiple cancer indications." (S1, 5). In order to achieve their goal CRVS
has 5 elements to achieve it and they are: due to the employee's skills and knowledge in
immunology and oncology it allows them to research and develop new products. Corvus has also
used data from previous trials to help them on the CPI–444 for oncology. The use of products that
can be used for treatments. "Identify biomarkers to select patients and monitor treatment with our
product candidates" (S1, 5) and partner with

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