Bone Repair and Regeneration

Bone Injury Paper
There are 206 bones in the human body. Broken and fractured bones are one of the most common
injuries, about 6 million people in the US will break a bone each year. And out of these 300,000
people will have a serious injury that will require different methods to heal. There are a variety ways
of bone tissue repairing but most of them are not long term and can cause other complications.
There are different stages for bone repair. The first step is the formation of hematoma at the break,
then the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus, the third step is the formation of a bony callus, and
finally remodeling and addition of compact bone. In the early stages, a hematoma develops within
the fracture location during the first few hours and days. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After the animals were sedated their heads were shaved so an incision can be made on the dorsal
region of the skull so that the parietal bone can be exposed. This was so that a calvarial hole defect
could be made in the parietal region with the help of a trephine bur. Adherent hMSC's were
extended on each patch for 24 hours at 37 Celsius in a 5% CO2 moistened atmosphere. After the
cells were incubated they were placed on the calvarial defect. And an equal number cells treated
with 0.5% of fibrin–gel and place on the calvariel defects for the control
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Functions Of Type Vii Collagen
Pathophysiology
The COL7A1 gene contains the instruction manual for making proteins that are used for
strengthening and supporting the connective tissue in the body which includes tendons, ligaments,
bones and skin. "The proteins produced from the COL7A1 gene, called pro–α1 (VII) chains, are the
components of type VII collagen." (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/COL7A1) When three pro–α1 (VII)
chains twist together, they form a triple–stranded molecule called a procollagen, these molecules are
secreted by the cell and are processed by enzymes which remove extra protein segments. When
these procollagen molecules are processed by getting rid of the extra segment on the ends, they then
can arrange themselves into longer, thinner bundles of mature type VII collagen.
Type VII collagen is the major component of anchoring fibrils which is found in the basement
membrane zone, which is a two–layer membrane found between the epidermis, and the dermis.
"Anchoring fibrils hold the two layers of skin together by connecting the epidermal basement
membrane to the dermis." (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/COL7A1) Without the anchoring fibrils
holding those layers together the skin become extremely fragile and blistering occurs with the
slightest of trauma, heat, rubbing or friction. Injury may also occur from the removal of adhesive
tape or tight clothing. Children with EB are called "Butterfly Children" because their skin is so
fragile, like a butterfly's wings.
Diagnosis

Conjoint Tissue: A Case Study
within the tissue. Although there is obvious evidence that ultrasound temperature heats up thetarget
tissue, there is a lack of evidence depicting exactly how much the tissue is heated, so themajority of
evidence–based science regarding this aspect is qualitative in nature (Haar, 1999). Itis theorized that
the positive effects of ultrasound therapy, referring to strictly the thermal effects,result from
increased flexibility of tendons, ligaments, and scar tissue. These effects increasejoint movability,
decrease stiffness, aid in pain relief, and increase blood flow to the area treated.The non–thermal
effects are quite a bit more complex, involving more physics that centeraround sound–pressure
dynamics. The largest non–thermal effect is thought ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The sound waves heat up the tissue, offering thermal benefits, while at the sametime slightly
oscillating the tissue, offering non–thermal benefits (Watson, 2015). The thermaleffects including
bringing more blood flow to the treated area, decreasing joint stiffness, andincreasing the elasticity
of tendons (Haar, 1999). The non–thermal benefits include moving thetissue in a form of miniature
massage and altering the concentration gradients of potassium andsodium in the target tissue.
Ultrasound therapy can be beneficial for soft tissue, bone, and jointdamage. Ultrasound stimulates
tissue repair by increasing blood flow and collagen production indamaged soft tissue. In damaged
bone, ultrasound applied during the inflammation and earlyproliferative phase speeds up the
recovery process (Haar, 1999). During the application process,the area being treated should only be
roughly two times the size of the transducer head, and thehead should be perpendicular to the area
being treated. It is also important that the transducerstays in contact with the gel matrix on the skin
(Watson, 2015). Although ultrasound is typicallyagreed upon as an effective treatment, there is still a
group of scientists and healthcare providersthat disagree. There is a lack of evidence of exactly how
ultrasound works, which is needed toensure the utmost safety for patients being treated (Powers,
2017). Another

Essay On Junctional Epidermolysis Bullosa
Junctional epidermolysis bullosa (ep–i–der–mo–lie–sis bu–low–suh), also known as JEB, affects
about 25,000 people in the US and roughly 500,000 people around the world. Most of these people
are young children because JEB is often lethal and 40% of those with the disease do not survive
until adolescence. JEB is a recessive genetic connective tissue disorder, but there are currently no
genetic tests that can be done to see if parents may be carriers of the disease. Parents usually find out
that they are carriers after their child is born with the condition.
JEB can be characterized by symptoms including fragile skin that results in blisters and skin erosion,
and is prone to bacterial infections and skin cancers, such as squamous cell ... Show more content on
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An article in the New York Times recently mentioned a promising new treatment for JEB. After
losing ⅔ of his epidermis due to a bacterial infection, a 7–year–old boy with JEB was sent to a burn
unit in Germany, as burn units typically have treatments for people that lose a majority of their skin.
The boy was put in a medically–induced coma and doctors attempted to treat him with antibiotics,
bandages, special nutritional measures and a skin transplant from the boy's father. None of the
treatments worked and the boy was expected to live for only an additional two months.
Doctors at the hospital reached out to Dr. Michele De Luca, the director of the Center for
Regenerative Medicine Stefano Ferrari at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia in Italy. Dr.
De Luca had previous experience with smaller skin grafts for JEB, larger skin grafts for burn victims
and corneal grafts for eye injuries. His team removed ½ in2 of the boy's skin in an area where his
skin was not yet affected and genetically engineered his cells with a retroviral vector to the full
version of the LAMB3 complementary DNA, which was a precursor to the normal version of his
mutated gene. The cells were grown into sheets totaling 9 ft2 and grafted back onto his body. 80%
of the patient's skin was replaced and the treatment was successful. The boy remains recovered two
years after the treatment and is now

Regenerative Wound Medicine
Regenerative medicine such as tissue replacement and wound healing has been used quite
extensively for skin treatments over the years. Understanding the pathology of skin injury will bring
effective treatments and wound healing outcomes. Several strategies like traditional skin grafts,
certain biomaterials, and stem cell therapies are vital for current tissue injuries and the future of
tissue regeneration.
Introduction and Pathology
The skin is said to be the largest organ in a human body. It is divided into 3 layers: epidermis (outer
layer or superficial layer of the skin), dermis (connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands),
hypodermis (subcutaneous fat) (Chen, 2009). These layers act as a barrier by protecting the body
from environmental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Stem cells are multipotent which give rise to multiple cell types and are known for their self–
renewing and tissue differentiation abilities. Research has shown SCs to have successful results in
the field of skin regeneration (Duscher, 2016). SCs of interest for wound healing include adult
mesenchymal stem cells (MSC's), embryonic stem cells (ESC's), and induced pluripotent stem cells
(IPSC's). MSCs are isolated mainly from the bone marrow and other tissues such as adipose and
nerve tissues and are administered locally as well as systemically with little to no immunoreactivity
(Tartarini, 2016). MSCs regenerative benefits in wound injury is not seen in its structural
capabilities rather it's seen in its escape of trophic mediators (Duscher, 2016). Bone marrow MSCs
injected in wound sites produce high amounts of collagen and growth factors leading to faster
healing, epithelialization, angiogenesis, and cellularity (Duscher, 2016). Studies also show that bone
marrow derived MSCs injected in injury sites had decreased wound size, increased vascularity and
dermal thickness (Duscher, 2016). Although MSCs for wound therapy has been proven effective and
well tolerated in patients, there still seems to be limitations such as invasiveness of their harvest,
cost of resources, and hazards that deal with growing cell cultures to attain healing

Ceramics in the Medical Field
Ceramics have been used for thousands of years and have been used in a multitude of different
application. In the past 70 years ceramics have started to be used in the medical field1. Ceramics can
be categorized by its bio–safety and bioactivity. Bio–safe materials are non–toxic and non–
inflammatory as to avoid rejection from the body. Where the bioactivity is how it reacts to biological
material and processes. Typically ceramics have been used in surgical replacements such as bones
and teeth. These ceramics must be designed and optimized in order to perform in the body's
aggressive internal environment. Newer ceramics are being researched in order to improve structure,
functionality, and life expectancy. Some ceramics like calcium phosphate ceramics increase the
bioactivity by stimulating bone growth2. Some are designed to incorporate drugs that can be release
by external stimuli or by time releasing mechanisms. These bioceramic drug delivery systems are
being researched, as well as nano scale ceramics. Current research is not only looking at new and
improved bioceramics but is also looking into using ceramics for use in cancer treatments. The use
of ceramics in hyperthermia therapy is one of the methods currently being looking into3. The
ceramic that is used in have magnetic materials incorporated into the ceramic this allows for
external magnetic forces to heat up the ceramic which cause an increase of heat at the site of
implantation. This can causes

Histopathological Analysis
6.3.5.2. Histopathological Analysis Documented Enhanced Granulation Tissue Formation,
Angiogenesis, Collagen Deposition, and Neo–Epithelialization by NCs Treatment
The process of recovery in skin wounds occurs through complex biological mechanisms, which are
generally classified into three distinct but overlapping phases: inflammation, cell proliferation
leading to granulation formation, and tissue remodeling (Kalashnikova et al., 2015). At the outset of
the healing process (day 3), wound margins were easily demarcated by an abrupt interruption in
continuity between epithelium and dermis. Differences among the groups were semi–quantitatively
on the basis of inflammation, angiogenesis, fibroplasias and re–epithelialization were analyzed ...
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6.16). NCs also exhibited more neo–vascularization and neo–epithelialization. The neo–epithelial
layer from marginal wound edges was thick and connected to the underneath matrix in treatment
groups. A special M&T procedure was also carried out to evaluate collagen re–organization and
density of collagen fibrils (stained blue) as tissue repair progresses (Fig. 6.17a and b). At day 8 post–
wound (acute) and day 10 post–injury (diabetes), nano–structured cellulosic fibers present in NCs
were able to promote fibroblast migration, collagen deposition in the dermis and wound closure
more efficiently than control groups (Li et al., 2015). Similarly, bacterial cellulose–ZnO
nanocomposites have been known to accelerate healing by increasing proliferation of fibroblasts and
keratinocytes in burn wounds (Khalid et al., 2017). The dermal layer contained diffuse deposition of
collagen fibers with very little evidence of granulation tissue organization in control mice. The
increase in angiogenesis of NCs treated groups could be due to the release of lysozyme from the
wound. Lysozyme acts on cellulose to break it into monosaccharides and oligosaccharides
facilitating angiogenesis and tissue regeneration (Liu et al., 2014). AgNPs have also been known to
increase the angiogenetic effect.
On day 14 post–wounding (acute) and day 18 post–wound (diabetes), the regeneration of the neo–
epithelium has almost finished. The neo–epidermis by this time

The Effects Of Wound Healing On Diabetic Patients
eous wound healing and why some processes may be altered in diabetic patients
"The process by which tissue repair takes place is termed wound healing and is comprised of a
continuous sequence of inflammation and repair, in which epithelial, endothelial, inflammatory
cells, platelets and fibroblasts briefly come together outside their normal domains, interact to restore
a semblance of their usual discipline and having done so resume their normal function". ("The
Cellular Biology of Wound Healing" 2016)
Wound healing has 3 distinct stages, an inflammatory response, a proliferation phase and a
maturation phase, however wound healing is not a linear process and a patient can move back and
forth throughout the stages.
After the occurrence of a wound the inflammatory process immediately begins and can last up to 3
days ("Wound Healing" 2016), the initial injury causes the small vessels around the wound site to be
disturbed resulting in bleeding, the body's first response is a haemodynamic one in that it restricts
these vessels in order to prevent blood loss. There then comes a rapid release of preformed
inflammatory mediators from the cells surrounding the injury, the first thing this causes is the
aggregation of platelets, these platelets adhere to extracellular surface structures which are exposed,
such as collagen and basement membranes, this in turn causes serotonin from platelet stores to be
stimulated. (Kirk, Phillips and Murray 2001)
As well as attracting further

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Laparoscopy
Laparoscopic surgery is one of the most commonly used modality in surgical technique, being
performed 7.5 million surgeries annually worldwide.
It is an alternative technique for carrying out many operations that have traditionally required an
open approach. Laparoscopy is a minimally invasive surgery performed though small incisions. It
presents benefits, compared with traditional open surgeries, including shorten recovery times; lower
postoperative morbidity; allow patients to return to work and regular activities faster; and produce
better cosmetic results. Laparoscopic procedure starts with small incisions kept open with trocars.
Then, to make room for the surgery to be performed, the abdomen is insufflated with carbon dioxide
gas and a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Generally divided into running and interrupted closures. Running sutures have the advantage of
speed, since knots need only be tied at two or three points. And comparing to interrupted sutures, the
helical nature of running stitch evenly distributes tension along the entire wound and allows for
superior perfusion. However, if one is insecurely tied, or breaks, the whole incision will not come
apart. If tied only tightly enough to approximate the tissue, but loosely enough to permit adequate
perfusion of the fascia within the suture, such sutures can provide a secure closure without necrosis.
There is, however, an inherent tendency to pull forcefully on these sutures as they are being tied.
This is unquestionably the reverse of what is best. If interrupted sutures are not done properly, they
can be a greater impediment to a strong closure than a running suture that produces inherently less

The Extracellular Matrix of Multi-Cellular Animals
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a feature of all multi cellular animals . It is a complex network of
proteins secreted locally by cells via exocytosisalberts. The protein components that form the ECM
include proteoglycans, glycoproteins such as fibronectin and fibres such as collagen. In addition a
family of five matricellular proteins called thrombospondins are present.
All cells are in close contact with the ECM either continuously or at important phases of their
development27. The ECM provides a physical environment in which a cell exists. It supplies the
substrate for cell anchorage, wound repair and for transmitting environmental signals which affects
the proliferation, differentiation and survival of a cell 1.
Even though the assembly of ECM proteins into the highly organized functional matrix is known to
be absolutely vital for the survival and normal development of animals it is still not fully
understood5. Continued understanding of this dynamic structure is needed due to the important role
the ECM plays in the normal development and function of tissues, homeostasis, wound repair and
regeneration in multi cellular organisms. Therefore among the many ECM protein components that
interact, the formation of collagen networks is pertinent to this study.
The collagens are arguably the most dominant protein in the ECM. The collagens represent a large
heterogeneous family of ECM glycoproteins which contain at least one triple helical domain
collagen family. All

History Of Dental Pulp Stem Cells
Introduction
Regeneration of tissues to replace diseased, missing and traumatized dentin/pulp emerges from
recent progress in stem cell and tissue engineering research. Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) are
considered a promising population of cells in regenerative dentistry and have been shown to produce
dentin/pulp–like tissues following implantation in vivo (Gronthos et al., 2000; Gronthos et al., 2002;
Shi et al., 2001). Importantly, DPSCs reside in the microvasculature region of the dental pulp and
interact with perivascular cells (Shi and Gronthos, 2003). Therefore, endothelial cells could be a
major source of modulators of pulp–dentin development and angiogenesis. We recently showed that
co–culture of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) with DPSCs enhances
osteo/odontogenic differentiation and angiogenesis in monolayer cultures (Dissanayaka et al., 2012).
However, the interactions of these two cells in angiogenesis and pulp–like tissue regeneration in
vivo remain unknown.
Shaping functional dentin/pulp complex from monodispersed expanded cell cultures is an ongoing
challenge. Tissue engineers have thus mostly relied on biomaterials/scaffolds in which cells can
grow and differentiate. Several reports have shown that dental stem cells being seeded onto a matrix
scaffold and transplanted in vivo form a new tissue similar to that of the native pulp (Cordeiro et al.,
2008; Rosa et al., 2013). However, none of the scaffolds described so far has all the structure

Animal Models And Clinical Trials
(WY Mak et. Al, 2014) discusses the concerns of the fact that many drugs that are successful in
animal trials are not successful in clinical trials, most specifically, drugs used in cancer treatments.
Animal models have been an important factor in the testing of a new drug before it is used in
clinical trials, but many drugs that are approved in animal models are not successful in human
models. It has been shown that 85% of early clinical trials for novel drugs are not successful and
from the remaining 15%, only half are approved for human use. The reason there is a difference in
results between animal models and clinical trials have to do with the inability of animals to
identically mimic human body functions. An example of a trial that had a difference in results is the
TGN1412 trial. TGN1412 was a drug used to treat diseases such as MS, rheumatoid arthritis, and
certain cancers. Before used in clinical trials, this drug was first tested in mice. There were no
complications shown in mice that would indicate complications in humans. Humans in clinical trials
were given a dose 500 times lower than the dose given to mice and it resulted in catastrophic organ
failure. Another study involving IPI–296 in patients with advanced chondrosarcoma was ended early
due to the fact that it had no effect shown in clinical trials. When IPI–296 was used on mice, they
were shown to have an increase in survival rate. This showed that the effects of the drug on animal
models was different

Case 4.19 The Extracellular Matrix Of Animal Cells
4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells function in support and regulation
Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that remain outside the plasma membrane
Animal cells produce elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
This layer holds cells together in tissues and protects and supports the plasma membrane
Main components of ECM are, glycoproteins, proteins bonded with cars
The most abundant glycoprotein is collagen, which forms strong fibers outside the cell
ECM many attach to the cell through other glycoproteins that then bind to membrane proteins called
integrins
Integrins span the membrane attaching on the other side to proteins connected to microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton
Integrins transmit signals between ECM and the cytoskeleton ... Show more content on
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4.22 Review: Eukaryotic cell structure can be grouped on the basis of four main functions
First category: genetic control – nucleus that houses genetic instructions and ribosomes that produce
proteins coded for in those instructions
Second category: organelles of the endomembrane system that are involved in manufacturing,
distribution, and breakdown of materials
Third category: two energy processing organelles (mitochondria & chloroplasts)
Fourth category: structural support, movement, and intercellular communication
Manufacturing depends on membranes
Energy–processing depends on endomembranes
STRUCTURE OF CELL IS CLOSELY RELATED TO ITS SPECIFIC FUNCTION
?: Mitochondria gives the energy, Cytoskeleton is made up of muscle cells, and smooth ER gives the
calcium to muscle cells in order to have muscle

The Reorganization Of Structural Components Of Tumors Essay
6. EDC exposure elicits oncogenic changes in matrix components and tumor architecture The
importance of extracellular matrix (ECM) composition, stiffness, 3D architecture and its influence
cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and survival have been well characterized(Jansen et al.,
2015) (Kourouklis, Kaylan, & Underhill, 2016; Yang et al., 2016) (Coombs, Leonard, Rush,
Santistevan, & Hedberg–Dirk, 2016; Rammensee, Kang, Georgiou, Kumar, & Schaffer, 2016;
Subbiah et al., 2016).Cells can sense discreet changes in ECM make–up, and have been shown to
behave differently in a 2D in vitro setting compared to in 3D in vitro culture (Alessandri et al., 2014;
Lu et al., 2013). While the precise mechanism remains to be defined, the tumor stiffness has been
implicated as a potential initiator of metastasis and tumor progression (Fenner et al., 2014). The
reorganization of structural components of tumors has been shown to enhance both tumor formation
and metastasis, demonstrating a structural link between density, the stromal component, and the
tumor (Chaudhuri et al., 2014). Furthermore, epithelial cells are known to respond to changes in
environmental stiffness enhancing proliferation and cell motility (Chaudhuri et al., 2014). The
composition of the architecture of tumors differs from that of normal tissue both in molecular
makeup and mechanical properties (rigidity and tensile forces) (Hansen & Bissell, 2000)Tumor cells
will react to changes in architecture leading to

Cystic Fibroblasts
Fibroblasts are mesenchymal cells that play an important role in the wound healing process. These
cells are responsible for releasing inflammatory agents that recruit white blood cells to areas of
damaged tissue. Fibroblasts also respond to these chemicals and differentiate into myofibroblasts.
These myofibroblasts are characterized by their up–regulated rate of extracellular matrix component
production and their ability to physically manipulate the extracellular matrix. When the wound
healing process becomes unregulated, this results in what is referred to as a fibrotic response
(Kendall). As a result fibrosis, or the thickening and scarring of connective tissues, occurs. Fibrosis
is the excess deposition of ECM components like collagen and ... Show more content on
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The first experiment we ran was the α–smooth muscle actin (asma) stain. The purpose of this stain
was to use a primary and secondary antibody to indirectly stain the microfilaments that characterize
myofibroblasts. Under a fluorescent microscope, this will provide a visual representation of how
many fibroblasts in our samples had differentiated into myofibroblasts. To set up for this
experiment, fibroblasts were plated on coverslips and incubated for seven days, to reach 100%
confluency, in either the presence or absence of allopurinol. After one week the coverslips were
fixed with methanol and the first antibody, a mouse anti–human asma, was applied onto the
coverslip and kept refrigerated overnight. The next day the coverslips were rinsed with PBS, all
rinses are performed with PBS, and the second antibody, a goat anti–mouse rhodamine, was applied
to the coverslips for thirty minutes in a dark place. Lastly, after another rinse, a DAPI counterstain,
which would interact with the DNA in the nucleus of every fibroblast to make them visible, was
applied for fifteen minutes and rinsed. Then the coverslips were mounted onto slides with glycerol
and looked at under the fluorescent microscope. The nuclei of all of the cells lit up blue and the
microfilaments in the differentiated fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, lit up bright

A Study On Cell Adhesion Molecules
Name:
Instructor's Name:
Course:
Date:
Cell Adhesion Molecules
Introduction
Cells are independent units of life. However, when a cell becomes part of an organism, it becomes
part of a tissue and organ system. Cells in a tissue are joined to each other and to the extracellular
matrix (ECM) by cell junctions. There are three kinds of cell junctions: Occluding junctions,
anchoring junctions and communication junctions. Occluding junctions occur in the epithelium
where the adjacent cells are so tightly sealed together that even small molecules cannot pass.
Communicating junctions allow the exchange of chemical and electrical signals between cells.
Anchoring junctions are the ones which attach a cell either to its neighbor or to the extracellular
matrix. Formation of an anchoring junction requires the cells to stick to each other. Various
molecules mediate adhesion between cells following which the cytoskeleton forms a structure
around them. The anchoring junctions thus formed can be of four types– desmosomes,
hemidesmosomes, focal adhesions and adherens junctions. In order for a proper tissue to form, it is
important for the cells of the tissue to bind together. It is equally important to prevent the invasion
and binding of other cells. Thus, cell adhesion has to be specific. This is where the cell adhesion
molecules come into play (Alberts et al. 2002).
Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) Adhesion of cells to other cells and to the ECM is mediated by
certain proteins on the

The Extracellular Matrix Network
The structural support of heart is attributed to the extracellular matrix network of the heart. Pumping
action of heart is due to the force generated by cardiomyocyte. The extracellular matrix network
mainly consist of type I collagen with smaller amounts of type III collagen. This collagen network
facilitates the transmission of a systolic force [9]. Tensile strength is provided by thick fibers mainly
of type I collagen (85 % of total myocardial collagen). Type III collagen (11 % of the total collagen
protein in the heart), forms thin fibers and is responsible for elasticity of the matrix network. Cardiac
matrix network, morphologicaly can be subdivided into three constituents: the epimysium,
perimysium and endomysium [10] (Figure 1). The entire cardiac muscle is enveloped by epimysium
and is located on the endocardial and epicardial surface providing support for endothelial and
mesothelial cells. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The individual muscle fibers are enwrapped by endomysium, the final arborisation of the
perimysium. Endomysial struts tethers muscle fibers together and with their nutrient
microvasculature. It also functions as the sites for connections to cardiomyocyte cytoskeletal
proteins across the plasma membrane [9, 11]. Increased perimysial deposition of collagen results in
interstitial fibrosis, and involvement of the intramural coronary arterial vasculature causes
perivascular fibrosis in a fibrotic heart. In addition to collagens, glycoproteins, glycosaminoglycans
(hyaluronan), and proteoglycans forms the cardiac extracellular matrix. Latent growth factors and
proteases in the cardiac extracellular matrix may trigger the fibrotic response with their activation
following injury

Dislodged Cell Essay
Dislodged cells undergo a Special type of cell death named anoikis based on loss of cell – matrix
interaction mediated by intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathway. In intrinsic pathway after cell–
ECM detachment, BH3–only proteins (Bim and Bid) stimulate Bax and Bak pro–apoptotic proteins
oligomerization and pore creation in mitochondrial outer membrane. Because of these pores,
cytochrome C and SMAC/DIABLO proteins will be release from mitochondria into the cytosol.
Ultimately apoptosome complex formation induces executioner caspase activation and proteolysis.
Another involved route activate when extracellular death ligand such as FAS or TRAIL bind to their
receptors on the cell surface and launches downstream pathway. After ... Show more content on
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Also in oxidative stress, inducing ATG proteins expression through PERK (Protein kinase RNA–like
endoplasmic reticulum kinase) activate canonical autophagy. DUE TO the activation of these
proteins autophagy begins, (and consequently or so) sustains the required energy of the cell. Another
temporary saving strategy in physiological condition is Provisional disengagement occurs during
cell migration. Cells take a different type of motility style in their transient displacement like
Mesenchymal and amoeboid movement. Motile cells with Mesenchymal form exhibit pro–survival
signals activation. In amoeboid motile cells interaction with ECM does not require for movement
and survival and they suppress anoikis by using cytokine and growth factor instead of ECM
proteins. Acquisition of the Mesenchymal phenotype is functionally associated with the ability to
overcome anoikis /another process involved in anoikis resistance is EMT which is an essential
feature that allows epithelial cells participate in physiological process like embryogenesis. EMT in
cancer cells / also cancer cells acquire Mesenchymal feature which allow/permit them to overcome
anoikis and become motile and metastatic/in this process, cancer cells launch chain of event that
enable them to acquire Mesenchymal feature and overcome anoikis. During EMT cancer cell
downregulate cell–adhesion molecules like E–cadherin and γ–catenin, and increase Mesenchymal
associated markers such as fibronectin and

The Stages Of Acute Cutaneous Wound Healing
The stages of acute cutaneous wound healing and why some processes may be altered in diabetic
patients
"The process by which tissue repair takes place is termed wound healing and is comprised of a
continuous sequence of inflammation and repair, in which epithelial, endothelial, inflammatory
cells, platelets and fibroblasts briefly come together outside their normal domains, interact to restore
a semblance of their usual discipline and having done so resume their normal function". ("The
Cellular Biology of Wound Healing" 2016)
Wound healing has 3 distinct stages, an inflammatory response, a proliferation phase and a
maturation phase, however wound healing is not a linear process and a patient can move back and
forth throughout the stages.
After the occurrence of a wound the inflammatory process immediately begins and can last up to 3
days ("Wound Healing" 2016), the initial injury causes the small vessels around the wound site to be
disturbed resulting in bleeding, the body's first response is a haemodynamic one in that it restricts
these vessels in order to prevent blood loss. There then comes a rapid release of preformed
inflammatory mediators from the cells surrounding the injury, the first thing this causes is the
aggregation of platelets, these platelets adhere to extracellular surface structures which are exposed,
such as collagen and basement membranes, this in turn causes serotonin from platelet stores to be
stimulated. (Kirk, Phillips and Murray 2001)
As well as

Failures Of The World Is Not An Easy Place
The world is not an easy place to get by in. Whether it's the physicality of the world itself or the
forces of nature, there is so much variation in the breadths of danger present that survival is difficult
if not impossible without the ability to dynamically respond to these challenges. Simplicity, though
robust in its nature, could not possibly thrive in a world like ours. Life, it seems, is up to the
challenge though, and the response is more than just a single answer. Rather, the life found on earth
is so diverse, so different from one another; it would fly in the face of the challenge presented. That
said, none of the forms of life could be complex enough to avoid mistakes. Missteps that lead to
damage and damage to failed survival. What is seen from those mistakes is not an acceptance of
failure and an inability to go on, but rather a dogged determination to recover from and overcome.
The complexity needed to survive poses a problem as the process to recover becomes just as
intricate. So intricate that it could not possibly be fully covered in all its depths with just a handful
of pages. However, this paper will attempt to cover in a more general manner what occurs and point
out some details of the more complex processes occurring. The goal of this paper is to explore the
method by which a cutaneous wound is healed for humans and the three involved processes of
inflammation, tissue formation, and tissue remodeling. Cutaneous wound healing, or the process of

Key Elements For Tissue And Organ Regeneration
Introduction Tissue engineering is an interdisciplinary approach that basically replaces, restore the
function and regenerate the damaged cell or tissue using biological substitutes. Succinctly,
extracellular matrix (ECM) in human tissue is a key element for tissue and organ regeneration. It
provides a convenient environment for the cellular attachment, growth and migration stimulate by
specific signals. This solid matrix has a complex mixture of structural and functional proteins that
serve as a reliable source of nutrient for the cells. ECM also associated with the cell behaviour,
tissue differentiation, organisation and neovascularisation. In tissue engineering, the suitable
scaffolds are use to act as an ECM analogue (1). The various roles and complicated composition of
ECM become a great challenge for the scaffolds to mimic the native ECM in repairing the diseased
or damaged tissue. Thus, it is important to develop the ideal scaffolds with optimal properties and
architecture since its mechanical characteristics will greatly affect the activity of cell adhesion,
proliferation and differentiation. Apparently, the biomaterial used in fabrication of scaffolds may
influence its significant features, such as biodegradability, bioactivity and porosity. The bioactivity,
including cell adhesion, cell alignment and interaction between scaffolds and cellular components
could be enhanced by adding the biological cues onto the biomaterials. Besides that, it is also
important for

Bone : Distal Radius Fracture Essay
Bone: Distal radius fracture, non–displaced, in a healthy middle–age adult.
The primary cellular components of bone tissue are osteoblasts and osteocytes, and these are
distinguished by their location and their function.1 The osteoblast is the bone–forming cell that
eventually becomes an osteocyte. During this intermediate changeover, the cells are referred to as
intermediate cells. "Bone matrix is comprised of three elements: organic, mineral, and fluid. Organic
components constitute 39% of the total bone volume, which contains 95% type I collagen and 5%
proteoglycans. Minerals include primarily calcium hydroxyapatite crystals and contribute about half
of total bone volume."1 Within the matrix, collagen fibers are responsible for providing tensile
strength. Eventually, calcification and ossification of the fibrous matrix forms individual bony
trabeculae that together constitute a primary ossification center.2 The arrangement of the
collagen/trabeculae along the length of the bone give the bone its tensile strength; the resistive
strength against bending/breaking.1,2 The density of the bone is provided by calcium salts which are
necessary to provide resistive strength against compressive forces, such as load/weight bearing
activities.1 Stresses from weight bearing and using muscles provide the necessary stimulus for the
formation and organization of collagen/trabeculae to form architecturally strong bones. Typically,
when no injury or disease is present, bone

The Importance Of A 3d Supportive Structure
As mentioned before, in tissue regeneration is of crucial importance the use of a 3D supportive
structure because when cells are seeded into these scaffolds enables the proliferation of cells and
chondrogenic differentiation; and with it the three–dimensional tissue formation. Scaffolds must be
able to withstand physiological loading until sufficient tissue regeneration occurs. Moreover, the
material must be sufficiently porous to allow for effective transport of nutrients. Finally, it should be
biocompatible and, if biodegradable, degrade as the tissue matrix is produced leaving only nontoxic
degradation products.
When using biomaterial scaffolds in tissue–engineered constructs the 3D environment of the
extracellular matrix is being ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
General scaffold requirements are shown in table 4:
Scaffold Requirements: Biological and material basis:
Biocompatibility To prevent adverse inflammatory or immune responses.
Cell attachment To optimize cell seeding for delivery and retention of cells and promote
maintenance of chondrogenic phenotype.
Porous 3D environment Support cell migration, proliferation and ECM production. High surface
area to volume ratio.
Interconnected/permeable Maximize nutrient/waste exchange and limit oxygen gradients.
Biodegradation Preferably in harmony with desired repair or regeneration process, whereby, by–
products are metabolized or excreted from the body without eliciting an inflammatory response.
Bioactivity/gene delivery Act as a cell carrier or control the release of growth factors, transfection
vectors and/or genetically modified cells.
Mechanical integrity and integration Sufficient to support or match surrounding native tissue at site
of implantation, as well as mediate mechanical stimulus to cells during loading.
Structural anisotropy Promote native anisotropic tissue structure.
Size and Shape Reproducibly create scaffold of clinically relevant size and shape.
Surgical application Preferably allow minimally invasive techniques using injectable/flexible
scaffold

Epidermal Keeratinocytes Angiogenesis
As the inflammation receds the proliferation phase begins, in this phase of healing, cellular activity
predominates. The major events during this phase are the creation of a permeability barrier (ie,
reepithelialization), the establishment of appropriate blood supply (ie, angiogenesis), and
strengthening of the injured dermal tissue (ie, fibroplasia). Reepithelialization is the process of
restoring an intact epidermis after cutaneous injury. It generally involves several processes,
including the migration of adjacent epidermal keratinocytes into the wound. Epidermal stem cells
from the hair follicle are now thought to originate from the hair bulge that is believed to be the
germinative portion of the hair and serve as a reservoir for keratinocytes ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In response to the injury, microvascular endothelial cells initiate an angiogenic process consisting of
activation of endothelial cells, local degradation of their basement membrane, sprouting into the
wound clot, cell proliferation, tubule structure formation, reconstruction of the basement membrane,
and, eventually, regression and involution of the newly formed vasculature as tissue remodeling
(22). Newly formed vessels participate in granulation tissue formation and provide nutrition and
oxygen to growing tissues. Various cytokines are released by endothelial cells and macrophages
stimulate the process of angiogenesis. Several growth factors play important roles in wound
angiogenesis, they include vascular endothelial growth factor, angiopoietins, fibroblast growth
factor, and TGF–b. Vascular endothelial growth factor is a potent mitogen for endothelial cells and
induces endothelial cell migration and sprouting by upregulation of several integrin receptors (23).
Recent study showed that laminins are one of the major extracellular matrix proteins important in
wound angiogenesis, they have profound effects on human skin dermal microvascular endothelial
cells( HDMEC) functions, they promote endothelial cell migration and capillary structure formation

The Growth Of The Tissue
Article # 1:
Barzegari, Abolfazl and Amir Ata Saei. "Tissue Engineering in Microgravity Bioreactors."
BioImpacts 2.1 (2012): 23–32. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 24 October 2014.
Article Summary:
The growth of the tissue can be accomplished more efficiently in microgravity. This article
discussed the methods that dependent completely on microgravity. Along with that these methods
also explains the various cell types such as stem cells. The ensuing builds can be utilized for poison
and sustenance security testing notwithstanding organ substitution treatment. Case in point,
researchers can develop models of tumor to study, or to test against growth drugs against. Both of
the creators are partnered with the Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, staff of
Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences in Tabriz, Iran.
Article Use:
The article is helping in determining the methods that helps the cells and explain the types of cells in
tissue engineering. The cardiac patients need more detailed attention toward the tissue engineering
for better treatment. This article helps to focus on the cells that helps to increase the productivity of
cardiac patients.
Article # 2:
Moody, William Lafayette, Dan Cameron, Jean–Pierre Timmermans, Nora De Clerck, Alexander
Sasov, Christophe Casteleyn, Jeremy Woodward, Susana Lai–Yuen, Les A. Piegl. "The Basement
Membrane: Key to Reverse Engineering Biological Tissues." Computer–Aided Design &
Applications8.1

Research Paper On Keloid
Keloids were described around 1700 BC by Egyptian Surgeon1. In 1806 Baron Jean Louis
identified keloid as an entity2. Initially he called it as 'Cancroide' then changed as 'cheloide' to avoid
confusion with cancer3. The word keloid is derived from Greek "chele" which means hoof/crab
pincers and "oid" means like.
Keloid scar occur as a pathological response to cutaneous injury and occur only in humans. Keloid
scar grows beyond the borders of original wound and does not regress spontaneously. It grows in
Pseudo tumour fashion with distortion of lesion which recurs after excision. They are resistant to
therapy. Numerous treatment modalities are available none of them are effective.
A prototype of fibrotic skin disease is keloid. It is localized ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It occurs by two types of reaction 1)Regeneration by proliferation of residual cells and maturation of
tissue stem cells. 2) Deposition of connective tissue to form scar.27
Normal wound healing is very important in understanding the pathogenesis of keloid.It comprises
three phases which are 1) Inflammatory phase 2)Fibroblastic Proliferation 3) Remodelling
After skin injury complement cascade stimulates the migration of inflammatory cells by releasing
vasoactive and chemotactic mediatiors. Macrophages plays a vital role in transition from
inflammation to granulation phase by releasing cytokines. In fibroblastic phase fibroblast migrate
into the wound and produce new structural framework by deposition of type І and type ІІІ collagen.
In maturation phase stimulatory and angiogenetic factors decreases resulting in regression of
hyperemia associated with early wound repair.
After injury Platelets adhere to the site of injury, then platelet gets activated and aggregated
followed by activation of coagulation cascade and formation of clot.28,29

Guided Tissue Regeneration Essay
1) define and explain the concept of Guided tissue regeneration(in detail) (GTR)
According to the Glossary of Periodontal Terms 4th Edition, Guided tissue regeneration is defined
as "Procedures attempting to regenerate lost periodontal structures through differential tissue
response."
The concept of Guided tissue regeneration is centered on placing physical barriers to block the
apical migration of the gingival connective tissue and epithelium cells of the flap, while allowing the
inward migration of periodontal ligament cells on the exposed root surface. This allows periodontal
regeneration to occur. Physical barriers also protect the blood clot during healing and preserve space
for the growth of a new periodontal apparatus.
2) explain the major studies which proved the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In guided tissue regeneration, we are excluding connective tissue and epithelial, while allowing PDL
cells to inhabit the surface of the root and allowing bone cell to grow into defect region. On the
other hand, in guided bone regeneration, we are excluding only connective tissue to allow bone
regeneration to occur.
The basic concept for guided bone regeneration includes placing physical barriers to protecting the
blood clot, maintaining the blood supply to the defect area, releasing growth factors, and isolating
the bone defect to allow access for bone cells to cause bone regeneration.
6) Give examples of when GBR would be indicated
GBR is mainly used to increase the volume of the bone in bone deficient ridges. Indications for
GBR include: Bone defects related to failing implants, Dehiscence and fenestrations related to
implants, ridge deficiencies, osseous fill around immediate implants and bone lesions.
7) List possible complications associated with GTR and GBR and the remedy or treatment for

Macrophage Research Paper
Usage of Growth Factors Loaded Macrophage Derived Microvesicles in Wound Care
Background
Microvesicles are fragments of Cell ranging from 50 nm to 1000 nm shed from almost all cell types.
MVs are also known as micro particles, shedding vesicles and exosomes.
Microvesicles play a role in intracellular communication and transport mRNA, miRNA, and other
proteins between the cells.
Microvesicles are released by exocytosis through a mechanism dependent on cytoskeleton activation
and under the regulation of p53 protein. This release is enhanced by different environmental stimuli
like oxidative stress, injury or hypoxia.
Extracellular MVs circulating in body fluids are functional and could serve as potential biomarkers.
Mechanism of signaling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Add 10 ml of the medium to a 15 ml conical tube.
Take a vial of frozen cells (1x105 cell/ml) and thaw it as quickly as possible by swirling in the 37˚C
water bath until the cell suspension get dissolved.
Transfer the vial contents into the warmed media and centrifuge at 1000 rpm x 5 min.
Aspirate the DMSO medium, and re–suspend the cells belts in 20 ml media & incubate overnight.
Change media every 2 to 3 days.
Feeding
Cultures can be maintained by the addition of fresh medium or replacement of medium. Notes
Do not allow the cell concentration to exceed 1 X 106 cells/ml. Splitting
Let the cells grow to approximately 1 x 106 cells/ml by allowing to grow for 3–4 days. Split 1/5 by
centrifuging cells, re–suspend the cells in 5 ml.
Transfer 1ml to new flask and add 19 ml of media.
Cell Differentiation
Use the PMA in concentration 100nM.
After addition of the PMA, Allow the cells to differentiate for 3 days.
Microvesicles Release (3)

1. Uptaking
Incubate the cells in serum–free medium with each growth factor for 3–5 hours. (Flask for each
growth factor)
2. Washing
Wash the cells 3 x in serum–free medium.
3.

Pdl Lab Report
PDL cells that induce coronally the periodontal regeneration coming from flap. It was said that they
came from progenitor cells from within.
In a study, a tooth was made with slits inside the chamber and was implanted into 5 mm tissue with
the dentinal wall remaining and an implant was insurted in to the root and collagen barrier was
added. The histological specimen after 3 months showed formation of cementum and PDL was
formed between the dentinal wall and implant.
So, projenitor cells in PDL are strongly associated in the regeneration of periodontal apparatus.
Role of epithelium in periodontal wound healing: It seems that as the tooth is merged into the
mucosa the epithelial lining is continuous apically inhibiting the periodontal ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
In an experiment, a Widman flap was made and after each two consecutive month professional
cleaning was made it was noticed that we have new bone formation either 2 walled or 3 walled but it
was said it's due to the new CT attachment.
Grafting procedure:
In multiple experiments where bone grafts or implant bone substitutes where made with either:
1. Autogeneous graft: from same person
2. Allogenic graft: frozen red bone marrow and calcellous bone from genetic dissimilar members
3. Xenograft: from another species
4. Alloplastic graft: synthetic material with bone substitute
These contained:
1. Osteo–induction: Bone inducing substances
2. Osteo–genesis Bone forming cells
3. Osteo–conduction: Scaffold for bone formation
It has showed promising results but the documentation varried due different:
1. Attachment levels
2. Location
3. Xrays
4. Re–entery procedure.
A new cementum was made and collagen fibers bonded to it making new periodontal attachment.
3. Nonresorbable membranes:
Usage of membranes as cellulose acetate filters and EPTFE (EXPANDED polytetraflouro ethylene)
as GRT barriers as they has these properties: a– Manageable clinically b– Make space for tissue

healing c– Allow tissue integration d– Biocompatible e– Cellular barrier
With the use of ePTFE, THE THICK KERATINIZED attached gingiva must be

The Uses Of Tissue And Skin
The use of fibroblasts in skin substitutes is a crucial step toward better burn wound healing.
Fibroblasts, which are naturally found in the dermis layer, are in charge of synthesizing and
secreting the components that make up the extracellular matrix. In order for the skin to heal
properly, one component that is especially important is collagen, for it plays a major part in the
structure of the skin. Lack of collagen synthesis during healing can lead to raised scar, resulting in
poor skin function and appearance[18].
TransCyte is a temporary, bioactive synthetic covering with a similar structure to Biobrane, with an
addition of fibroblasts. Like Biobrane, it is also used as covering for burn patients before
autografting or for patients with partial thickness burns who do not require autografts[11][12].
TransCyte consists of two layers, a silicone outer layer and an inner nylon mesh seeded with
fibroblasts. The outer silicone layer is a semipermeable membrane, containing a series of laser–
punched holes that allow excess fluids to be drained[13]. The inner nylon mesh membrane is coated
with porcine collagen peptides, creating the base onto where the neonatal fibroblasts can be
cultured, since collagen is a main component of the skin. In order to seed the fibroblasts within the
nylon mesh, the entire membrane, silicone outer layer included, was placed inside a specially
designed bioreactor. This bioreactor provided a continuous, constant flow of fibroblasts at a rate of
about

The Synthesis And Fabrication Of Conductive Polymers Essay
Abstract
Conductive polymers have promising applications in the field of tissue engineering as tissue
scaffolds. Many tissue types respond favorably to electrical stimulation, because of this conductive
polymers can be used for the regeneration of damaged tissue. This review will focus on the synthesis
and fabrication of conductive polymers as well as their applications in tissue engineering.
Introduction
All cells exhibit some form of electrical excitability, from voltage gated ion channels to muscle
contractions and heart beats electromagnetic fields are critical to the basic functions of life. Galvani
famously showed in 1794 that a frog leg will contract when touched with the cut sciatic nerve of the
other leg.This scientific breakthrough led to extensive research of electromagnetism within
organisms. Electromagnetic fields have been found to affect a variety of biological processes
including angiogenesis, cell division, cell signaling, nerve sprouting, prenatal development, and
wound healing [1]. Only in recent decades with the development of molecular and cellular
technology has the link between cell biology and bioelectricity been discovered [2]. This growth in
understanding has led to the development of a variety of electrically conductive devices for uses in
biomedical engineering. Devices that use electrical stimulation that have already been approved by
the FDA include the pacemaker, deep brain stimulators and vagal nerve stimulators [1].
Conductive

Osteobiologic Materials
Different types of osteobiologic materials include: metal–based, ceramic–based and polymer–based
bone graft substitutes either with or without various types of cells. Some of these materials may
have various bioactive molecules such as growth factors embedded in them [47], [48–52] for
example: BMP–2 [53–55], TGF–b [54], GDF–5 [56, 57] and VEGF [58] or a mixture [57], since
these growth factors are among of the multiple factors expressed during bone regeneration [59–61].
Such materials have been investigated widely in literature[62], [63] to exhibit specific responses.
Calcium phosphate showed osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties in the form of sintered
ceramics [64–67], cements [68, 69], and coatings [70, 71]. Besides calcium phosphate ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
One method is uses ion impregnation of the surface [84]. This method allows the material to act in
such a way that they can either promote bone formation or reduce bone loss, since ions are essential
factors for enzymes. Bioinorganic ions can modulate angiogenesis to accelerate healing, induce
osteogenesis, and stimulate proliferation of osteoblast control. However the use of inorganic ions
can also cause toxicity [85]. An example of a bioinorganic ion used on titanium is calcium ions.
Calcium–modified implants, create a concentration gradient of chemo attractants for mesenchymal
and osteoprogenitor cells on the implant surface. Moreover, calcium–modified titanium surfaces
have electrical characteristics different from normal titanium surface, this change in the electrical
properties on the surface increases the composition of adsorbed biofilm [86]. Other ions used to
modify titanium surfaces are phosphate ions [87]. Phosphate ions are associated with proteins in
formation and regeneration of bones through phosphorylation of serine, threonine and tyrosine
amino residues. Phosphate–modified titanium implants block the incorporation of mineral ions into
the crystal surface, inhibiting thereby crystal growth. The last ion coating consists of both phosphate
and calcium [88], coating it with hydroxyapatite [89].
Additional treatments involves changing the structure of titanium to become porous and bio–active

Tissue Engineering Research
By living in a broken world, people become subjected to devastation and times of hopelessness.
Some encounter this through job struggles or family disputes. Others encounter it while waiting at
death's door, waiting for an organ transplant. On January 8, 2014, 120,990 people were waiting for
an organ transplant, wondering if they will be added to the 3,381 people who died last year waiting
for a new kidney or wondering if they will become one of the 26,000 people in the United States
who die each year from end–stage liver disease (Kaihara and Vacanti; National Kidney Foundation).
Every 20 minutes, a person is added to the kidney waitlist and each day, 14 people die while waiting
for a kidney transplant (National Kidney Foundation). These numbers cannot be ignored because
blindness only results in loss of life.
Currently, alternatives, such as mechanical devices and artificial prostheses, don't repair tissue or
organ functions because they are not intended for integrating host tissues, and if these alternatives
are used for long–term implantation, the recipient could suffer from an inflammatory response
(Chapekar). For illnesses such as end–stage liver disease, the only successful treatment is through
transplant, and the odds of receiving a new liver is improbable (Kaihara and Vacanti). Another
treatment must be discovered. In 1988, a NSF sponsored meeting defined a new treatment idea
called tissue–engineering: the "application of the principles and methods of engineering

Gingival Margin Case Study
In Table 4, BDR was compared across different studies. The six studies also reported the bone defect
fill. Reduction in bone defect in experimental group was reported between –2.50±0.78 mm to
2.80±0.89 mm and in control group from –0.09±0.11 mm to1.24±0.69 mm. The overall difference of
mean changes in two groups was significant with standardized mean difference of 1.789 [98% CI:
1.493, 2.084] and the corresponding P–value of 0.0001. The parameter showed significant
heterogeneity across studies with I2 of 98% and P–value < 0.0001. A forest plot representation
showing mean difference of parameter across studies.
GINGIVAL MARGIN LEVEL
The Gingival Margin Level is measured from the CEJ to the Gingival Margin.
9 articles were reviewed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Every effort to restore the health, function and esthetics of periodontium is taken.
The purpose of the present systematic review and meta–analysis is to clinically and radiographically
evaluate the effectiveness of autologous PRF in the treatment of IBD in patients with chronic
periodontitis. Although, the efficacy of PRF has been tested elsewhere in the treatment of chronic
periodontitis and systematic reviews and meta– analysis have been published, to our knowledge this
is the most recent update to the pool of literature that included articles till 2016.
The studies included had a moderate risk of bias and no heterogeneity was observed in terms of
quality, design, PRF preparation, surgical procedure, outcome variables and post–operative follow–
ups.
Plaque Index is unique among the most widely used indices for assessment of plaque because it
ignores the coronal extent of plaque on the tooth surface area and assesses only the thickness of
plaque at the gingival area of the tooth and thus demonstrated good validity and reliability. The
gingival index and the modified sulcular bleeding index were designed to determine the severity of
the diseased gingiva and thus establish the activity of the periodontal lesion with the gingival
bleeding. Plaque is considered the most important factor in the initiation, progression and severity of
periodontal infection and also a major contributor to the failure of

Orthopedic Bone Essay
Bone is a miraculous triphasic organ that contains cellular components, hydrated extracellular
organic matrix and an extracellular mineral phase which is primarily composed of calcium
phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite (HA), playing leading roles in critical functions in human
physiology including support, movement and protection of other critical organs, storage and
homeostasis of calcium, blood production, mineral and blood pH regulation. Bone injuries and
defects are serious health problems especially those caused by complex breaks and pathological
fractures arising from malformation, osteoporosis and tumors that have resulted in over 2.2 million
bone transplantation procedures in different fields including orthopedics, neurosurgery ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Alternatively, modifications in mechanical properties of natural and synthetic biomaterials can be
introduced through enzymatic, physical, or chemical crosslinking. Thermosetting resins (or
thermosets) play an important role in industry because of their high flexibility for tailoring preferred
ultimate properties leading to high modulus, strength, durability with thermal and chemical
resistances provided by high cross–linking density. In view of the fact that being prepared from
phenol and formaldehyde and having desirable characteristics and dimensional stability along with
high resistance against various solvents, acids and water, phenolic resins are broadly used as
commodity and engineered materials in transportation industry showing the versatility for having
potential to cope with challenges of advanced technology. Phenolic resins can be synthesized under
both acidic and alkaline conditions [48]. Acid–catalyzed resins called as Novolacs are prepared at a
formaldehyde/phenol ratio between 0.75 and 0.85, whereas alkaline–catalyzed resins called Resoles
are prepared at a formaldehyde/phenol ratio higher than 1.(resol ftir for synthesis) Phenol
formaldehyde resins (PF) are characterized by their capability of forming hydrogen bonds with the
polymer containing complementary hydroxyl groups (resin theory boron novolac). As a synthetic
polymer, resol is soluble in

Combinatorial Extracellular Matrix Essay
Combinatorial extracellular matrix microenvironments promote survival and phenotype of human
induced pluripotent stem cell–derived endothelial cells in hypoxia; a review
Endothelial cells derived from induced human pluripotent stem cells (iPSC–ECs) are a promising
candidate for enhancing the treatment of ischemic tissues. However, current understanding of the
microenvironmental factors involved in endothelial differentiation is limited, leading to low cell
survival following transplantation. Ultimately this masks the therapeutic potential of stem cells and
regenerative medicine. To address this limitation, research published in Acta Biomaterialia
examined the role of combinatorial extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins on endothelial ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Had this experiment not been performed using a microscale high–throughput platform, these
interactions would have been difficult to observe.
In analyzing the detailed methods used to achieve these results, it is apparent that the systematic
analysis of cell survival, phenotype and function stems from the authors' decision to use a high
throughput ECM microarray platform. While previous studies typically focused on ECM–mediated
induction of stem cell differentiation and renewal. The authors of this article envisioned the
microarray platform as a powerful tool to advance clinical applications of stem cell therapy under
conditions of disease. This idea was quickly validated as data was replicated in both two–
dimensional and three–dimensional settings. However, one limitation of the microarray platform
was its inability to determine the cause of the synergistic and redundant relationships when
performing cross–comparisons of individual ECM combinations. While these findings reaffirm the
ECMs role in regulating the function of cells, more work is needed to understand how combinatorial
ECMs fine–tune iPSC–EC responses. Given that the induced pluripotent stem cells chosen for this
experiment lack the gene expression of a primary endothelial cell. This studies entire clinical
application depends on the ability of an iPSC–EC to express those same

Traumatic Arthritis Essay
Introduction
Rheumatic arthritis (RA) is a chronic, progressive disorder that commonly presents a group of
mechanically related disorders concerning the degenerative nature of joints that is specifically
affecting the articular cartilage and subchondral bone (1). Thus, causing a dip in the quality of life in
RA patients. The aetiology for RA is unclear, however, a combination of hereditary susceptibility
causes a reaction that causes severe inflammation in the synovial membrane (1). However, other
factors such as the immunological, hormonal and environmental factors plays a role in development
of RA (2). The pathology of RA is characterised by an insidious order of biological events that will
eventually lead to articular cartilage destruction and secondary changes in surrounding tissues (1).
The pathological changes to joints consequently lead to structural deformity and functional
disability. The clinical presentation of RA patients are often intermittent joint pain, worse on
movement; stiffness; and, limited range of motion (ROM) and joint instability, either due to loss of
articular cartilage, or effusions into the joint cavity (1–3). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
IL–1β induces other cytokines, such as IL–6, IL–8 and leukaemia inducing factor (LIF), causing a
catabolic event by stimulating either an additive or synergistic effects (11, 24). IL–1β also cause
nociceptive sensitisation through activation of intracellular kinase or the production of kinins and
prostanoids (25). Hyperalgesia and hypersensitivity in joints is also associated with IL–6; primary
afferent neurons responds to IL–6 and plays a role in pain transmission (1, 24). Similarly, TNF–α
activates sensory neurons causing neuropathic pain via the receptors TNFR1 and TFNR2, which
initiates a cascade of inflammatory responses through the production of IL cytokines (9,

Navicular Syndrome Research Paper
Navicular syndrome, or navicular disease, is a hoof problem in horses. Navicular syndrome is a
degenerating bone disease that causes lameness in the horse. It deteriorates the navicular bone as
well as the surrounding tissues. Navicular generally occurs on the front feet and happens when
horses are between the age of eight and twelve. Navicular can lead to significant and even disabling
lameness ("Navicular Problems: Symptoms and Treatment). The navicular bone is a small bone in a
horse's hoof that sits in between the coffin bone and the pastern. The bone is shaped like a canoe.
This led to the name navicular bone. The prefix "nvicu" means small boat in Latin. The bone is also
called the distal sesamoid bone
("Navicular Problems: Symptoms and Treatment). Associated with the navicular bone are several
structures of soft tissue. The collateral sesamoidean ligament is located on the upper side of the
bone. This ligament attaches to the distal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the most common ways to prevent navicular is proper shoeing and care of the feet, as well as
adding joint supplements to feed. If a horse has navicular syndrome, corrective shoeing is an option.
There are many types of shoes used when treating a horse with navicular. Some of these shoes are a
wedge shoe, heart bar shoes, egg bar shoes, and steel shoes with a pad insert. Another form of
treatment is anti–inflammatory drugs such as phenylbutazone. Most horsemen call it Bute for short.
This drug can come in the form of oral paste or mix in powder. There is also coffin injections which
help give the horse more cushion between the navicular bone and the coffin bone. A neurectomy, or
denerving, is the process in which the nerves are surgically removed from the hoof so the horse has
no more feeling to the foot. Studies show that almost 60 percent of horses with navicular will get a
neurectomy (Navicular

Bone Repair and Regeneration

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