Running head ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN1O.docx

Running head: ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE
AND THE BRAIN 1
ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE AND THE
BRAIN 3
Origins of Language and Language and the Brain
Name:
Institution:
Date:
Introduction
Social Cognition in Apes
Arguably, the human pointing behavior significantly differs
from that of ape. The differentiation manifests itself in certain
ways. First, the human pointing behavior indicates that
individuals hold on the ability to encode the universal system of
gestures. On the contrary, the ape pointing behavior lacks the
ability to encode the universal system of gestures. As a result,
apes are unable to understand various crucial aspects closely
related to their social cognition. For instance, due to their
inability, apes are unable to understand the language and sign
language of others. More so, apes are unable to comprehend the
intention of others to both act in certain specific ways as well as

communicate with them. It is for these reasons that when a
human tends to reach for a bucket that contains a treat, the ape
is more likely to reach unlike when an individual points on the
bucket , as a way to signal the presence and location of the
treat.
Similarly, the joint attention of humans differs from that of
apes. Joint attention which is also known as shared attention
refers to the shared focus of specifically two individuals on a
certain object. Joint attention is achieved whenever an
individual alert the other to an object through either by
pointing, use of verbal or non-verbal indications or eye-gazing.
Joint attention in humans differs from apes, especially on the
account that the later are unable to understand the sign language
of others. As such, in apes, joint attention is ineffective and
when present, it encounters varying challenges, unlike in
humans. The effectiveness of joint attention arises on the
account that they hold the capability to comprehend the sign
language of others, and two individuals are able to share the
focus on a certain object with minimal challenges.
The above differences are likely to exits due to their encoding
capabilities to the universal language. Despite apes and humans
belonging to the primate group, the two have varying encoding
capabilities to the universal language, inclusive of the sign
language and universal system of gestures. It is for this reason
that while the humans are able to encode the universal system of
gestures the apes are unable to do so. As a result, humans are
able to understand the sign language of each other while apes
are unable. These differences tend to narrow down and explain
the possibility of apes being unable to comprehend the intention
of their members and communicate with each other.
Acquisition
Exposing deaf children to sign language at an early age has
various benefits. First, doing so helps in providing deal children
with the best ever chance of successful language acquisition.
Supportively, in a contemporary research on the benefits of
early exposure of sign language to deaf children, Cormier

(2012) reveals that adults who had developed their sign
language skills from birth are better placed at making effective
grammatical judgment in British Sign Language. Such was
contrary to the adults during the study, who recorded learning
British Sign Language at the age of 2 to 8 years for they found
it challenging acquiring the same language skills unlike the
earlier mentioned set of individuals.
More so, exposing deaf children to sign language at an early age
also helps them develop an outstanding bilingual approach.
Possessing such an approach aids in maximizing the deaf
children cognitive and linguistic skills (Cormier, 2012). The
two skills are very vital in the development and proper growth
of deaf children. For instance, according to Cormier (2012), the
maximization of cognitive and linguistic skills helps deaf
children overcome possible challenges, difficulties and delays
that they are likely to encounter following their impaired
hearing condition.
Arguably, such early exposure is very crucial for all
communication systems and not only for the deaf children but
even across other different species. For instance, it is through
such early exposure, that the animals are able to communicate
with the off-springs. More so, this kind of exposure helps the
animals off springs to be aware of possible harmful scenarios as
well as predicators even at an early age. A good example can
be cited from the antelopes. At an early age, the antelopes
expose their off-springs to the eye-gazing and verbal language
indications such as sounds whenever they notice a certain
predictor at a close distance. Due to such exposure, the
antelope’s off-springs are able to notice a predictor and run to
safety.
Aphasia
A relative outstanding medical case of Broca's aphasia relates to
an 80 year old Japanese Woman. The elderly female presented
Broca's aphasia related behaviors such as onset speech
confusion and disturbance which was clear after a pedestrian
found her sitting when looking confused and at the loss for

words. Upon evaluation in the hospital, it was noticed that she
was unable to find the appropriate words to respond, both in
writing and through speaking, especially to the physician’s
questions(Watari et.al, 2014). These collectively suggested that
the patient would be most likely suffering from Broca's aphasia.
Arguably, Broca's aphasia will not necessarily damage the
patients Broca area, but in most cases it just affects the
comprising parts. For instance, the Magnetic Resonance
Imaging scan on the elderly patient revealed that there was
acute infraction involving her Broca area but there were severe
stenosis on her cerebral artery distal left middle(Watari et.al,
2014)..
A very precise medical case of Wernicke's aphasia relates to a
45 year old man. The patient was reported to be suffering from
Wernicke's aphasia following his several unique behaviors.
With the patient being a bachelor, he often denied his own
language disturbance to others as well as himself. More so, he
defended himself against the anxiety which had aroused from
the previous mentioned disturbance. Further, he was seen to
criticize other individuals as well as rationalizing himself
especially whenever they mentioned or discussed his social
handicaps and right hand disability(Tezuka,2014). Wernicke's
aphasia does not have damage on the Wernicke's area, but rather
the posterior portion of the patients left hemisphere.
References

Cormier,K.(2012).Early sign language exposure benefits deaf
children.UCL Deafness Cognition And Language Research
Centre. Retrieved from
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/dcal/news/2012/jul/early-sign-
language-exposure-benefits-deaf- children
Tezuka, K.(2014). A Case Study of a Patient with Wernicke's
Aphasia who Denied His Own Language Disturbance. The
Japanese Journal of Communication Disorders.
Watari, T., Shimizu, T., & Tokuda, Y. (2014). Broca aphasia.
Case Reports, 2014, bcr2014208214.
Sexism/Sex Discrimination
(
COPYRIGHT
2009
Macmillan
Reference
USA,
a
part
of
Gale,
Cengage
Learning

WCN
02-200-210
)SEXISM/SEX
DISCRIMINATION
Sexism and sexual discrimination are two of the primary
reasons that gender inequality persists in the United States. The
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Com- mission (EEOC)
received almost 25,000 ‘‘charges of sex- based discrimination’’
in the 2007 fiscal year alone (EEOC, 2008). Sexism refers to
attitudes and beliefs about people based on their sex. Often
these prejudices are negative, such as the idea that women are
incompe- tent, but these opinions may also be positive, such as
the belief that women are nurturing. Sexual discrimination, in
contrast, involves treating people differently based on their sex.
For example, this may be the preference to hire men instead of
women or to allow more women than men to enter a dance club.
These terms are frequently used to refer to the negative
treatment or position of women relative to men. This approach
makes sense. Because women are subordinate to men in most
parts of the world, they are more likely to be the targets of
sexism and sexual discrimination. However, men may be the
targets as well. Because members of subordinate groups (e.g.,
women, gay men, and so forth) tend to be victims of gender bias
and members of the dominant group tend to be perpetrators,
sexism and sexual discrimination help preserve the system of
male privilege and the subordination of women and
nondominant masculinities.
If someone discriminates based on another person’s gender,
does that mean that he or she is sexist? The answer is not
necessarily. Sexism and sexual discrimination often go
together, but not always. Consider a male employer at an
electronics store seeking a new salesper- son. This employer
may know that there are many women knowledgeable about
electronics, but if he fears that his clientele will only buy from

a man, then he will be hesitant to hire a woman, regardless of
her credentials. His behavior, then, is discriminatory, even
though he does not consciously hold sexist beliefs. It is possible
that a person can have subconscious attitudes (implicit beliefs),
which can influence behavior, even without the person being
consciously aware of it (Quillian, 2006).
It is worth noting that sexism and sexual discrimination are
actually misnomers. The two concepts techni- cally focus on
attitudes and behavior based on someone’s sex, but what this
concept really refers to is a person’s gender rather than his or
her sex. Sex is biology; gender relates to the meaning and
behavior associated with being a man or a woman (Kimmel,
2008). Some of the most frequently measured forms of sexism
are beliefs about how women are supposed to behave. For
instance, should a mother work outside the home? Is it a
woman’s respon- sibility to care for the home? Can a woman be
assertive
and still be feminine? These beliefs have nothing to do with a
woman’s biological sex and everything to do with what it means
to be a woman.
But why are some people sexist and why do some people
discriminate? The simplest explanation is socialization— that
is, the idea that people have been taught that certain behaviors
are appropriate for one gender and other behaviors are
appropriate for the other gender. (This assumes only two
genders, a point that is contested by many gender scholars and
intersex advocates; see Kim- mel, 2008.) The extent to which
one holds sexist attitudes is partly based on age, with people
from older generations being more likely to hold ‘‘old
fashioned’’ views about women (what is now called sexist) and
younger people being likely to hold more egalitarian views.
There is evidence for this argument, but the explanation is
incomplete.
A related perspective is that people hold views about what is
appropriate gendered behavior (i.e., their gender ideology) that

agree with how they perceive their own gender (i.e., their
gender role identity). This is because disagreement between
someone’s gender role identity and his or her gender ideology
can cause confusion. For instance, if a man believes that
masculine men are big and burly but he is small and delicate,
does that mean he is not a ‘‘real man’’? In contrast, agreement
between someone’s gender role identity and his or her gender
ideology is validating. The result is that a masculine man is
likely to support behavior that agrees with his ideas of
masculinity (such as the male breadwinner role) and is likely to
resist behavior that opposes it (such as married women earning
an income).
A different set of arguments contend that sexism and sexual
discrimination stem from some men’s need to protect their
position of privilege (Goldin, 2002). This practice may include
men protecting their personal status or that of males as a group.
Men are in the dominant social position, but not all men are as
dominant as others. Masculinity, or manliness, helps determine
which men are atop the hierarchy. Because of the privileges that
come with appropriate displays of masculinity, some men are
concerned that if their masculinity is questioned then they are
somehow less of a man. In order to prove their masculinity to
themselves and to others, they may denigrate and harass women
or less masculine men.
Men as a group are in power; women are not. Sexism and sexual
discrimination have been and continue to be used to prevent
women from gaining power. From the perspective of those in
power, it therefore makes sense to perpetuate gender
stereotypes, even when there is over- whelming evidence
invalidating those stereotypes. For instance, the common but
erroneous stereotype that women are irrational implies that a
woman should not
400 ENCYCLOPE DIA OF THE LIF E COURSE AND HUMA
N DEV ELO PMENT

Sexism/Sex Discrimination
Sexism in Advertising. Pedestrians walk past large outdoor
clothing advertisements. SPENCER PLATT/GETTY IMAGES.
be a boss, a chief executive officer, or the president. If this
stereotype is believed, then these positions are preserved for a
man. This logic makes women less attractive as employees and
keeps men ‘‘first in line’’ for the most desirable jobs (Reskin,
2001).
The consequences of sexism and sexual discrimination are felt
by everyone, if for no other reason than that everyone has
women in their lives. More specifically, the effects are seen in
labor market inequality, such as the devaluation of the jobs
predominantly held by women and the work women do,
discriminatory hiring practices and job allocation, and different
expectations; discrimination against mothers in hiring and
promotion; the disproportionate amount of home, child, and
elderly care done by women, along with the failure to either
com- pensate workers for their labor or provide affordable
alternatives; the medical field’s disregard for women, as
evidenced by women’s exclusion from medical studies and
absence from medical texts; and the disproportionate level of
violence suffered by women at the hands of their partners.
Biased treatment can also impact women’s health, causing them
to suffer from such ailments as depression, nausea, and
headaches (Welsh, 1999, p. 183).
Although sexism and sexual discrimination impact women in all
walks of life, the ramifications may be more severe for women

of color and of lower socioeconomic status. These women not
only face stigma and discrimination because of their gender
but also because of their race and class. Oppression based on
these statuses is multiplicative, not additive. This means that a
Black woman does not face the same gender oppression as a
White woman or the same racial oppression as a Black man.
Instead, she faces unique experiences because she is Black and
a woman. For instance, lower-class women of color, particularly
immigrants, often work as domestics (lower-class men tend to
hold other jobs), positioning
them for exploitation, whereas upper-class women can use their
wealth to reallocate their domestic responsibil- ities to women
of lower classes (Amott & Matthaei 1996,
p. 15). Young, lower-class Black women have the added stigma
of being stereotyped as single mothers. Middle- and upper-class
Black workers, in contrast, risk being ‘‘isolated’’ in a
‘‘corporate environment . . . that [is] inhospitable and alien’’
(Browne & Misra 2003, p. 501). Moreover, Black workers,
regardless of age and class, must cope with the consequences of
a long history of racial bias in the United States. Class and
racial status also influence medical care, with lower-class and
non- White patients receiving a lower quality of treatment than
their wealthy White counterparts.
Sexism and sexual discrimination primarily impact women, but
men can be victims too. For instance, current ideals of
masculinity reward acts of risk-taking, aggression, and
heterosexual sexual prowess while punish- ing behavior deemed
to conflict with them. As a result, some men feel pressured into
pursuing dangerous or even criminal behavior in order to prove
their manhood. Men may also be harmed by the sexist belief
that women and children deserve to be protected from danger
first, lead- ing men to be the last saved and the first to die.
A large proportion of the research on sexism and sexual
discrimination considered in the United States focuses on what
is going on here. It is therefore tempting to want to know how

the situation in the United States compares to that in other
countries. However, direct comparisons should be undertaken
only with the utmost care. Cross-cultural comparisons are
complicated by different definitions, data collection standards,
and ethnocentrism.
Varying definitions and data collection standards are
problematic because they make it difficult to ensure that
measures of sexism and sexual discrimination are consis- tent
and comparable across countries. For example, if country A
defines discrimination as anything that creates a negative
working environment, whereas country B says that the only
thing that qualifies as discrimination is pressure from a superior
to have sexual relations (Saguy, 2000, p. 1092), then it is
meaningless to compare rates of discrimination across the two
countries.
A second issue is how to apply one’s own perceptions of sexism
to other cultures without being too ‘‘ethno- centric.’’ A single
example should suffice to illustrate this problem. In 2004
France passed a law banning the wearing of conspicuous
religious symbols in state schools. Although the law applied to
all religious groups, there was a clear understanding that it was
enacted to stop Muslim women from wearing headscarves. Two
main justifications were given for the law. The first explanation
was that headscarves were emblematic of Muslims’ refusal to
assimilate to secular French society. The second
ENCY CLOPEDIA OF THE LIFE COURSE AND HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT 401
Sexual Activity, Adulthood
contention was that headscarves were symbols of Islam’s
oppression of women. Some Muslim women agreed with this
latter assessment, but many did not.

If the headscarf is considered only from a Euro- pean/North
American perspective, one could legiti- mately argue that it
represents Muslim women’s subordinate place in Muslim
society (if for no other reason than that they are not granted the
same freedom in attire as men). But if the decision is considered
from the standpoint of many Muslim women, one could possibly
see that maybe these women are not oppressed by the tradition.
In fact, when asked, some women said that, for them, wearing a
headscarf was a personal choice to follow cultural traditions and
beliefs about what ‘‘was modest and right.’’ This example
demon- strates that before attempting to determine if certain
cultural behaviors are sexist, it is necessary to have some
understanding of that culture.
Even with the caveat that it may be ill-advised to compare
sexism and sexual discrimination across cultures, it is clear
that the treatment of women varies regionally. Norway, for
instance, is known for its pro- gressive policies promoting
gender equality, whereas in Saudi Arabia women are forbidden
from voting, driving cars, or being in public without a male
relation. In many parts of the developing world the situation for
women is even worse and is characterized by high rates of
female infanticide and sex-selective abortion, poor nutrition,
little or no medical care, and low life expectancies for those
who survive childhood.
Because sexism and sexual discrimination persists almost
everywhere in the world, further research on the subject must
continue. Two likely areas of ongoing research are sexual
harassment and the intersection of gender, race, and class. The
trend of applying paradigms developed outside of gender of
research is also likely to continue. Another area that deserves
more attention is sexism and sexual discrimination against men.
Although men are not the prime targets, to ignore them in favor
of women would be both sexist and discriminatory.
SEE ALSO Volume 1: Socialization, Gender; Volume 2: Gender
in the Workplace; Policy, Employment; Racism/ Race
Discrimination; Volume 3: Ageism/Age Discrimination.

BIB L IOG R APHY
Acker, J. (1999). Rewriting class, race, and gender: Problems in
feminist rethinking. In M. M. Ferree, J. Lorber, & B. B. Hess
(Eds.), Revisioning gender. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Amott, T. L., & Matthaei, J. (Eds.). (1996). Race, class, gender,
and women’s work. In Race, gender, and work: A multicultural
economic history of women in the United States. (rev. ed.).
Boston: South End Press.
Browne, I., & Misra, J. (2003). The intersection of gender and
race in the labor market. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 487–
513.
Goldin, C. (2002). A pollution theory of discrimination: Male
and female differences in occupations and earnings. Cambridge,
MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved May 21,
2008, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=315335
Kimmel, M. S., & Aronson, A. (Eds.). (2008). The gendered
society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kington, R. S., & Nickens, H. W. (2001). Racial and ethnic
differences in health: Recent trends and their consequences. In
N. J. Smelser, W. J. Wilson, & F. Mitchell (Eds.), America
becoming (Vol. 2, pp. 253–310). Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.
Miedzian, M. (2002). Boys will be boys: Breaking the link
between masculinity and violence. New York: Lantern Books.
Quillian, L. (2006). New approaches to understanding racial
prejudice and discrimination. Annual Review of Sociology, 32,
299–328.
Reskin, B. F. (2001). Labor markets as queues: A structural
approach to changing occupational sex composition. In D. B.
Grusky (Ed.), Social stratification: Class, race, and gender in
sociological perspective. (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview
Press.
Saguy, A. C. (2000). Employment discrimination or sexual

violence? Defining sexual harassment in American and French
law. Law & Society Review, 34(4), 1091–1128.
Toller, P. W., Suter, E. A., & Trautman, T. C. (2004). Gender
role identity and attitudes toward feminism. Sex Roles, 51, 85–
90.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2008). Sex-
based discrimination. Retrieved April 27, 2008, from http:www.
eeoc.gov/types
Welsh, S. (1999). Gender and sexual harassment. Annual
Review of Sociology, 25, 169–190.
Wyatt, C. (2003). Liberty, equality, and the headscarf.
Retrieved May 21, 2008, from http://news.bbc.co.uk
Judith E. Rosenstein
SEXUAL ACTIVITY, ADULTHOOD
People are born sexual and have the capacity for sexual activity
throughout the life course. Sexual activity involves the
behavioral expression of erotic feelings, typically for
pleasurable or reproductive purposes but in some contexts for
power and control. Sexuality is influenced by biological,
psychological, sociological, and spiritual factors, within
historical, cultural, and developmental contexts. Virtually all
societies attempt to regulate sexual activity, with varying
degrees of success. Individuals are presumed to be most capable
of both fulfilling their sexual potential and conforming to social
norms in their sexual behaviors when they are adults; thus,
sexual activity is viewed as most acceptable for adults of legal
age but before they become too old. This does not mean that
children and older adults
402 ENCYCLOPE DIA OF THE LIF E COURSE AND HUMA

N DEV ELO PMENT
1st Argument paper
Length: aim for 5 paragraphs; References (always include); no
title page is needed, but instead a title should be included at the
top of the first page.
Topic: Sexism/Sex Discrimination
This article tackles the topic of institutionalized sexism in
which discrimination occurs not because of an individual’s
beliefs, but because of his or her beliefs about what other
people will do or think. The article also discusses ramifications
for women of color, lower social class, or differing religious
backgrounds.
https://go-gale-
com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3273000229&v
=2.1&u=umd_umuc&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=efc69e131bbf
2a2008d128675c139048
** if the link doesn’t work please look at separate attachment
labeled sexism sex_discrimination_psyc 338_Topic
Argumentative Essays
What is an argumentative essay?
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the
student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate
evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise
manner. Topic should be based on an area of interest of reading
to date
The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the
following.
· A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in
the first paragraph of the essay.
In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set
the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the

author should explain why the topic is important (exigence) or
why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should
present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis
statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set
forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this
portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an
effective or persuasive essay.
· Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body,
and conclusion.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay
together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is
unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will
collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous
section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next
section.
· Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one
general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction
throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an
ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note
that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some
logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening
paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis
statement with evidence collected during research. It is also
important to explain how and why the evidence supports the
thesis (warrant).
However, argumentative essays should also consider and
explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending
on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or
two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing
conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how
these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should
note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not
be well informed or how they might be out of date.
· Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or
anecdotal).

The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate,
detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement
and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical,
statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis.
However, students must consider multiple points of view when
collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a
successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also
discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to
exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the
student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong
outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be
well informed or up to date on the topic.
· A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but
readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.
It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to
struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most
immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it
must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new
information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the
information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the
topic is important, review the main points, and review your
thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more
research that should be completed in light of your work.
A complete argument
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a
conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the
cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived
through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning,
middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the
argument in the middle of my second point, questions would
arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through
the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be
complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or
argument.
The five-paragraph essay
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the

five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the
only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds
straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method
consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary
body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views
and (c) a conclusion.

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