Disadvantages And Disadvantages Of Genetically Modified Foods

Disadvantages And Disadvantages Of Genetically Modified Foods
Often a common question is whether the production of GM foods is a solution to the food crisis or a
disaster in the making. First off GMO (genetically modified organism) is the result of a laboratory
process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and artificially forced into the genes
of an unrelated plant or animal. The foreign genes may come from bacteria, viruses, insects, animals
or even humans. So essentially it is taking food, modifying food using a gene that solves an obstacle
and putting it on the market for us to eat. Some of the advantages of GM foods are that they are
better for the environment. GMOs are adapted in such a way that many plants don't require
pesticides or other chemicals that impact on the earth. GMOs increase the flavour and longevity of
the fruit. Another advantage which is probably in the best interest of society is that fact that it often
decreases price of products and often becomes more affordable. Although research and testing is not
cheap, once it is on the market the prices of your normal GM foods are substantially more
affordable. With all the advantages comes the counter, disadvantage. GM foods often cause cross
contamination where pollen from genetically modified foods are also contaminated. When GMOs
are around other plants often the pollen can drift over to the wrong plants and create plants that have
resistance to the conditions that were meant for the crops to be resistant to. Essentially GMOs
potentially have the
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Cactus Moth Research Paper
The Argentine cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) was first
discovered in the United States in 1989 and has now become a major threat to ~31 species of
Opuntia cactus, nine of which are endemic and six of which have been designated as rare or
endangered. Since the initial finding of C. cactorum in Florida, the moth has spread along the Gulf
and Atlantic Coasts and now occurs as far west as Louisiana and as far north as North Carolina.
Following the termination of the sterile insect technique (SIT) in 2012, the efforts to control the
spread of the cactus moth have focused on population management through classical biological
control. Apanteles opuntiarum Martínez & Berta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), the parasitoid

Parasitoid Wasps Essay
Parasitoid Wasps
Nicholas Cooke
BY 304
Spring 2017
Introduction
Parasitic wasps are some of the most beneficial insects in agriculture and infect over 200 different
species of pests. It is believed that most of these organisms are ancestors of sawflies which feed on
dead wood which is digested by symbiotic fungi. Although the diversity of parasitic wasps is
overwhelming all species exert a common connection, they all prey upon other arthropods more
specifically insects. The prey of these wasps is generally in larval form because they do not have a
hard–impenetrable exoskeleton. Unlike other wasps, most parasitic wasps do not have a stinger and
appear to have no threat against humans. On the other hand, the adult diet of the parasitic wasp
consists of nectar and pollen and prefer mature single ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are identifiable based on their elongated slender body. The wasp's coloration is typical of a
regular wasp ranging from black to yellow. Frequent prey of this species includes white grubs,
cutworms, and a variety of caterpillars. These wasps parasitize their host which is typical for such
parasitoids. The Braconid wasps are typically shorter (1/16 to 5/16 of an inch long) with a broad
body plan. Most of these species are dark in appearance but with a close observation can reveal
bright markings. These species generally attack aphids, tomato hornworm, and garden webworms
although have been known to attack a variety of other insects. The smallest of the three, the Chalcid
wasp is approximately 1/64th of an inch to 5/16th of an inch. The trichogramma wasp is already
commercially available due to its effectiveness against a variety of pests including moth and
butterfly larvae including a list of other species. Some Chalcid wasps specialize in aphids and
strawberry leaf rollers which is typically not seen in this

Genetically Modified Crops For The Health, The...
On Genetically Modified Crops Nowadays, most people assumed that the genetically modified
(GM) technology is the greatest biotechnologies in agriculture. However, people are unawareness
about the effect of genetically modified GM crops for the health, the environment, the society, the
food safety, and the food security. There are many methods have been proposed to separates the
genetically modified GM crops from non– GM crops by using the distance between the crops.
However, the value of cross–pollination can be affected in many different factors such as the insects
and the air which are natural elements. Furthermore, to solve these problems, this study suggests a
hybrid method (FPSOSVR) that contains particle swarm optimization, fuzzy logic, and the support
vector regression, for knowing the cross–pollination value of pollen recipient from the pollen source
to shows the real solation of genetically modified GM and non–GM maize. (Lee et al., 2013) The
European Union EU were still debating on the genetically modified crops (GM), which are based on
the positions by the public, non–governmental organizations ( NGOs ), and industry. The farmers in
this issue have lacking debate about whether the genetically modified GM crops will be crucial on
the future of the technology in European agriculture. As a result of using Q methodology, which
divided three groups, one are support the idea of genetically modified GM crops reliably, second are
equal with knowing the

Genetic And Non Genetic Mechanisms Of Inheritance Essay
Regina Noel
10/19/2016
Epigenetics: Genetic and Non–Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance When discussing the topic of
genetics, it is typically viewed from the perspective of Mendelian inheritance in which genes are
transmitted from parent to offspring solely through the use of genetic alleles, which are the
alternative form of genes that have varying DNA sequences and chromosomes that affect the
phenotype, visual gene trait (Toth. 2015). If and how a genetic trait is expressed is whether the
alleles for that trait are dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles are genes that have a higher
probability of being expressed in the offspring than a recessive allele. In the case of dominate
alleles; there are two possible combinations that its gene can still be expressed with, homozygous
(which contains two dominant alleles) and heterozygous (which contains a dominant and recessive
allele). On the other hand, recessive alleles can only be expressive if it is homozygous (which
contains two recessive alleles) (Reece et al. 2013). Since Gregor Mendel's discovery of alleles and
genetic inheritance, there has been research shows that there are more mechanisms of inheriting
traits which do not include changing the nucleotide sequence of DNA. This form of non–genetic
inheritance is called epigenetic modification. One example of epigenetic modification is DNA
methylation. DNA methylation is when methyl groups, which are chemical groups that contain one
carbon bound to three hydrogen atoms,

Nature Online Virus Lab
Week Three NSCI 150 Nature Online VIRUS LAB
Wayne G Davis Virus,
Viruses are microscopic organisms that can only replicate inside cells of the host organism. Viruses
for the most part are so small you would have to use a conventional optical microscope. Viruses can
infect any and all types of organisms, such as animals (to include Humans), plants and even bacteria
as well as archaea (archaea constitutes a domain or kingdom of single–celled microorganisms).
There are millions of different types of viruses. With viruses being believed to be the most abundant
type of biological entity, they can be virtually found in every ecosystem on the planet.
Most virus study is done with them as a pathogen, but there are a vast number of viral entities ...
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What we have found is that some bacterial, fungal and animal viruses can be beneficial to the
survival and reproduction of the host. One of the examples is a virus in a plant can help with
regulating the thermal tolerance; this is called mutual fungal endophyte. Another example is some
virus and wasp strains can have a mutualistic relationship. Polydnaviruses of the parasitoid braconid
wasp is required for the wasp to suppress the natural defense response so it can survive inside their
caterpillar host. As you can see in a world where only bad viruses get talked about on the news we
can see without viruses the world as we know it might not be

Diamondback Moth Research Paper
Every year farmers' crops are subject to droughts, floods, storms, and so much more. But one of the
biggest problems that seem to be plaguing the agricultural industry, specifically the cabbage and
lettuce industry, is pests. One pest in particular is the diamondback moth, and it has been wreaking
havoc all over New York. However, all is not lost; there still will be cabbage and lettuce in the
grocery store. The reason for this? Scientists have come up with an effective new way to manage the
diamondback moth, and it isn't reliant on pesticides. It uses genes. But, best of all, it won't be one
farmer paying for one treatment. It will be a universal movement, and this movement has the
possibility to revolutionize the crucifer, or, in more simple terms, the cabbage and lettuce market. ...
The diamondback moth is an invasive species that is believed to have originated in Europe. Since it
was not originally native to New York, it has few natural predators, so the population can easily
spiral out of control. It is brown and tan in appearance and is somewhat elongated in shape. Females
lay approximately 150 eggs at a time, but they can lay up to 300. In addition, the moth only lives for
up to 16 days. This may not seem like a long time to us because we live for decades, but the
diamondback moth is laying eggs for ten out of those sixteen days (Capinera, 2000). Now think
about it. That's a lot of larvae in a short amount of time. This can be a big problem for farmers,
especially because the problem comes in the form of a common moth. There are so many moth
varieties in New York that it is almost impossible to know all about each one, and that is why
farmers like me who live all around New York have an even tougher

Increased Risk Of Invasion : A Large Crop Canopy And...
Increased Risk of Invasion: A larger crop canopy and denser foliage will create more relative
humidity, thereby making micro–environments more favorable to pests. Increase in food quality, i.e.
increase in the nitrogen content of plants due to high temperature, can result in a sudden resurgence
of population of pests. Moreover, under conditions of stress, plant defensive systems are less
effective and they become more susceptible to pest attack (EPA, 1989). Some important pests are
long– range migrants and more into crop areas where they cannot over winter successfully.
However, with an increase in temperature, previously unfavorable areas may become suitable,
thereby increasing survival. The cabbage butterfly, Peerus brassicae migrants from the Himachal
hills to the Punjab plains in winter and back to the hills in summer. The increase in temperature may
effect this migration and external distribution of the insect pests further north, lowering its activity
in the plains. Changes in our wintering success: With an increase in temperature, hibernation may be
suspended earlier than usual, thereby initiating early pest activity. The paddy stem borer becomes
active in May or June with the availability of plants in rice nurseries. However, with the
introduction of rice planting in April month in Punjab and Haryana, which is prevalent today, and
with an increase in temperature, we may expect higher populations of pests. Similarly, the onset of
hibernation may also be delayed with

Symbiosis And Eukaryotes
Symbioses have played an important role in the origins and evolution of cells and organisms with
novel properties. One of the most significant outcomes of symbiosis, is the formation of eukaryotes
through either primary or secondary endosymbiosis which allowed for the development of many
unique organelles present today in eukaryotes, notably chloroplasts and mitochondria. Primary
endosymbiosis is the engulfment of a prokaryote by a eukaryote forming a plastid, compared to
secondary endosymbiosis: a eukaryote engulfs another eukaryote to form a plastid (Archibald et al,
2002). Through endosymbiosis, the endosymbionts are able to bring in unique metabolic and
signalling capabilities beneficial to the host (Lake, 2009). However, mutually dependent ... Show
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Both chloroplasts and mitochondria contain circular DNA knowns as chloroplast DNA and
mitochondrial DNA respectively, signifying that both organelles have prokaryotic origins. The
presence of mitochondria in eukaryotes allows for ATP synthesis through the electron transport
chain and oxidative phosphorylation (Chinney et al, 2003), thus enabling eukaryotes to satisfy their
high metabolic requirements, particularly in animals. The production of large amounts of ATP
energy allows for the sustenance of life in a wide variety of environmental conditions as they are
able to produce the energy required. The unique double membrane of the mitochondria suggest that
it was formed as a result of primary symbiosis, and are homologous to plastids. Similarly
chloroplasts enable eukaryotes to take advantage of sunlight as a natural resource, which allows the
process of photosynthesis, where the reaction of carbon dioxide and water is converted to glucose
and oxygen gas (Cogdell, 2013), using light energy produced by the sun with the aid of chlorophyll.
This conversion of light energy into chemical energy forms the primary source of all energy
accessible by the animal consumers on land, through the producers – the plants. At the cellular level,
protists are the most simple examples of endosymbiosis. In the amoeba Paulinella chromatophora it
contains two chromatophores, derived from once free living cyanobacteria (Wernegreen,

Drosophila Fruit Fly
Introduction:
General background information Drosophila melanogaster is a fruit fly. On average, they are about
3mm in length and prefer to live near spoiled fruit. They can be found on every continent of the
world except for Antarctica. The Drosophila melanogaster egg us about .5mm long. It takes about
one day after fertilization to develop and hatch into a worm–like larva. The larva eats and grown
continuously, molting one day, two days, and four days after hatching. After two days as a third
instar larva, it molts one more time to form an immobile pup. Over the next four days, the body is
completely remodeled to give the adult winged form, which then hatches for the pupal case and is
fertile within about only 12 hours. (ceolas.org) The female phenotype differs from the male
phenotype, because females have stripes, lighter coloring, and they have longer abdomens. Males
have stripes at the back of their abdomen that make it look darker, and their abdomens are shorter
and blunter. They also have sex combs on their legs. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 1910, a single white–eyed mutant was found in a Drosophila melanogaster population, which
usually has dark red eyes. The mutant was male. It was crossed with wild–type females and over
generations led scientists to conclude that this mutation was somehow physically connected to the
"factor" that determined sex. Crossing white–eyed males and red–eyed females from the second
generation produced equal number of offspring with each eye color. Males have white eyes when
they inherit the gene on the X chromosome from their mother. Females only show the trait if they
inherit mutant genes on both X chromosomes. This can be demonstrated by using a Punnett Square
to show allele frequencies with dominant and recessive

Bucculatrix Ainsliella
Introduction Bucculatrix ainsliella Murtfeldt is a skeletonizing species of Lepidoptera that can cause
excessive damage to both forest and urban environments. Causal Agent The Oak Leaf Skeletonizer,
Bucculatrix ainsliella is in the order Lepidoptera, which categorizes it as a defoliator in its larval
stages (Gelok et al. 1998; Klass 1985; Van Nieukerken et al. 2012). It is a native species to Eastern
United States and was once limited to Southern Canada and the Eastern coast of the United States to
Mississippi (Baker 1972; Frank and Foltz 1997; Gelok et al. 1998). Since 1905, it is now found
throughout Europe including the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany (Murtfeldt 1905; Van
Nieukerken et al. 2012). Bucculatrix ainsliella is a foliage–feeding lepidopteran species that causes
defoliation on oak trees, specifically red (Quercus rubra) and black (Quercus velutina) oaks. The
first instar larval stage are leafminers, which burrow into the leaf and consume the nutrients between
the layers of the leaf. Once they progress into the final instar larval stage they start to defoliate the
trees. This stage of Bucculatrix ainsliella consume the external underside of the leaf, leaving the
veins, which causes the leaves of the oaks to become less efficient in producing photosynthate
(Baker 1972; Gelok et al. 1998; Klass 1985; Van Nieukerken et al. 2012). At the end of the final
instar larval stage, they build 3 millimeter ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In forest ecosystems, heavy defoliation occurs occasionally when populations of the species are high
and parasitoids are low (Klass 1985; Van Nieukerken et al. 2012). The crowns of oak trees (mainly
Quercus rubra and Q. velutina) can experience thinning and die back due to the loss of structure to
the leaves (Gelok et al. 1998; Klass 1985; Van Nieukerken et al. 2012). Spread and

Larv Parasitoids
Within the parasitic world, lies an abundant amount of organisms whose primary focus consist of
incubating itself within a host, sapping it of nutrients to further progress its own rate of growth.
Unlike many within this category, lies a special few who not only relies on its host to further help in
the breeding process, but also takes full control as well. These parasites are dubbed called
Parasitoids or often called either "mind control bugs" or "zombie bugs" for the sole purpose that it
can inject its host with a type of toxin, thus leaving them fully immobilized and leaving full control
to the parasite that is currently inhabiting it. The parasite will then begin to control things such as
the host movement, and behavior as well for a prolonged period of time, enough so that the parasites
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As an example, parasites are able to flourish by absorbing the nutrients of the organism that it
chooses to inhabit. In doing so, the parasite can be seen as having a "home" which while it may
cause some damage to the host, ultimately makes sure or attempts to cause fatal harm to the host.
This is because it wants to be able to inhabit it for as long as possible. When looking at a predator/
prey relationship, the predator would fundamentally find nourishment from many other organisms in
its environment and does not rely on one single "host". The primary goal is to be able to gather as
much energy as it physically can so it can move on to its next prey. What makes parasitoids unique
is that it takes characteristics from both of these relationships in order to continue with its life cycle.
An Adult parasitoid would inject its young into that of other insects. Once the larvae is developed, It
would then carry on to feed from the inside of its host gathering nutrients until it reaches adulthood.
Once done, they will leave the host thus continuing on with the

Alfalfa Weevils History
The Alfalfa Weevils were first discovered around the Salt Lake City, Utah are around 1904. The
weevils slowly started to increase its population, by 1951 they were discovered in Maryland. Within
fifteen years the weevils had spread throughout the twenty five Eastern United States (Cothran et al.
1966). The insects are originally from throughout parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Alfalfa
Weevils belong to the beetle family known as Coleoptera, these types of beetles are broken down
into a class called the Snout–Beetles (Titus, 19). These insects hibernate during the winter months,
when the early springs hit they emerge; right around the time when the alfalfa starts to come back in
season. Within this time the beetles begin to lay eggs,

Shimon Steinberg: A Two-Legged Parasite
It doesn't have to be that way. There are alternatives to consider using. One of them is to use other
insects. Shimon Steinberg is a chief scientist at Bio–Bee, and his mission is to replace pesticides
with plant–friendly, pest–consuming insects. According to Steinberg from his Ted Talk segment,
And here comes the salvation, through this parasitic wasp. Here we are not talking about a
predator.Here we are talking a parasite –– not a two–legged parasite, but an eight–legged parasite, of
course.This is a parasitic wasp, again, two millimeters long, slender, a very quick and sharp flier.
And here you can see this parasite in action, like in an acrobatic maneuver. She stands vis–à–vis in
front of the victim at the right–hand side, bending its abdomen

Ladybeetle Research Paper
Manipulative biological control is one kind of biological control (of that a subset is conservation
bio–logical control augmentative biological control is second kind of biological control. This starts
with the recognition that lady beetles in a given pest situation are available yet too little to do the job
required, and purchasing more from a commercial manufacturer to release to augment those erenow
available. Flying away of most released adult ladybeetles is a risk Yet, if lady beetle larvae are
released, they have the choice of consuming the pest with that they are presented, or starving ––
they cannot fly off. Clearly, this needs matching the pest to a purchased lady beetle species that will
consume that pest. Classical or inoculative

Strawberry Guava And Its Impact On Hawaii
Strawberry guava, Psidium cattleianum Sabine, is valued by the general public of Hawaii for its
ornamental, straight, red bark and fleshy fruit, which is frequently prepared into jams, jellies, juices,
cakes, and pastries. However, due to false advertising and commercialization, guava as well as
coffee, macadamia, passion fruit, and pineapples are seen as icons of Hawaii, yet they aren't native
to Hawaii. Even though these species aren't native to Hawaii, coffee, macadamia, passion fruit, and
pineapples do not pose a serious threat to the native ecosystems of Hawaii, like the strawberry
guava. Strawberry guava is an invasive alien species to Hawaii and can be managed through
mechanical control, herbicide application, and biological control ... Show more content on
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cattleianum, is a highly invasive species that damages native Hawaiian forests, ecosystems, and the
watershed, which can be managed through mechanical, chemical, and biological controls. In its
native homeland of southeastern Brazil, the strawberry guava is limited, unlike Hawaii, where it
forms monotypic stands that displace native Hawaiian flora and fauna and drive these indigenous,
endemic, and endangered species towards extinction. Strawberry guava contributes further to the
displacement of native Hawaiian forests by providing nourishment to feral pigs and mice that feed
on native Hawaiian flora and fauna. Besides displacement of native Hawaiian species, strawberry
guava puts humans at risk through increased erosion and soil runoff as well as hosting fruit flies that
cause large scale damage to crops. Mechanical and chemical controls were used to manage P.
cattleianum, however they require a lot of time, labor, and money, yet the strawberry guava prevails
majority of the time. The State has recently introduced a biocontrol, T. ovatus, which is host specific
to P. cattleianum and not its commercially significant cousin, P. guajava, nor any native Hawaiian
plants. Although the T. ovatus will not kill the strawberry guava, the T. ovatus will inhibit the
growth of new foliage and fruit formation. With the introduction of T. ovatus and increased public
awareness of the effects of strawberry guava, P. cattleianum can be controlled and eliminated to

Hamiltonella Defensa Case Study
The heritable symbiont Hamiltonella defensa is present in 40 to 70 percent of the Acrythosiphon
pisum population and protects the aphids from their natural enemy, the parasitoid wasp Aphidius
ervi. This wasp lays its eggs inside of A. pisum; the eggs then develop and pupate, eventually killing
the aphid. H. defensa is able to protect the aphids it infects by killing the wasps before their
development is complete. H. defensa is frequently infected by the bacteriophage known as A. pisum
secondary endosymbiont (APSE), which has been linked to the H. defensa protective phenotype. It
is therefore hypothesized that APSE and the toxins it produces when it infects H. defensa contribute
to aphid protection.
In order to separate the effects of the phage, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Phage DNA can provide the bacterial symbionts with beneficial functions that extend to the
eukaryotic hosts they infect, increasing the survival of all involved parties and thus driving the
evolution of the population. The easily adaptable nature of phage elements can help hosts and
bacterial symbionts to evolve more quickly when facing natural pressures. In this paper, the
relationship between APSE, the H. defensa it infects, and the A. pisum host developed because the
evolutionary interests of all three were aligned against their enemy, the parasitoid wasp. This
relationship has protected A. pisum from A. ervi and allowed for the propagation of H. defensa in
aphid

Cabbage Root Fly
Biological Control of Cabbage Root Fly
Introduction
Biological control involves the use of living natural enemies to lower the population of a particular
pest species (Eilenberg et al. 2001). These natural enemies are called biological control agents and
can include viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasitoids, predators or competitors. Biological control is an
application of density dependence and population regulation and is one aspect of integrated pest
management. After the discovery of synthetic chemicals as controls, research into biological
controls received little attention; however it is currently gaining popularity. This is due to its many
advantages over other control methods, such as synthetic pesticides, and its few disadvantages. ...
Once implemented, the long–term economic costs of biological control will often be lower than
alternative synthetic chemical controls because pesticides require repeated application for ongoing
efficacy. Biological control agents often exhibit high target specificity, unlike pesticides which often
result in non–target organisms being affected. Pesticides can bioaccumulate and biomagnify in the
food chain and the chemicals can leach through the soil negatively affecting other organisms.
Biological controls will continually target the pest while not affecting other potentially beneficial
coexisting organisms. Unlike chemical controls, biological controls are self–perpetuating, and the
pests upon which they are acting usually do not develop a resistance, or are slow to develop a
resistance. With proper research and understanding, the natural occurrence of biological controls can
make their use safer to humans and other organisms than that of synthetic

Goldenrod Lab Report
The relationship between the existence of gall on the goldenrod and the development on the plants
by using aspect measurement at the Riverwood Conservatory
Introduction
This study shows that the present of the gall on the stems of goldenrod has a taller height of stems
than the ones that without galls. The averaging about 4 feet (1.2m) in height, goldenrod is a
perennial with clusters of bright yellow flowers. It has been used for centuries in the treatment of
kidney stones, urinary tract infections, a variety of other medical condition. (1) Survival probability
depends on gall size; in small galls the larvae is vulnerable to parasitoid ovipositor, whereas larvae
in large galls are more frequently eaten by avian predators. (2) During the ... Show more content on
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First of all, the existing of a gall would not impact on the development on the Goldenrod plants,
such as based on average stem height, which was the stem height is shorter than the ones are normal
by the factor of the presence of a gall. Secondly, the presence of a gall also would not impacted the
diameter of gall and in general that won't be an impact on the plants' development. Moreover, based
on the result that have been collected, the Goldenrod stem was thinner than the normal ones also by
a factor of whether there was a gall or not on the plants. The presence of a gall did not significantly
affect final stem height but did slow the growth of ramets during the period of most rapid gall
growth. (3)Major errors that could occurred during this investigation was that groups were not able
to give out a confidence measurement as in a total that nine group might have performed this
observation by using their particular way, which means the data collection might be uncertain due to
the groups perform the experiment differently. On top of it, it is important that whether the
performed group used a ground as a reference point for recording the height of stem from the plant,
which would lead to the failed of the hypothesis and draw an incorrect result at the end of this
observation. Suggestion that could avoid this error occur is to give specific way

The Function Of Mate Guarding Of The Field Crickets
The function of mate guarding in the field crickets, Gryllus bimaculatus
Abstract:
In insect species with indirect sperm transfer, sperm is packed in a spermatophore that is either
externally attached to the female 's genital opening or introduced into her bursa copulatrix. Sperm
transfer is not immediate in these species, and consequently mate guarding has been suggested to
function as a mechanism of guarding sperm until it is released from the spermatophore into the
female (i.e. spermatophore guarding). Spermatophore guarding is relatively common in insect
species with external spermatophores (e.g. Orthoptera; Alcock 1994; Simmons 2001), but
supposedly absent in species with internal spermatophores and rapid sperm release (Simmons
2001). This study focuses on two hypothesis associated with mate guarding a tactic of many species
that adjust their reproductive behaviour according to the apparent risk of sperm competition. The
phenomenon of mate guard to consider sperm competition levels and evolution of internal
spermatophore guard is wide spread in insects and other animals. We analyse two hypothesis one
the rival exclusion followed by the next spermatophore renewal hypothesis. Results showed that as
rival was introduced to the arena of mating of the distinctive original male (guard) in many cases
showed a strong aggressive behaviour regardless of whether successively avert the rival. In the
second hypothesis certainly majority of the incidents showed an attempt of

Evolution By Natural Selection By Charles Darwin
Evolution by natural selection, proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, requires a population to have
three necessities. These include variation, which leads to differences in fitness, and a form of
heredity for this variation (Bourrat 2014). Natural selection acts solely by accumulating slight,
successive, and favorable variations and cannot produce great or sudden modifications because it
can act only by very short and slow steps (Darwin 1859). Nevertheless, there are always numerous
potential selective pressures in nature that limit a population's evolution and fitness like predation.
Plants form the foundation on which communities and ecosystems are assembled and which food
webs are created. Accordingly, the understanding of factors that establish plant distribution,
abundance is essential for our understanding of ecology at large. As major constituents of most
ecosystems and chronic agents of plant damage, consumers have great potential to heavily impact
plant abundance and distribution (Maron and Crone 2006). Particularly, herbivore populations like
Eurosta solidaginis typically sustain heavy attacks from tortuous arrays of natural enemies
(Bergman and Tingey 1979). They frequently encounter parasitoid wasps and avian predators,
which impact the survival of the gallmakers. If a survivorship varies among gallmakers with
different traits, natural enemy attacks can potentially alter their traits in later generations (Warren et
al. 1989). Based upon other experiments

Impact Of Pesticides On The Parasitoid Coccidoxenoides...
IMPACT OF PESTICIDES ON MEALYBUG PARASITOID COCCIDOXENOIDES
PERMINUTUS (TIMBERLAKE) (HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE)
Akshay Mahesh Bhosale
Department of Agrochemicals and Pest Management, Shivaji University, Kolhapur–416004,
Maharashtra, India.
Email address: drambhosale@gmail.com
Corresponding Address:
Dr. Akshay Mahesh Bhosale
Flat No. 402, Swami Sadan Apartment, Railkar Hospital road,
Sambhaji Nagar, Loni–Kalbhor, Kadam–Wak Wasti,
Pune–412201, Maharashtra, India.
ABSTRACT:
Coccidoxenoides perminutus (Timberlake) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is solitary endoparasitoid
associated with mealybugs. Parasitoid having very good biocontrol potential against Phenacoccus
solenopsis Tinsley and Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The
parasitoid affected by several pesticides sprayed on vineyards for the control of pest species.
Bioassay of nine different pesticides through dry film method was conducted in the laboratory by
using adults and pupae of parasitoid. Among tested pesticides Spirotetramate and Horti–Impact
caused high mortality of adult parasitoid and similarly these pesticides also found toxic towards
adult emergence of parasitoid. Whereas, drenching of Imidacloprid and Clothianidin cause moderate
mortality of parasitoids emerged from cocoons. The emerged parasitoids from treated cocoons were
tested for their longevity. Even 24 hours after treatment (HAT) Agroclean (10.00%), Azadirachtin
5% (16.66%), Spida (20.00%), Brigade (30.00%) and Azadirachtin 1%

Local and Regional Forces
Section B. Is local diversity a product of regional forces, local forces, or both, and how might we
know? In ecology, the change in species diversity across space and time is one of the oldest studied
subjects, however the underlying causes of many diversity patterns is under much debate (Field et
al. 2001; MacArthur, 1972; Rosenzweig, 1995). How does diversity arise (Erwin 1991)? How is
diversity distributed in space (Dean et al. 1997, Fonseca et al. 2000)? And how is diversity
maintained (Lande, 1988)? Are three fundamental questions that ecologist look to answer. Early
studies focused around the role of competition in determining diversity at local scales, today
however it is emphasized that many factors on top of competition, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The second type of manipulation varies the isolation of regional areas from a species source region
and thus the species pools for their embedded communities which is represented in a marine study
where reef environments are associated with coral species assemblages (Cornell et al. 2004; 2008).
Five regions with different diversities at three local scales along a longitudinal gradient from
Indonesian archipelago, where species richness peaks at 600+ sp., to the French Polynesia, with
only a peak of 130 (Cornell et al. 2004). The eastward decline in richness is explained by declining
area of shallow water habitat within each region (Bellwood et al. 2005) partnered with isolation
from the Indonesian diversity hotspot due to distance (Cornell & Karlson, 1998) and
westward–flowing currents (Connolly et al. 2003) suggesting regional influence on species
diversity. Slopes of regressions of log–LSR on log–RSR were linear suggesting local assemblages
are again open to enrichment from regional species pool (Cornell et al. 2008). Following on from
this, substantial literature has sought to document what has come to be termed the local–regional
richness relationship (Caley & Schluter, 1997; Cornell, 1999; Cornell & Lawton, 1992;
Gaston, 2000; Gaston & Koleff, 2002; Lawton,

The Impact Of Spinosad And Nucleopolyhedrovirus Alone And...
Impact of Spinosad and Nucleopolyhedrovirus Alone and In
Combination against the Cotton Leaf wormSpodoptera littoralis under laboratory
*1
AA. El–Helalyand HM. El–bendary
2
1.Entomology Department, Faculty ofAgriculture, Cairo University, Egypt
2. Plant Protection Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Fayoum University, Egypt
Corresponding author:AA El–Helaly
Keywords A B S T R A C T
Spodoptera littoralis
Spinosad, npvs
Combination
Biological aspects
The toxicity of the two biorational insecticides, Spinosad and NPVs, against neonates of Spodoptera
littoralis (Bosiduval) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) was tested under laboratory conditionsin order to determine the competitive efficacy.
The ability of Spinosad to protect the SpliNPV from Ultra Violet effects under synthetic laboratory
conditions was determined, and some biological aspects of both biorational insecticides and their
mixture were studied. In order to determine whether or not there is a synergetic effect when both of
these biorational pesticides are added together, six different Spinosad concentrations (1, 2, 5, 10, 15
and 30 ppm) alone and mixed with a sub–lethal concentration of SpliNPV (1×10
3
) were investigated. When the Ultra Violet effect was determined, the LC
90
of
NPVs mixed with LC10 of Spinosad, in order to investigate the ability of
Spinosad in prolonging the virus activity. Sample: Department of
Entomology (Virology Unit)

Plant Analysis : Plants And Diversify Our Ecosystems
Plants shape and diversify our ecosystems by providing a number of different resources to the
communities they surround. Plant ecology is important for predicting plant distribution and
abundance for the maintenance of our ecosystems. Studying plant–consumer interactions yields
information on ecosystem and economic stability, as well as community structure that can all lead to
a variety of conservation efforts. Herbivory is a driving factor that can be detrimental to plant
communities like the spruce budworm throughout Canada (Swetman and Lynch 1989, Alfaro et al.
1982, Morin 1994) or can maintain high diversity within the community as suggested by the
Janzen–Connell hypothesis (Janzen 1970, Connell 1971).
Herbivores can range from large ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Such ranges of herbivores will induce different plant defense strategies. Many host plants have
natural physical defensive strategies such as waxy leaf cover, leaf wax layers, and thorns to prevent
or limit predation (Grubb 1992). Plants can also limit their exposure to herbivores by flowering for
short periods of time, such as the short flowering time of the Thymus decussatus (Sinai Thyme)
(Thompson and Gilbert 2014). Phenological shifts used as defensive strategies may ensure that co–
evolution only occurs between a small number of specialist herbivores, limiting the herbivory
density. Additionally, some plants will release defensive chemicals to fight herbivorous insects. The
potency of these chemicals will depend on the predatory insect and whether the insect is a generalist
or specialist herbivore (Ali and Agrawal 2012, Viswanathan et al. 2005, Steinbrenner et al. 2011).
Generalists are thought to evoke a stronger response to defensive chemicals than specialists. When
the comparison was drawn between a generalist herbivore Helicoverpa zea (corn earworm) and a
specialist herbivore Manduca sexta (Tobacco hornworm) the host plant Solanum lycopersicum
(tomato plant) responded differently. H. zea strongly affected defense–related metabolite
concentrations while M. sexta induced an increase of carbon and nitrogen to the damaged tissues
which most likely wouldn't alter the palatability of the leaves significantly

Global Warming And Climate Change Essay
Global warming and climate change will trigger major change in diversity and abundance of
arthropods, geographical distribution of insect– pests, insect population dynamics, insect biotypes,
and herbivore– plant interaction, activity and abundance of natural enemies and efficacy of crop
protection technologies changes in geographical range and insect abundance will increase the extent
of crop losses and thus, will have a major bearing on crop production and food security. Distribution
of insect– pest will also be influenced by the change in cropping pattern triggered by climate
change. Major insect pests such as cereal stem borers (chillo, sesamia and scirpophaga), pod borer
(Helicoverpa, Marucaand Spodoptera), aphid and white fly, may more to temperate regions, leading
to greater damage in cereals, legumes, vegetables and fruits crops. Host plant resistance,
biopesticides, natural enemies and synthetic chemicals are some of the potential options for
integrated pest management. However, the relative efficacy of many of these pest control measures
is likely to change as a result of global warming. Climate change will also result in increased
problems with insect– transmitted diseases. These changes will have major implications for crop
protection and food security particularly in developing countries where the need to increase and
sustain food production is most urgent. Long term monitoring of population level and insect
behavior, particularly in identifiably sensitive

A Test on Rachel Carson's Book Silent Spring
AP Biology/Pd. 2
11/13/13
"Silent Springs" Test
Content Questions:
1. Carlson classifies modern insecticides into two groups of chemicals. The first group, represented
by DDT, is known as the "chlorinated hydrocarbons" and the other group, represented by Malathion
and parathion, consists of the organic phosphorus insecticides. Although both are organic, the
organic phosphorous insecticides are more poisonous than the chlorinated hydrocarbons and have
the ability to destroy enzymes.
2. When insecticides "are built on a basis of carbon atoms," it is both ingenious and threatening
because carbon atoms are the basic building blocks of the living world. They can be modified to
become the chemistry of all life, but they can also be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Too much of the insecticides will allow acetylcholine to build up which would lead to convulsions
and eventually death.
2. Research in the early 1960s proved that high levels of DDT found in predatory birds were the
cause of the decrease in their populations. When the predatory birds came in contact with DDT,
their reproduction was directly affected. As a result of DDT's presence in the predatory bird's body,
the eggshells of these birds started to become slender. These eggshells become so thin that whenever
the mother bird would lie on the egg waiting for it to hatch, the eggs would break. Thus, the
predatory bird population had no means of increasing, since their reproduction was not successful.
Biological magnification had a large role to play in the decrease of the predatory bird population.
Spraying of DDT on vegetation led to contamination of the prey populations such as fish. These
prey started building large concentrations of DDT within their bodies. As a result, the predatory
birds also got contaminated, since they preyed upon contaminated animals.
3. With regards to the genetic makeup of target insect populations, heavy pesticide use can alter
their DNA to the point where the insects develop a resistance to certain insecticides like malaria
mosquitoes to DDT. These effects can be counterproductive to long–term insect control because one
the

Disadvantages Of Neonicotinoids
Knock Off Inorganic Pesticides to Coconut Trees The Philippines is now facing a serious industry
problem regarding the infestation of coconut scale insects, commonly known as cocolisap, to large
coconut plantations. This plant parasite eats on the leaf of a plant. This prevents photosynthesis
causing the low productivity of the plant. Cosico (2014) stated that, "At least 60 percent of the total
coconut farming areas in the country, most of which are in the CALABARZON area, are infected
with cocolisap and it has crossed over to Basilan in Mindanao Region." Due to this, the government
released chemical called neonicotinoids to obviate these cocolisap. It is said that neonicotinoids is
effective but there are some groups who take a stand against this neonicotinoids, restraining this for
important reason. They do not want this to be use because they believe that this chemical will only
bring out more problems ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It can be in ecological and industrial aspect. If we are to allow this neonicotinoids, we should be the
one responsible for the changes or damages in our ecosystem. Researchers said that the effect of
neonicotinoids will be serious and for long term. Neonicotinoids will cure trees by removing
cocolisap but eventually, it will also affect those natural enemies that can help to regulate the
production of cocolisap and will also affect the totality of the tree by means of the residue of
neonicotinoids that is said to cause cancer and abnormality to humans (Umil, 2014 par. 11&14).
Moreover, it is not just in the ecological aspect that this chemical will have effects. It also affect the
countries aim to have organic certification. If neonicotinoids will be use, our products cannot be
sold as organic or natural (Murcia, 2014 par.4). It is obvious that this chemical should not be
allowed because it will cause more problems rather than fixing

Buchnera Aphidicol Southern Blot Analysis
Aphids possess bacteriocytes that are specific to its obligate mutualist, Buchnera aphidicola. It
seems that this genus has lost genes that are essential to its life. Through Southern Blot analysis,
Nikoh and Nakabachi have shown that these lost genes are actually encoded in the aphid genome.
Through detailed structural and phylogenetic analyses, the full–length sequences of these transcripts
were determined. This demonstrated that these transcripts are indeed significantly similar to
multiple bacterial genes. While the Buchnera no longer possess these genes, other similar bacteria
(E. Coli) possess these genes. Nikoh and Nakabachi were able to conclude that they found several
pieces of evidence that show that aphids are indeed able to acquire genes from bacteria through
lateral gene transfer. They also claim that these genes are used to maintain their obligate mutualistic
relationship with the bacteria, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
show similar results in another study. The same species as the one mentioned before, Buchnera
aphidicola has a highly reduced genome, which increases the chances that gene transfer occurred
from the bacteria to the aphid. Using the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, they were able to provide
stronger support of the transfer of 12 genes from the bacteria to the aphid genome. While they were
able to identify this transfer between the pea aphid and the bacteria, they found that none of these
genes were transferred between Buchnera and the aphid, just like in the previous study. Sandstrom
et al. looked at different ways this gene transfer could have occurred. Insects in general usually host
'secondary' bacterial symbionts along with primary endosymbionts. Both symbionts are maternally
transmitted. Their results showed that a community of bacteria invades aphid cells and are
transmitted both vertically and horizontally among other aphid lineages. They present other
potential possibilities of transfer through ingestion from plant surfaces and plant

Global Climate Change : A Threat Of Aphid Populations Essay
Global Climate Change: A Threat to Aphid Populations
Abstract
Global climate change is a matter of grave concern in the present scenario casting its significant and
lasting effect on the flora and fauna dwelling over earth. A number of factors such as biotic
processes, variations in solar radiation received by earth, plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions certain
human activities can be considered as key components responsible for this devastating phenomenon.
Aphid populations are also under potential threat by the effects caused by the changes in the
climatic conditions posing a direct and indirect effect on the predators consuming aphids as food
resulting in overall ecological imbalance.
Keywords: Global climate change, aphids, ecological imbalance.
Global Climate Change
We are now threatened by self–inflicted, swiftly moving environmental shifts whose long–term
biological and ecological consequences result in the depletion of the protective ozone layer, global
warming observed in the last 150 years, obliteration of an acre of forest every second, rapid–fire
extinction of species and the prospect of a global nuclear war which can threaten the survival of
both plants and animals. There may be other such risks we are unaware off at present. Individually
and cumulatively, these dangers designate the presence of a trap being set for human species.
However principled and lofty the justifications may have been for the activities that brought forth
these dangers,

Cactus Moth Research Paper
The Argentine Cactus Moth, Cactoblastis cactorum Berg (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), an invasive
insect in North America, poses the serious threat to native, endangered opuntioid species in the
southeastern USA as well as with the potential to cause a major infestation of commercial and
agricultural cactus crops in Mexico. The Cactus Moth was first reported in the Florida Keys in 1989
and later spread throughout the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. The Cactus moth
outbreak in the southeastern US possibly will affect the entire desert ecosystem because wild
opuntioid species of these regions provide nesting sites and food for a variety of wildlife and
contribute to soil stability. Efforts to control the North American spread of the

Sphinx Moth Research Paper
Pollinator common name: Commonly known as Blackburn's Sphinx Moth, Hawaiian Tobacco
Hornworm, and Hawaiian Tomato Hornworm. It is related to the Tomato Hornworm (M.
quinquemaculata) however, it is a separate species (Wikipedia). Scientific name: Manduca
blackburni, Manduca blackburni Butler Family: Sphingidae Figure 1. Manduca blackburni. (A)
Unhatched M. blackburni egg, eaten or parasitized based on damage to egg shell. Found on N.
glauca. (B) Hatched egg. Most larvae quickly ate the entire eggshell after hatching; in this case, it
was only partially eaten. Consumption of the eggshell, in part or whole, can be indicative of a
successful hatch. (C) Late first instar larva; note the red color and prominence of the horn. (D)
Second instar ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Data regarding its habitat affinities and population status are lacking. Larvae of Blackburn's sphinx
moth feed on plants in the nightshade family (Solanaceae). The native host plants are trees within
the genus Nothocestrum (aiea) on which the larvae consume leaves, stems, flowers, and buds. Many
of the host plants recorded for this species are not native to the Hawaiian Islands. The non–natives
include: commercial tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca), eggplant
(Solanum melongena), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), and possibly, Jimsonweed (Datura
stramonium). Blackburn's sphinx moth adults have been documented feeding on nectar of the native
Hawaiian morning glory species, Ipomoea indica. The Hawaiian native caper (Capparis
sandwichiana) and wild leadwort (Plumbago zeylanica) are also likely food sources. All three plant
species bear flowers that possess some characteristics favorable for moth pollination, such as
opening at night, pale coloration, or a strong fragrance (Xerces Society 2014). Most historical
records were from coastal or lowland dry forest habitats in areas receiving less than 127 centimeters
(50 inches) annual

Impacts On Insect Bio Ecology
Impacts on insect bio–ecology
Phonological asynchrony
The major impact of elevated temperature is the associated advancement in the phenology of life
history events for many plant and animal species which ultimately results in disruption of synchrony
between the interacting pairs. Especially the specialists are more affected than generalist species.
For example the spatial mismatch between the monophagous insect Boloria titania (Esper)
(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) and its larval host Polygonum bistortad was reported due to differential
range expansion of each species (Schweiger et al. 2008). Another example for phenological
asynchrony is recorded by Visser and Holleman (2001), they reported that 90% eggs of winter moth,
Operophtera brumata (L.) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) hatched before the new leaf flush appearance
of its host, Quercus robur. Insects are more capable of advancing their lifecycle to the changes in
their host this was reported by Both et al., (2009) in his long term experiment in European mixed
wood land comprising four trophic levels viz., oak, oak moth, song bird and hawk. The generalist
pollinators are keeping pace with climate indued changes in the flowering phenology of plants
(Bartomeus et al., 2011). In a bitrophic interaction, host parasitoid interaction under elevated
temperature and shading was studied by Klapwijk et al., (2010) and they reported that Euphydrias
aurinia (Rottermburg) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) and its specialized Braconidae

Thrips
Thrips are members of the order Thysanoptera and have a slender body morphology with fringed
wings. Similar to whiteflies, there are about 5,000 species of thrips, but 10 are known to vector plant
viruses (Hull, 2002c). Like aphids, their polyphagous nature and ability to reproduce quickly and
parthenogenically are contributing factors to their effectiveness as virus vectors. Thrips tabaci , for
example is capable of feeding on 140 different plants species and produce several generations
within a year (Hull, 2002c). Thrips are known for vectoring tospoviruses which have a persistent
propagative relationship, where the only the first instar larvae can acquire the virus, the larval
instars are wingless and not very active, so these are not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Salivation in piercing sucking insects is considered important in the dispersal of plant viruses
(Bragard et al., 2013). Alternatively, chewing beetles regurgitate during feeding which then covers
their mouthparts with plant sap, but counter intuitively does not allow for a purely mechanical
transmission of viruses. There is still specificity due to RNase activity and retention involved with
beetle transmission. While it may seem that there are not many known beetle vectors of plant
viruses, due to the size and diversity of the Coleoptera order, it is believe there are many that remain
to be discovered (Hull, 2002c).
Plant viruses can have many negative impacts on agricultural crops that often is difficult to quantify
into an estimated economic loss due to the inconspicuous nature of viruses. Damage imposed by
viruses can include a reduction in plant growth directly reducing yield or a reduction in vigor which
can leave a plant more susceptible to other environmental or pest related damage (Hull, 2002b). In
addition, viral symptoms can reduce the quality and marketability of the crop which can either be in
its appearance, composition, ability to keep, or be used as propagation material. Other mentionable
impacts are the costs associated with maintaining crop health due to viruses such as vector control,
cultural hygiene, producing and purchasing virus free material, quarantine programs, breeding
programs, and funding research programs (Hull, 2002b).
Plant

Photo Above: Plesiometa Argyra
Photo above shows a spider called Plesiometa argyra. This fellow is extremely good at weaving
web. His web can be as perfect as the masterpiece created by a renowned artist, Picasso. Though he
is good at creating beautiful arts, his life is not calm and peace. A parasitic wasp which he regards as
an alien has fully disturbed his tranquility life. The sting of this alien is powerful enough to control
his brain, making him "handicapped" from being thinking properly. This alien makes use of the
advantage of the weapon (stings) to implant the top secret codes into his brain. The alien delivers
the larvae together with the carefully planned "bombing blueprint" into his body with the aims to
colonize his private territory. Due to this intrusion, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The egg hatches into a larva which sucks the spider's blood through small holes, while the spider
goes on about its normal web building and insect catching behavior for the next one to two weeks.
When the larva is ready to pupate, it injects a chemical into the spider, causing it to build a web
whose design is completely different from any it has ever made, and then to sit motionless in the
middle of this web. Even if the larva is removed prior to the web–building process, the spider still
engages in aberrant web–spinning.[2][3] The wasp larva then molts, kills the spider with a poison
and sucks its body dry before discarding it and building a cocoon that hangs from the middle of the
web the spider has just built. The larva pupates inside the cocoon, then emerges to mate and begin
the cycle over again.
Normal orb weaving consists of several steps:
1. Build non–sticky frame lines attached to supporting objects and a few initial radial lines. This
process sometimes involves establishing connections with surrounding objects by floating a line in
the wind and hoping it catches somewhere.
2. Add more non–sticky radial lines attached to these frame lines, in some cases adding at the same
time less peripheral, "secondary" frame

Antagonistic Coevolution Between Bacterial And Phage...
Antagonistic Coevolution Between Bacterial and Phage Populations
PCB 4674
Fall 2016
Abstract
Often termed an "evolutionary arms–race," the enduring battle between bacterial and phage defenses
against one another has shed insight into the mechanisms behind coevolution, and how these
adaptations have led to diversification and speciation within both populations. Research into the
relationship has yielded evidence that antagonistic coevolution can be advantageous for both phage
and bacteria, often resulting in adaptations that would not have evolved by mutation through natural
selection alone.
This review provides background information on the relationship between bacteria and their phage,
elucidating some of the mechanisms behind antagonistic coevolution and the resulting adaptations
therein, and discusses the controversial use of phage therapy as treatment for some strains of
antibiotic–resistant bacteria. Data extracted from a study utilizing a species of marine bacteria and
phage is provided as an example of a few basic adaptations behind coevolution and how they can
lead to diversification in both host and parasitoid defenses, and subsequently, their populations.
Introduction Bacteriophage, or simply phage, are obligate intracellular viruses that invade bacterial
cells and take over the cellular machinery to replicate their viral genome and create new viral
progeny via lysis of the bacterial host cell (Buckling and Rainey 2002). Phage have been identified
as the

The Metamorphosis By Franz Kafka
It can be hard to understand the meaning of the novella "The Metamorphosis," written by Franz
Kafka, without thinking of the background. Due to the fact that, "using" and knowing "[the]
background knowledge" of a story is important to read a "text" (Freebody and Luke). In the novella
"The metamorphosis", "Kafka's personal history" has been "artfully [expressed]" (Classon 82). The
novella was written in 1916, before the World War 1 in German {Research}. When the novella was
written, in the Europe, preemption of human has kick–started through homogeneity of the object.
Moreover, owing to development of IT technology, people can live much more convenient life
rather than the past. According to the theory of Alvin Toffler, as the first wave of agriculture society
has arrived to the second wave of industry society, economy has developed rapidly {research}. This
change makes life more comfortable and affluent. Before the World War 1, the industrial revolution
had broken out and it "drastically altered the economies and social hierarchies of Europe" (Classon
12). Owing to industrial revolution and industrialization, as people could accumulate worth, people
put accumulation of worth ahead of everything. Furthermore, as labor became important and
precious, people have been regarded as the medium for development of industrial. Therefore, human
alienation and capitalism have been overflowed. In the novella "The Metamorphosis," Franz Kafka
criticizes human alienation which is occurred

Describe The Relationship Between Termites And Dermatobia...
1. A phoretic relationship is when two different species, who benefit from one another, travel
together throughout their relationship. An example of phoresis is the species of fly, Dermatobia
hominis. The fly attaches the larvae to another insect such as a mosquito and when the mosquito
travels and feeds on an animal or human, the eggs hatch and the larvae burrows itself into it's skin.
2. Mutualism is when both parties of the relationship benefit from the association. Obligatory
mutualism is when both species depend on one another in the relationship because otherwise they
would not be able to survive alone.
3. The obligatory relationship between termites and gut protozoa is very important. Termites bodies
do not produce the necessary enzymes that are essential in digesting the cellulose in wood. The
protozoa that live inside the gut of the termite, however, secrete the same enzyme that is ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Protozoa can reproduce both sexually and asexually and can go back and forth between the two
depending on its environment. With asexual reproduction protozoa reproduce by binary fission.
Some use multiple fission, also known as mergony or shizogony. The resulting daughter cells are
called merozoites. Another type of multiple fission called sporogony where meiosis occurs before
mitosis.
16. When the union of whole cell gametes are similar they are called isogametes. When they differ
they are called anisogametes.
17. Two individual ciliates unite and fuse their pellicles at the point of contact. The macronucleus in
each ciliate disintegrate and then the micronuclei undergo meiosis to produce four haploid pronuclei
and two of four of these pronuclei degenerate. The migratory pronucleus from each individual
ciliate moves into the other to fuse with the stationary pronucleus and restores the diploid status.
The cells then separate and undergo nuclear division to produce macronuclei. The resulting cells are
called exconjugates and are now ready to undergo sexual

Batesian Mimicry
2. Prey insects devised counter–defenses against natural enemies that interfere with four critical
steps of predations. These predation steps include encounter rate, likelihood of attack, probability of
capture, and killing (consuming) of prey.
Prey insects can reduce their encounter rate with predator via crypsis that include camouflage
mimicry, anti–predator behavior, and conceal feeding.Camouflage mimicry denotes when ornation
and/or morphological features of prey organism blend in with background or inedible objects such
as leaf, thorns, sticks and bird droppings. Anti–predator behavior can be observed when prey
organisms change their behavior in the presence of their predator to reduce the chance of detection
such as tadpoles decreasing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Physical can be urticating hairs found in caterpillars or fecal shields utilize by tortoise beetle larvae.
Chemical defense can be blistering agent (i.e. cantharidin) secreted by meloid beetles or explosive
hot noxious mixture (i.e. combination of hydroquinone and hydrogen peroxide) compounds ejected
by bombardier beetle upon attacks. Behavioral aggression denotes defensive behaviors such as
biting, thrashing, dropping, and regurgitation. The primary purpose of these defensive behavior is
make it difficult for predator to capture them. Escape behavior is observed when prey organism
actively try to escape predation such as when aphids drop from their host plant to floor when under
attack by a ladybird beetle. Acoustical interference is a specialized defensive behavior against
predators that utilize echolocation to hunt. For example, tiger moth can jam the echolocation cries of
bats with ultrasonic clicks. Recruitment of bodyguards can reduce probability of attack via
establishing mutually beneficial relationship with organism that may deter predator. For example,
many aphid species produce honeydew that attract ants which subsequently protection to aphids
against their predators.
Prey insects can reduce killing and consumption through behavior fever and encapsulation.
Behavioral fever

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