White Blood Cells

WHITE BLOOD CELLS
White Blood Cells
Bacteria exist everywhere in the environment and have continuous access to the body through the
mouth, nose and pores of skin. Further more, many cells age and die daily and their remains must be
removed, this is where the white blood cell plays its role.
According to this quotation, without white blood cells, also known as leukocytes, we would not be
able to survive. White blood cells are our body's number one defense against infections. They help
keep us clean from foreign bacteria that enter our bodies. Statistics show that there are five to ten
thousand white blood cells per micro liter of blood, however this number will increase during an
illness. White blood cells can differ in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These white blood cells are similar to Neutrophil because they attack bacteria by the immune
system. This particular group of white blood cells is extremely important in my body, because they
are prominent at sites of allergic reactions, such as anaphylaxis. The nucleus of Eosinphil is made of
two lobes, and implanted in the cytoplasm are large, red–orange granules, and the diameter of them
is on average about twelve to fifteen µm. The third type of granular leukocytes is called, basophil.
Basophil's major function is, secretion. They tend to have a diameter of 12–15 µm. These cells make
up only about one percent of the total population of white blood cells, causing them to be much
more difficult to detect. These cells secrete both histamine and heparin. Histamine draws blood into
the damaged area, while heparin slows clotting so that more blood can enter the damaged area.
There are two different kinds of agranular white cells. One is called monocyte, and the other is
called lymphocyte. The major function of monocyte is, phagocytosis. These cells more very quickly
and are therefore able to consume bacteria and dead tissue at a fast rate. Monocytes have an average
diameter of, 12–17 µm, and they make up about 3–8 percent of our leukocyte's population.
Lymphocytes, major function are immunity. There are many different forms of lymphocytes, and all
of the different forms have different functions. B–lymphocytes
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Sickled Red Blood Cell Disease: A Case Study
Plasma would carry white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets to the injury site, which is the
scrape on the hand. Platelets would attach with each other, building a blockade to stop blood flow at
the injury site. White blood cells would attack and kill foreign substances that enter through the
injury site and try to hurt the body. Red blood cells would provide oxygen at the injury site to help
heal the injury, having that platelets have created a blockade.
A defining feature found in sickle cell disease is how red blood cells are organized. In sickle cell
disease, red blood cells attach to each other and create a compact organization. However, normal red
blood cells stay apart from each other that the individual shape of each red blood cell can be seen.
The organization of red blood cells is distinct in sickle cell disease, and therefore a ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The abnormal shape of a sickled red blood cell is a crescent shape and the shape causes the sickled
red blood cell to become sticky and attach to other sickled red blood cells as well as blood vessels.
Since a sickled red blood cell can attach to other sickled red blood cells and blood vessels, clotting
in blood vessels can occur, and the movement of sickled red blood cells are affected.
I think the abnormal shape of sickled red blood cells causes episodes of severe pain in the joints,
chest, and abdomen and swelling in the hands and feet because the abnormal shape of the sickled
red blood cells attach and clog blood vessels. The clogging of blood vessels can cause pain within
the body and swelling as a result of the many sickled red blood cells attached together at one area of
a blood vessel. Therefore, the abnormal shape of sickled red blood cells cause pain and swelling
symptoms because sickled red blood cells attach to each other and to blood

The Cancer Of The Blood Cells
. Leukaemia
This is a cancer of the blood cells. Leukaemia is a common type of blood cancer and can have an
effect on adults 10 times more as children. People diagnosed with leukaemia are normally people
who are over 50 years old. Leukaemia usually starts in the bone marrow, where blood cells are
formed in the body. The bone marrow forms three types of blood cells:
 White blood cells helps fight off infections and diseases.
 Red blood cells are responsible in carrying out oxygen throughout the body.
 Platelets support in controlling bleeding by forming blood clots.
When you have leukaemia, the bone marrow produces uncommon white cells, which are known as
leukaemia cells. Once your body start producing these leukaemia cells, at first, ... Show more
It is described, indistinctly, as the production of excessive white blood cell in the body. Due to the
fact that blood is a valuable part of the cardiovascular system, leukaemia affects the blood which the
heart eventually pumps throughout the whole body. Leukaemia, specifically acute leukaemia, causes
anaemia which leads to having severe low blood pressure, faster heart rate, stressing the heart and
can lead to congestive heart failure. If unattended, infections and sepsis, that may occur, can lead to
the person having a shock and rapid death. If given treatment for leukaemia that involves daily drug
intake, it may have an effect to your heart and cause multiple blood transfusions which leads to fluid
overload.
Leukaemia also has a negative effect on the circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of
the heart, blood and the blood vessels. This system produces white blood cells to help fight off
infection in the body. Leukaemia causes abnormal production of white blood cells, which can
increase the thickness of the blood and lead to clogging of the blood vessels. Also due to the
overcrowding of white blood cells produced by leukaemia, it can damage the other cells from
fulfilling their role in the body.
Leukaemia is produced in the bone marrow, which is connected to the muscle joint, once white cells
has been

Blood Disorders: Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle Cell Disease is a genetic blood disorder that's passed down to a child at birth from their
parents. Babies inherit two abnormal genes one from each parent which causes the red blood cells to
become deformed and change shape. Genes are elements is the cell that allows certain information
determining traits like eye, hair color, etc. Normal rbc's are flat, flexible, round with dimples in the
middle taking on a doughnut like shape. These cells are able to move throughout the blood vessels
suppling oxygen all over the body. Sickle rbc's are long, stiff pointed ends, taking on an old farm
tool called a sickle. Which is where its name derived from. These sickle shaped cell begin to bunch
together causing a backup in the blood vessels causing

Red Blood Cells Lab Report
Understanding the properties of the Cell Membrane through Spectrophotometry, Phase Contrast, and
Turbidity
Abstract
Spectrophotometry measures the amount of light of a specified wavelength, which passes through a
medium. In solutions, Red Blood cells experience hemolysis. The rate of hemolysis depends on the
solutions molecular weight and polarity. The Sodium Chloride/blood solution did not absorb much
of the 540 nm wavelength. However, the glycerol/blood solution absorbed more of the 540 nm light
wavelength. The polar glycerol/blood solution absorbed a greater amount of light and lysed. This
was due to the ease at which glycerol penetrated the red blood cell's cell membrane. Larger, organic
molecules in a solution do not cause Red Blood cells ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1.2mL of 0.3 M glycerol was added to a cuvette, which is placed in a sample holder. Transfer the
cuvette to the sample holder in the machine and close the lid gently. Blank the machine by pressing
the 0 ABS. 3 mL of 0.3 M glycerol was added to a test tube and10 microliters of whole blood was
pipetted into this solution. The tube was covered with a piece of Para film and inverted to gently to
mix. The time was recorded. Then, 1.2 mL of the blood/glycerol suspension was transferred into a
new cuvette. The cuvette was inserted into the machine and initial absorbance of the sample and
time was recorded. The cuvette was covered and mixed. The absorbance of the solution was read at
1–minute intervals and recorded until the absorbance values stabilized. All steps were repeated for
the 0.15M Sodium Chloride solution as well. After blanking the spectrophotometer with 0.15M
Sodium Chloride alone, the absorbance of the blood/Sodium Chloride solution was recorded at 1–
minute intervals for the same time course as the blood/glycerol

Sickle Cell Disease : A Blood Disorder
Introduction Sickle cell disease is a blood disorder in which red blood cells take on an abnormal
shape. Sickle cell anemia is when the red blood cells hemolyze, or die. Sickle cell disease is
inherited from generation to generation and is the most common in inherited blood disorders. An
estimated 70,000–100,000 people in America are currently suffering from this disease, most of
which are African Americans. One is diagnosed with sickle cell disease in early childhood generally
around four months old when the signs and symptoms are presented. Because of its huge impact, the
United States requires all newborns to be tested for this disease. [1] Sickle cell disease is known to
affect, "approximately 1 in every 400–500 African American ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
[3] Due to the disease needing to have both parents pass the abnormal Hemoglobin S gene, a child
has a 25% chance of actually receiving sickle cell disease along with a 25% chance of not having
the disease. Even as the parents have more children, the percentage of the disease being inherited
does not increase. A couple planning to have a child who want to know whether or not they are
carriers can go talk to a genetic specialist and be tested to see if they have the sickle cell gene. [4]
Pathophysiology Hemoglobin is a very important protein in our blood that carries oxygen from our
lungs to organs and surrounding tissues in our bodies. When hemoglobin has an inaccurate amount
of production of beta globin, the normal red blood cells are changed in shape. [4] The cells also
contain Hemoglobin S which is not useable within the body. The loss of oxygen and change in shape
causes one hemoglobin S cell to connect to another hemoglobin S cell to form into long crystals.[3]
Once changed in shape, the newly formed sickle cells are not able to pass through vessels, as normal
red blood cells do, and most often result in a blockage within the body. Once a vessel is blocked,
oxygen is unable to be supplied to other areas in the body causing hypoxia, or lack of oxygen. This
causes an attack known as pain crises in which the

Red Blood Cells
Red blood cell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[pic]
Human red blood cells (6–8μm)
Red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes) are the most common type of blood cell and the
vertebrateorganism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues via the blood
flow through thecirculatory system. They take up oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it while
squeezing through the body'scapillaries.
These cells' cytoplasm is rich in hemoglobin, an iron–containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen
and is responsible for the blood's red color.
In humans, mature red blood cells are flexible biconcave disks that lack a cell nucleus and most
organelles. 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced per second.[1] The cells ... Show more
Membrane composition
The membrane of the red blood cell plays many roles that aid in regulating their surface
deformability, flexibility, adhesion to other cells and immune recognition. These functions are
highly dependent on its composition, which defines its properties. The red blood cell membrane is
composed of 3 layers: the glycocalyx on the exterior, which is rich in carbohydrates; the lipid
bilayer which contains many transmembrane proteins, besides its lipidic main constituents; and the
membrane skeleton, a structural network of proteins located on the inner surface of the lipid bilayer.
In human erythrocytes, like in most mammal erythrocytes, half of the membrane mass is represented
by proteins and the other half are lipids, namely phospholipids and cholesterol.[29]
[edit]Membrane lipids
[pic]
[pic]
The most common erythrocyte cell membrane lipids, schematically disposed as they are distributed
on the bilayer. Relative abundances are not at scale.
The erythrocyte cell membrane comprises a typical lipid bilayer, similar to what can be found in
virtually all human cells. Simply put, this lipid bilayer is composed of cholesterol andphospholipids
in equal proportions by weight. The lipid composition is important as it defines many physical

properties such as membrane permeability and fluidity. Additionally, the activity of many membrane
proteins is regulated by interactions with lipids in the bilayer.
Unlike cholesterol which is

Cell Type : White Blood Cell / Leukocytes Disease
CELL ASSIGNMENT PART C
CELL TYPE – WHITE BLOOD CELL/LEUKOCYTES DISEASE – LEUKEMIA
Discovery of leukemia
Who discovered leukemia – John Bunnett, Alfred Velpeau, Alfred Donne and Rudolf Virchow were
the four me who discovered this disease
When was leukemia discovered – It was discovered in 1845 but not given its name until 1847 in
which Rudolf Virchow gave it the name leukemia
Where was leukemia discovered –
Symptoms of leukemia (signs)
Common symptoms
– Fever or chills
– Persistent fatigue, weakness
– Frequent or severe infections
– Losing weight without trying
– Swollen lymph nodes, enlarged liver or spleen
– Easy bleeding or bruising
– Recurrent nosebleeds
– Tiny red dots in your skin (petechial) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Timeline of critical events for leukemia
(A) 1845 – Rudolf Virchow was one of the four who discovered leukemia
(B) 1847 – it was given its name by Rudolf Virchow
(C) 1998 –Approximately 29,000 new cases of leukemia were diagnosed
(D) 2002 – Gleevec, a new antileukemia drug that even proved successful at treating chronic
myeloid leukemia, was heralded in clinical trials.
(E) 1970 – Due to the new combinations of anti–cancer drugs being used, the survival rates among
children with ALL have improved dramatically
(F) 1970 – Eighty percent of the children diagnosed with ALL now survive five years or more, as
compared to 50% in the late 1970s.
(G) 2003 – new research found that adult women who took aspirin two or more times a week had a
50% lower risk of developing adult leukemia. Scientists continue to work on a possible vaccine for
leukemia.
(H)2002 – They made some progress in 2002, discovering a gene transfer model that might trigger
immunity against leukemia cells.

(I)1811 – The early history of leukemia reaches back 200 years
How is the body affected by leukemia?
The body is affected or disrupted by its normal balance of cells in the blood and it also effects the
cells ability to do their jobs. Leukemia reduces the levels of white blood cells which defend the body
from any infections which can lead to higher chances of secondary

Homeostasis: White Blood Cells
Homeostasis
1.Meaning of Homeostasis:
A) contributor and provider
B) expand * C) same or constant
D) receiver
2.What is the normal pH value for body fluid?
A) 7.15–7.25 * B) 7.35–7.45
C) 7.55– 7.65
D) 7.00–7.35
E) 6.5–7.5
3.An example of the urinary system working with the respiratory system to regulate blood pH would
be
A) When you hold your breath the kidneys will remove CO2 from your blood
B) If you exercise a lot your urine will become more acidic * C) If you develop emphysema the
kidneys will remove fewer bicarbonate ions from circulation
D) If you hyperventilate the kidneys will counteract the alkalinity by adding hydrogen ions into the
blood stream
E) None of the above–the urinary system never works with the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
A fast excitatory synapses follows this order: * A ) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across
the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (3) binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels
and positive ions move in.
B ) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (3)
binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and negative ions move in.
C ) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor amino acid (3)
binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in.
D ) (1) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (2) neurotransmitter released (3)
binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in.
E ) None of the above
3. Resting potential is
A ) excess positive ions accumulate inside the plasma membrane
B ) excess negative ions accumulate inside the plasma membrane
C ) excess positive ions accumulate outside the plasma membrane * D ) both b & c
E ) both a & c

4. Sensory neurons have:
A ) A short dendrite and a long axon
B ) A short dendrite and a short axon * C ) A long dendrite and a short axon
D ) A long dendrite and a long axon
E ) Their axons and dendrites may be either long or short
5.

Cell Membranes In Red Blood Cells
11. The red blood cells (RBCs) in your body contain mainly hemoglobin (Hb), which is a large
protein that cannot pass through the RBC membrane. The RBC membrane is also impermeable to
sucrose. If a red blood cell is placed into a sucrose solution in which the concentration of sucrose on
the outside of the cell is less than the concentration of the Hb on the inside, will the RBC shrink,
swell up or remain the same size? Explain your reasoning. RBCs will swell up by hypertonic, since
the plasma membrane does not prevent its diffusion, water will flow into the cell by osmosis. The
cell will swell and eventually burst. The bursting of a cell is called lysis.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
12. How does "active transport" of material ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The glucose carbon (6c) will break into two pyruvates (3C each), then one carbon will be lost in the
link reaction that releases a CO2 molecule and adds a CoA the 2 carbon molecule forming Acetyl
CoA. The Acetyl CoA molecule enters the kreb Cycle. It first gets associated with oxaloacetate (4C)
that releases the CoA. Two CO2 molecules are released after the reduction of 2 NAD+ to 2 NADH.
Which leaves us with a new Oxaloacetate molecule that will enter the Kreb cycle again.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
23. Where are the enzymes that convert pyruvate to acetyl–CoA found?
Mitochondrial matrix
Where are the enzymes of the Krebs Cycle found (i.e., in which compartment of which organelle)?
Mitochondrial matrix
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
24. In aerobic respiration, does inhaled molecular oxygen (O2) combine chemically with carbon to
produce CO2?
No, there is no co2 in glycolysis produced
If your answer is yes, please explain. If it is no, please

Proteins Of Bovine Red Blood Cell
Protein Composition in Red Blood Cells in Humans using Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis
Name: Emma Claypole
Date: Wednesday March 16, 2016
Lab Group: W08, Wednesday morning
2
Abstract
The proteins of Bovine red blood cell (RBC) membranes were analyzed using polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis. After analyzing Bovine RBC they were then compared to human RBC counterpart.
Following finding the log of each molecular weight of each band, band one showed the highest
molecular weight. All five bands viewed were from humans. There are typically 7 bands visible
however, in our case only five were visible due to implications within the gel sample.
Introduction
Proteins are important elements in cellular membranes and give the membranes many of their
characteristics. In red blood cells, the meshwork of proteins in and around the membrane gives it
strength and flexibility, allowing a cell to squeeze through small capillaries without bursting. Other
proteins play roles in transporting material in and out of the cell (Lab Manual, Cell Biology).
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), with all of its different modifications is probably the
most widely–utilized procedure in contemporary biochemistry and molecular biology (Mordacq and
Ellington (1994)). In this experiment, we will attempt to determine the molecular weights of the
major proteins in the plasma membranes of bovine red blood cells (RBCs). The predictions made
are if our protein has similar weights as proteins

Hematopoiesis: Red Blood Cell and Bone Marrow
HEMATOPOIESIS
The formation and development of the cells of the blood.
It is a continuous regulated process of blood cell production that includes cell renewal, proliferation,
differentiation and maturation.
It is the process by which immature precursor cells develop into mature blood cells. The currently
accepted theory on how this process works is called the monophyletic theory which simply means
that a single type of stem cell gives rise to all the mature blood cells in the body. This stem cell is
called the pluripotential (pluripotent) stem cell.
SITES OF HEMATOPOIESIS
|Age |Site |
|Embryo ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hematopoiesis in the fetal liver reaches its peak by the third month of development. The developing
spleen, kidney, thymus and lymph nodes contribute to the process.
Thymus is the first fully developed organ and becomes the major site of the T cell production.
KIDNEY & SPLEEN – produce B cells.
In this phase, megakaryocyte production begins. The spleen gradually decreases granulocytic
production & involves itself solely in lymphopoiesis. Detectable levels of hemoglobin may be
shown.
Medullary Phase . Myeloid Phase
It begins in the 5th month of fetal development. Hematopoiesis begins in the developing bone
marrow cavity
Medullary hematopoiesis occurs. It occurs in the medulla or inner part of the bone marrow
Mesenchymal cells (embryonic tissue) migrate into the core of the bone & differentiate into skeletal
& hematopoietic blood cells. Hematopoietic activity, esp. myeloid activity is apparent

3:1 (myeloid: erythroid) by 21 weeks of gestation 6th month – bone marrow is the main site of
Hematopoiesis
The M:E ratio or Myeloid:Erythroid ratio describe the ratio relationship of the granulocyte line of
cells to the erythrocyte line of cells. Normally there are from 25% to 35% of the bone marrow cells
of the erythroid line. There are then

How Do Red Blood Cells Affect The Cardiovascular System
Every second, about two million red blood cells die in the human body. Fortunately, the bone
marrow can keep up with the body by creating red blood cells at the same rate of which they die. If
red blood cells malfunction, there are serious diseases and consequences that will affect the
Cardiovascular system. Red blood cells are built to complete specific functions in this system. The
red blood cell affects the body's blood flow, and the amount of oxygen in all parts of the body.
Red blood cells play a big role in the cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system's main
function is to get blood from the heart, and distribute it to the whole body. The cardiovascular
system is a "highway" network that links to all parts of the human body (Pearson 78). This system is
made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The blood in this system consists of plasma, red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These substances provide the body with oxygen, and
protection from other viruses and bacteria. Without the cardiovascular system, the human body
would not be able to function. The red blood cell is a biconcave disk, which means ... Show more
"Some symptoms of a high or low red blood cell count can include: fatigue, joint pain, and shortness
of breath"(WebMD). A normal red blood cell count is anywhere from 4.7 to 6.1 million cells per
microliter for men, and anywhere from 4.2 to 5.4 million cells per microliter for women. Some
causes for a high red blood cell count are: smoking, heart disease, dehydration, or a bone marrow
disease. Another form of malfunction in the red blood cell is anemia. There are multiple types of
anemia, such as: sickle cell anemia, iron deficiency anemia, and hemolytic anemia. Hemolytic
anemia is when red blood cells are destroyed by an abnormal process in your body (WebMD). These
malfunctions affect how well the red blood cell and cardiovascular system work in the human

Sickle Cell Disease : A Red Blood Cell Essay
Sickle cell disease is a red blood cell disorder in which affected individuals have irregular
hemoglobin in their red blood cells. Individuals with sickle cell disease have red blood cells with
hemoglobin that can contain "stiff rods," which changes the shape from a disc to a sickle shape. This
sickle shape is not flexible like normal disc shaped red blood cells; therefore, they can become stuck
to the walls of blood vessels. When the cells become stuck to the blood vessel walls it can hinder or
stop the blood flow resulting in neighboring tissues to not receive the oxygen they require, (What is
Sickle Cell Disease?). The cause of illness and death in sickle cell disease patients is "impaired
blood flow culminating in vaso–occlusion, with occlusive events occurring throughout the vascular
tree, from the relatively low–shear and low–oxygen tension postcapillary venules to relatively high–
shear and high–oxygen tension large cerebral arteries," (Lu, Wood, & Higgins, 2016, p. 2751).
Decreased blood flow is caused by a change in sickle cell blood rheology, elevated inflammation,
and "cellular adhesion, with pathologic inflammation and adhesion likely arising at least in part as a
result of the underlying altered sickle cell blood rheology," (Lu et al., 2016, p. 2751).
The article "Deoxygenation Reduces Sickle Cell Blood Flow at Arterial Oxygen Tension" is about a
study fixating on deoxygenation dependent rheologic methods to determine their effects separately
of other mechanisms

7.02 Biology: The Beginning Of A Blood Cell
7.02 Biology AUSTIN WHEELER 5/8/17
The Beginning of a Blood Cell
 The blood cell is made in the bone marrow of a bone and then enters a vein and goes toward to
superior vena cava. The blood cell joins millions of other blood cells as well as white blood cells
and platelets inside of plasma.
Through the Heart
 Once the blood cell gets to the superior vena cava it goes through the right atrium and the right
ventricle, then through the pulmonary artery and into the lungs.
The Lungs
 Once the oxygen–depleted cells are in the lungs, they travel into the alveoli where they lose their
CO2 and trade it for oxygen. The oxygen is able to stay with the red blood cells because the cell
have hemoglobin which is a protein which binds with oxygen.
Back

Discovering Cancer Cells In Peripheral Blood Focusing On
Discovering Cancer Cells in Peripheral Blood Focusing on Breast Cancer
Taylor Mitchell
Thomas University
Abstract
The discovery and use of tumor cells in pertinent to the development, diagnosis and treatment of
cancer. This paper will show specific research not only about tumor cells but also about circulating
tumor cells (CTC). It is important to understand how these cells are discovered and the recent
development in finding them in peripheral blood in a minimal amount of time. The Chemistry,
Pathology and Laboratory departments conduct a study on 90 specimens from 24 patients, all who
have been diagnosed with breast cancer. Using flow cytometry, this article will go into detail about
the usage and findings of CTCs. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This also correlates to the response white blood cells have in peripheral blood (Jia et al., 2015).
Tumor markers and cancers cells are both produced by cancer that is the tale tell sign for the
appropriate diagnosis. Tumor markers can help detect, diagnose and treat certain kinds of cancer.
Doctors will biopsy, measure and test tumors to discover whether or not it is malignant or benign
("Tumor Markers). Tumor markers can reveal the stage along with the prognosis of the patient.
Tumor markers not the only sign that can be used to discover cancer in a patient. Circulating tumor
cells is also a useful tool. It is defined by the CellSearch assay, that CTC is a cell that is "EpCAM
positive, cytokeratin positive, CD45 negative, and nuclear stain positive (Zhao et al., 2013)."
The Department of Chemistry, Laboratory and Pathology at the University of Washington in Seattle,
WA conducted a study to increase the automated number of the counting method for CTCs in whole
blood using their own recently developed ensemble–decision aliquot ranking or eDAR. While these
cells were reported about 150 years ago, they have continued to be a useful tool in diagnosis cancer
and its treatment (Zhao et al., 2013). These particular cells has been discovered in patients with
different kinds of cancer (Zhao et al., 2013). Unfortunately, however, observation of these cells
comes at a timely cost. Up until recently it took

Red Blood Cells Lab Report
The experiment confirms the hypothesis as, when compared to the isotonic environment, the sheep
red blood cells that were exposed to a hypotonic environment either expanded or lysed. The
increased ECF's absorbance in the three hypotonic solutions show that more light was absorbed – an
indicator of a ruptured red blood cell. Although the 50mM solution produced a lower absorbance
than the 100mM solution when the expected amount of the former should have been higher than the
latter, the hypotonic solution still has a larger absorbance than the isotonic solution.
It is worth noting that the hypotonic environments produced the clearest red solutions. In all three
hypotonic environments, high absorbance values in comparison to the isotonic controlled
environment were collated (Table 3). When taking into account osmosis, this could be a result from
the sheep red blood cells rupturing and releasing haemoglobin as too much water was absorbed
(Lluka 2016). The positive control 0mM produced the largest absorbance value most likely due to
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, the concentration of solutes in his red blood cells (ICF) is lower than the concentration of his
ECF. As a result, the water in the ICF moves into the ECF; causing the cells to shrink (Reece et al.
2014). In order to treat Baxter, his blood cells must expand to regain their ideal shape. By increasing
the amount of water in the ECF, this will dilute the solute concentration; bringing the environment
back to an isotonic system. However, as seen in Table 3, if pure water (0mM) is used, the red blood
cells could lyse as, to reach equilibrium, the cell will absorb more water than is required. Since this
is a result of the extreme concentration gradient, isotonic saline, where the solute present is lower
than the ICF, should be administered intravenously. This would be a smaller concentration gradient;
an ideal that will allow the cells to expand but not

Thalassemia: Red Blood Cell and Hemoglobin Protein Chains
TABLE OF CONTACTS
Introduction............................................................................3
Why we are choosing this issue (Thalassemia)?.................................3
What is Thalassemia?................................................................3
Types of Thalassemia.................................................................3
o Alpha Thalassemia..............................................................3
o Beta Thalassemia..............................................................4
Treatment of Thalassemia...........................................................4
The effects of Thalassemia..........................................................4
What can be done to resolve Thalassemia? ......................................4
Reference..............................................................................5
INTRODUCTION
Every society has many issues. Some of these issues are small and the others are big. These issues
could be economical issues, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
People with this condition are requiring a careful medical management to stay healthy and avoid
complications of the illness and often require blood transfusions during significant illness or
pregnancy (Children's Hospital Boston). Beta Thalassemia major originally called Cooley's anemia,
is the most severe form of beta Thalassemia. It is caused by significant mutations on both of the beta
chains. Patients with this illness require frequent blood transfusions to survive. They also require
chelating therapy to remove excess iron that can build up in their bodies and cause extensive
damage (Children's Hospital Boston).The symptoms of this type include fatigue and weakness, pale
skin or jaundice, protruding abdomen with enlarged spleen and liver, dark urine, and abnormal facial
bones and poor growth (Clinaero, n.d.).

TREATMENTS OF THALASSEMIA
Treatment of Thalassemia is different from one type to another.
THE EFFECTS OF THALASSEMIA
The effects of Thalassemia are divided into three levels which are the individual level, the national
level, and the global level. The effects of Thalassemia at the individual level are concentrating on
the person who carries Thalassemia. As (Hashemi, 2011) says "He or she will have some
physiological problems, educational problems, and life problems. They also will be burden to their
family". The effects of Thalassemia at the other levels which are the national level and the global
level are

Red Blood Cell Neisseria Gonorrhoea
Human blood cells (Erythrocyte cells)
Red blood cells also called erythrocytes are small, thin flexible round biconcave disc shaped cells.
They are the most common type of blood cell and have a life span of 120days. On average around
200 trillion red blood cells are produced every day in a human.
They are 7–8µm in diameter and have no nucleus or membrane bound organelles, however they
contain a protein pigment called haemoglobin located in the cytoplasm of the red blood cell that
gives blood its red colour when bound with oxygen. The key role of red blood cells is to transport
gases e.g. oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
The biconcave shape of the red blood cells gives the cell a much larger surface area to volume ...
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Neisseria gonorrhoea
Neisseria gonorrhoea is a pathogenic bacterium caused by gram negative diplococcus. The
bacterium causes the most common sexual transmitted infection known as gonorrhoea.
Gonorrhoea is a contagious infection usually passed through sexual contact by both men and women
of all different ages and backgrounds. Gonorrhoea can also be transmitted to a child during birth if
the mother is infected.
Neisseria gonorrhoea are non–motile, coffee bean shaped bacterium usually in pairs and are about
0.6–1.0µm in size with many IV pili attached to it due to the lack of movement. The IV pili attached
to the Neisseria gonorrhoea bacterium are specialised to move the bacterium cell and stick
themselves to cell

How Does Tonicity Affect Red Blood Cells
The Solution Affect on Red Blood Cells
Introduction
Red blood cells are called erythrocytes. Erythrocytes is a cell that travels in the blood. The blood
consists of four major parts including red blood cells. Blood is a fluid that is inhuman in order to
survive. There are different purposed for the red blood cells that are used to keep the body healthy.
Red blood cells have a protein that carries more oxygen molecules from the lungs to the body.
Hemoglobin leaves the body and returns carbon dioxide to the lungs. Without out this, people will
not survive. When the red blood cell pass through the blood vessels in your body the cell forms a
shape of a round shape like a donut. It the center it looks flat. Red blood cells have a lack of the
nucleus and survive about 120 days. Red blood cell needs to be replaced by fresh ones daily.
According to Mader (2016) "Tonicity is the relative concentration of solute (particles)".There are
some of the solutions that are mixed might have a higher and lower concentration of water. With
each example, there is a different tonicity; there will be an explanation giving on each one. If the
solutions are not mixed incorrectly then the results will come out the same way. The purpose of this
study is to show the effects of tonicity with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While doing the testing there was a little difference in the tonicity, the results supported my
hypothesis, that if you mix the solution up incorrectly then the results will not turn out correctly. The
isotonic had a normal appearance, hypertonic had shriveled, and the hypotonic burst. Based on the
data that was given, there was not enough water in the tube. The solution was not mixed well
because the print on the paper was hard to read. When doing this procedure, instructions must be
followed as stated. This hypothesis was accepted based on the data and the

The Drug Of Red Blood Cells
Erythropoietin is a hormone that is produced by the kidneys in response to a decrease in the
oxygen–carrying capacity of red blood cells in circulation (2). From the kidneys, erythropoietin
(EPO) enters the blood stream and enters the bone marrow where it stimulates an increase in the
production of red blood cells (1, 2). This mechanism functions as a negative feedback loop since the
signaling of an increase in the oxygen–carrying capacity of the blood due to an increased number of
red blood cells inhibits further production of EPO. The release of EPO is very sensitive to the level
of oxygen–carrying capacity in the blood. The simple occurrence of red blood cells death will
trigger its release to ensure normal levels are maintained (1). ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
An important aspect to producing synthesized EPO is the use of mammalian cells. EPO contains
40% carbohydrates which are important to the stability and biosynthesis of recombinant EPO (5). In
1984, EPO was able to be cloned and synthesized for use by using recombinant DNA technology (1,
3, 4, 5). The biological properties of synthesized EPO are very similar to the original hormone found
naturally in the body (3). The importance of the mammalian cell carbohydrate composition allowed
for the carbohydrate portions of recombinant EPO to be almost identical to the carbohydrate
portions of native EPO (3). Success in creating synthetic EPO on a large scale that mimics native
EPO in humans allowed for the implementation of synthesized EPO for medicinal purposes.
Synthesized erythropoietin became the first hematopoietic growth factor to be used in clinical
settings (1). The discovery of synthesized EPO has provided patients with renal failure and severe
anemia the ability to reverse the effects of these disorders and improve the oxygen–carrying
capacity of their circulatory system (1, 5). Individuals with kidney damage or renal failure are in
need of EPO the most. Since adults make EPO in their kidneys, any damage to the renal system will
alter the ability to produce enough EPO to sufficiently restore red blood cell levels (1, 5).
There are also some secondary

Why Red Blood Cells Are Big Small Cells That Lack Nuclei
M3 hamatology
Red blood cells are big small cells that lack nuclei. Due to their characteristic they are similar to
primeval prokaryotic cells that belong to the bacteria. These cells occasionally take up forty to fifty
per cent of the whole blood content. They take oxygen from the lungs and deliver them to all the
tissues that belong to the body, they also remove carbon dioxide from the body. The red blood cells
are made endlessly in the bone marrow with the help of using stem cells at a period of two to three
million cells every second. The gas transmitting protein molecule is known as haemoglobin that
takes up ninety five per cent of the red cells. All red cells possess 270,000,000 iron filled
haemoglobin molecules. Anaemic individual ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are mainly created inside the bone marrow which is from the similar sort of stem cells that
create the red blood cells. Additional ones are made within the thymus gland, which is located at the
bottom of the neck. There are some white cells known as lymphocytes, they are the number one
repliers on behalf of the immune system. They search, detect and attach to foreign protein on top of
bacteria, fungi and viruses. This helps in getting rid of them. Supplementary white cells known as
granulocytes and macrophages, then in turn come to encircle and damage the foreign cells. They
possess a role of removing dead blood cells or those about to die. The capability to remove asbestos
or dust is possessed by the white blood cells. Red cells stay feasible approximately four months
before they are freed from the blood and their constituents are recycled inside the spleen. Singular
white cells normally just persist from 18 to 36 hours before they are taken out. However other kinds
can live up to a year.
Blood plasma is a liquid that is a runny constituent of the blood. It overhangs red blood cells,
platelets, white blood cells. Inside the plasma, there are a lot of melted materials here, for instance
protein, gases, electrolytes, waste products and nutrients.
Platelets helps in putting an end to bleeding it also partakes in the process called coagulations
whereby the blood clots. Platelets do not have an apparent nucleus, platelets are said to

Permeability Of Red Blood Cells
All living organisms are composed of cells. Cells maintain their structure due to their cell
membrane. These membranes are selectively permeable which means that the cell membrane
regulates the type and the amount of substances that are able to enter the cell (Reece et al., 2014).
The cell membrane is a very complex structure that allows the cell to perform the basic functions
that are necessary for life.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable because of its structure. Cell membranes are composed
of a phospholipid bilayer. These lipids are amphipathic meaning that they contain both a hydrophilic
(attracted to water) and hydrophobic (repelled by water) region. The cell membrane maintains its
structure by orienting itself so the hydrophilic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Before conducting the experiment, the predicted results were methanol would lyse first, followed by
ethanol, ethylene glycerol, ammonium chloride, and ammonium acetate. Glucose, sucrose, sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, glycine, and sodium acetate were not predicted to lyse at all. Sodium
acetate, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride are all extremely polar molecules. As a result they
did not travel through the cell membrane, and no lysing occurred. This further supports the
spectrophotometry and microscopy experiments where sodium chloride was used as a control.
Sucrose and glucose are also extremely large polar sugar molecules, and as a result did not lyse the
cell. Methanol, ethanol, ethylene glycerol, and glycerol are all alcohols; they are relatively small and
nonpolar. They were incredibly permeable to the cell membrane, and their rate of permeability was
based on their molecular weight. Methanol had the smallest molecular weight and lysed the red
blood cells fasted. Ethanol was the next smallest, followed by ethylene glycerol, and glycerol.
Ammonium acetate and ammonium chloride both lysed faster than glycerol because in an aqueous
solution the ammonium loses a hydrogen to become ammonia, which causes the molecule to no
longer be polar. As a result, the molecule is able to travel through the cell

Bleeding In Red Blood Cells And Platelets
The second portion of blood is made from solid components, both formed and fragmented cells.
When bleeding occurs somewhere in the body, the solid components of the blood each have their
own unique responses as well. These components are Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells
(WBCs), and Platelets. RBCs are formed cells that hold the oxygen within the blood. These cells are
made of a hollow membrane that can hold oxygen and is flexible enough to squeeze through small
vessels like the capillaries. (Tortura 696). When blood loss is significant enough to disturb oxygen
transfer to cells, the body attempts to compensate by mass producing in the skeletal tissue (Red
Cross 159). Another formed cell is the WBCs or leukocytes that hold the primary function of
preventing infection in the blood stream. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
with wounds that have broken through the skin, WBCs will gather around the point of entry to fight
infection and prevent any further damage to systems (Tortura 699). However, in the case of
hemostasis, the most important contributors are the Platelets, cell fragments that are held together
with a membrane (702). As bleeding occurs, various chemicals and enzymes that are contained
within platelets activate, causing the cells to become sticky and encourage accumulation to one
another. This coagulation of platelets at the broken vessel's entry site will eventually form a solid
plug, resulting in effective clotting. . Clotting is essential to stop major bleeding of vessels
throughout the body, especially in the case of hemorrhagic or hypovolemic shock

Anemia Decreases the Number of Red Blood Cells Essay
Anemia is a blood condition with decreasing number of red blood cells (RBC) or less than normal
levels of hemoglobin (an essential protein that carries oxygen to your tissues and organs) in the
blood. Anemia usually occurs when individual does not have enough red blood cells the cells that
transport hemoglobin (Hb) throughout your body. [4]
Iron deficiency anemia is a common form of anemia that occurs if person does not have sufficient
iron in body. Without enough iron your body starts using the iron it has stored. Soon, the stored iron
gets used. After the stored iron is used, your body makes fewer red blood cells. The red blood cells it
does make have less hemoglobin than normal. [4]
Iron deficiency anemia can cause fatigue, chest pain, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Anemia is a common comorbidity in HF is associated with increased disease severity and also
contributes to a worse outcome. The mechanism through which anemia contributes to negative
outcome in chronic HF patients is multifactorial and complex. Important factors include, bone
marrow resistance to erythropoietin, renal failure, chronic inflammation, medication use and
hematinic deficiencies, in particular iron deficiency (ID). Generally, the presence of ID is only
considered clinically relevant in the presence of anemia. However, a decreased hemoglobin levels
can be viewed as the end result of a process beginning with gradual depletion of iron stores. Even if
patients are not anemic, ID already may be common in chronic HF, with or without anemia, is
associated with decreased aerobic performance and exercise intolerance, recently also shown in
chronic HF. [5]
Anemia is an independent factor in mortality in people with chronic heart failure. Anemia, or a low
level of hemoglobin in the blood, is much linked to heart disease because the heart has to work
harder to pump more blood and oxygen through the body [4]. Iron deficiency in heart failure can be
due to a number of factors, it may be caused by a lack of nutrients in a person's diet or by the body's
inability to absorb nutrients from food. Heart failure can also cause a back up of fluid (edema). This
edema produces a higher volume of blood plasma (the liquid part of blood), which can dilute red

Haemoglobin And Red Blood Cells Report Template
Biomedical Sciences 3: Practical 1 – Haemoglobin and Red Blood Cells REPORT TEMPLATE
Please do not alter the document format. Keep to Arial font size 11 and do not exceed 8 pages.
TITLE: Experimental blood test for preliminary indicative results to blood disorder
ABSTRACT
In modern science, experimental blood test has been a general definition for indicating the wellness
of blood cells. Several credible theories were formulated for approximating the concentration of red
blood cell (haemoglobin) in the human body, and developing understanding on the difference
between the concentrations between human's sexuality [1,3 and 8]. In this report, we examine the
concentration of haemoglobin in the human blood through spectroscopy and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The intensity of light beam is set at 540 nm, and Cyanmet reagent is used as the absorbance zero
control. Through this experiment, concentration of haemoglobin can be calculated using Beer's law:
A = ε × c × l
A –> absorbance ε –> molar absorbance c –> concentration l –> path length
Blood sample is diluted in this experiment to allow measurement to fall within logarithmic range
(dilution factor 1:251). Applying Beer's law on the result obtained, the steps are as follows:
A450 = 44000 mol−1Lcm−1 × c × 1cm
Concentration of haemoglobin in diluted sample (gram/litre) = 0.45/44000 × 64000 Da = 0.654 g/l
Concentration of haemoglobin in undiluted sample = 0.654 × 251 = 164g/l
From the calculation, we can conclude that the blood sample that was drawn for this experiment
falls under the normal range of men's and women's concentration of haemoglobin.
2) Haemocytometer. Summarise the experiment, method and show calculation for the determination
of the number of red blood cells in the original sample
This experiment is performed to estimate the number of erythrocytes in the sample, by counting of
the number of cells in one of the centre grid chamber of haemocytometer. Blood is

Macrophages Difference Between White Blood Cells And Microbes
The human immune system is a complex network of cells and organs that evolved to fight off
infectious microbes. Much of the immune system's work is carried out by an army of various
specialized cells, each type designed to fight disease in a particular way. The invading microbes first
run into the vanguard of this army, which includes white blood cells called macrophages (literally,
"big eaters"). The macrophages engulf as many of the microbes as they can. ANTIGENS SOUND
THE ALARM How do the macrophages recognize the microbes? All cells and microbes wear a
"uniform" made up of molecules that cover their surfaces. Each human cell displays unique marker
molecules unique to you. Microbes display different marker molecules unique to them. The
macrophages

Unknown Blood Cells Lab Report
Introduction When foreign antigens enter the body, chemical signals are dispatched to different parts
of the immune system and send it into action. B lymphocytes produce the antigen specific
antibodies. The antibodies will then attach to the antigen/virus and T lymphocytes will attack the
antigen that the antibody has bound itself to. Once the antigen has been eliminated phagocytes,
which are cells that absorb bacteria and other small particles/substances, will come through and
absorb the remains of the antigen/infection. In a forensic setting antibodies can also be used to
identify an unknown blood/protein. The purpose of this experiment is to use the process of
immunoprecipitation to identify an unknown host protein.
Materials and

Modified Red Blood Cells Essay
As a potential tool to optimize the delivery of therapeutics via the cardiovascular system,
researchers are looking to erythrocytes as an abundant and versatile drug delivery platform. There
seems to be a consensus in the biomedical community that modified red blood cells (RBCs) have
great potential to add to the safety, effectiveness, and specificity of therapeutics and other
interventions. RBCs have already been shown to interact with more than fifty known drugs that have
been approved by the FDA, and may be unintentionally serving as a natural compartment that
affects; biodistribution, metabolism, and the pharmacokinetics of many commonly prescribed
medications. As seen in figure 1, RBCs are enucleated, biconcave discs that are ... Show more
A major downside to this method is a lack of therapeutic isolation from the body which makes this
approach a poor choice for targeted delivery. Another complication with this method is that the
coupled therapeutic might cause an unintended immune response. The major benefit associated with
coupling therapeutics to the surface of RBCs is that it is possible to perform the procedure in the
patient's cardiovascular system. Once injected, the therapeutics with conjugated RBC targeting
ligands will form covalent chemical cross linkers with a receptor on the extracellular surface of the
RBC. In doing so, the trouble of having to extract RBCs, treat them, and ultimately reintroduce them
back into the patient's cardiovascular system is avoided. Also, by coupling the therapeutics to the
RBCs membrane, this approach avoids the damage that can occur during the encapsulation method
which will be discussed next. (Muzykantov)
The alternative method of loading RBCs, involves encapsulating the therapeutics inside the cell.
While there are multiple methods for coaxing the cell to uptake a therapeutic, there appears to be a
consensus that osmosis driven entrapment is the method that does the least amount of damage to the
cell membrane. This method takes advantage of an interesting biochemical feature of red blood cells
and can be viewed in figure 2. When RBCs are put in a hypotonic solution

White Blood Cells
White blood cell (WBC)–A white blood cell is one of the three main types of blood cells. They are
produced in the bone marrow and released into the blood. White blood cells are responsible for
fighting infection. There are several kinds of white blood cells, including monocytes, lymphocytes,
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
White blood cells, or leukocytes (also spelled "leucocytes"; from the Greek word leuko– meaning
"white"), are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious
disease and foreign materials. Five[1] different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all
produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem
cell. They live for ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Eles também "limpam" o corpo destruíndo células mortas e restos de tecidos.
Função
Os monócitos, macrófagos e neutrófilos tem como função ingerir bactérias, células mortas, anormais
ou infectadas.
Os neutrófilos são os primeiros a atacar o agente invasor (principalmente em infecções bacterianas).
Caso ele falhe, o monócito (o macrófago do sangue, que engloba os invasores) é accionado.
A função do linfócito está relacionada com as reacções imunitárias. A imunidade humoral ligada a
produção de anticorpos (linfócitos B). A imunidade celular ligada a proliferação de células efetoras.
Os linfócitos são mais actuantes em infecções virais.
Os basófilos e os eosinófilos combatem processos alérgicos.
Os leucócitos (ou glóbulos brancos), são células produzidas na medula óssea e presentes no sangue,
linfa, órgãos linfóides e vários tecidos conjuntivos.
A vida média da maioria dos Glóbulos Brancos é somente de poucos dias.
Durante um período de infecção, muitos Glóbulos Brancos duram apenas algumas horas. Entretanto,
algumas células B e T permanecem no corpo durante anos.

A contagem leucocitária total normalmente varia de 800 mil a 1.200 mil células por mililitro. Uma
quantidade muito pequena ou muito grande de leucócitos indica um distúrbio.
A maioria dos distúrbios dos leucócitos envolve os neutrófilos, os linfócitos, os monócitos e os
eosinófilos. São muito raros os distúrbios envolvendo os

White Blood Cells Lab Report
In activity three, a total count for white blood cells was conducted using a sample slide with a blood
smear. The slide was observed under microscope with the above data as the result. The normal
percentages for each blood count are as follows (zukur):
Normal Results (Sheep) Our Results
· Neutrophils: 10 to 50% Neutrophils: 46%
· Lymphocytes: 40 to 75% Lymphocytes: 20%
· Monocytes: 0 to 6% Monocytes: 23%
· Eosinophils: 0 to 10% ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An increase in lymphocyte can be a cause of some types of cancer such as lymphoma, lymphocytic
leukemia, and other chronic illness.
The monocytes fight certain infections and help other white blood cells remove dead or damaged
tissues, destroy cancer cells, and regulate immunity against foreign substances. An increased
number of monocytes in the blood (monocytosis) occurs in response to chronic infections, in
autoimmune disorders, in blood disorders, and in certain cancers. An increase in the number of
macrophages in parts of the body other than in the blood (such as the lungs, skin, and other organs)
can occur in response to infections, sarcoidosis, and Langerhans cell histiocytosis. (Merckmanuals)
Basophils appear in many specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that cause
allergic symptoms. Basophils contain anticoagulant heparin, which prevents blood from clotting too
quickly. They also contain the vasodilator histamine, which promotes blood flow to tissues. An
increase in basophil count can confirm that there is an infection or some type of

Red Blood Cell Hypoxia
Hypoxia is a condition that is caused by the decrease in oxygen pressure, insufficient oxygen
transport, or when tissues are physiologically incapable of making use of the oxygen supplied to
them. Hypoxia occurs in the tissues and brain and cumulates to impaired cognitive functions. The
ability to maintain homeostasis and oxygen levels is an essential part of survival for all vertebrates.
Various physiological systems have evolved to assure every cell in an organism receives optimal
oxygenation. Hypoxia emerged as physiological structures used for oxygen delivery such as
erythrocytes evolved. Anoxia is the extreme type of hypoxia that manifests when the body is without
oxygen leaving the tissues and brain torpid. Hypoxia can manifest in five different forms: Pemic,
Hypoxemic, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Extended exposure to hypoxic conditions can cause elevated RBC count; a condition called
Polycythemia. The elevation in the production of red blood cell is a consequence of renal failure that
affects the kidney. This results in the kidney producing a enythrogenin into the blood stream. This
produces erythropoietinogen; a plasma protein reaction which produces erythropoietin. This
activates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. Hypoxia can seriously defect the brains
respiratory region. Any sort of loss of oxygen to any area of the brain can cause irreversible damage
and lead to unconsciousness. When there is a shortage of oxygen supply to the brains respiratory
region, it causes the integrating center to trigger an increase in the breathing rate of the organism. At
any point, if an organism is to become starved of oxygen, the brain cells undergo apoptosis. This
paper will address hypoxia, variations in hemoglobin of marine mammals vs. terrestrial mammals,
bends and the mechanisms used by diving marine mammals to avoid them and how these animals
work to deal with the issues of depth and deep

Sickle Cell Disease : A Blood Disorder
Sickle Cell Disease Sickle cell disease is a hereditary blood disorder caused by an abnormal
hemoglobin in the red blood cell. Hemoglobin is a type of protein that carries oxygen in the body. In
order for someone to have sickle cell disease they would need to have been passed down from at
each one of their parents, by inheriting a total of two hemoglobin genes. The fact that this is a
hereditary disease means that it is not considered to be contagious. This disease comes in about six
different forms, but the most severe of them all is sickle cell anemia. Sickle cell is an inherited
disease that affects the red blood cells causing debilitating symptoms, however, with treatment
people with this disease can quite possibly live an otherwise ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(NHLBI, 2015) There are a few scenarios of the passing of the disease or trait from the parent to the
offspring. If one parent has the gene it can be passed to the child, causing the child to be a carrier of
the trait. In other words, the child will be able to produce normal hemoglobin as well as the sickle
shaped hemoglobin. They will also be able to pass it to their offspring. If both parents carry the trait
the child has a 50 percent chance of being a carrier, percent chance of not getting the gene at all, and
25 percent chance of having sickle cell anemia. In most cases, people with sickle cell begin
experiencing symptoms at the age of 4 months' symptoms include fatigue which happens due to the
loss of red blood cells after they rupture as they are extremely fragile. Another symptom will be the
pain, it develops when other is a blockage within the blood vessels in your chest, abdomen, and
joints. Intensity varies and can even lead to hospitalization. Delayed growth and vision problems of
blood cells blocking areas of the body. You are more prone to infections and will also experience
swelling of the hands and feet. The gene is most common in countries such as Africam India,
Mediterranean countries, Sauda Arabia, the Caribbean islands, South and Central America, and also
in the United States. According to American Society of Hematology, the United States, sickle cell is
mostly in the black community.

Red Blood Cells Research Paper
Red blood cells The red blood cell has a very important role in the circulatory system. It delivers
oxygen to the body, and gives carbon dioxide to the lungs so you can exhale it. If these cells
malfunction by not getting oxygen then they can cause the person to always be tired, breathless, or
change color. The circulatory system is an highway for blood. The circulatory system transports
nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells. The red blood cell is located in the
circulatory system. The circulatory system circulates blood and lymph through the body. The
circulatory system is and organ system. It uses blood to circulate and transport nutrients including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from parts in the body. The circulatory
system helps fight diseases, stabilizes temperature, and maintains homeostasis. The circulatory
system is like a highway because it carries blood from place to place and a real highway carries
people to places. It is not just one system but three put together including Heart, Lungs, and
Arteries. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will make you feel tired, breathless, and make you loose color. If a person does not get enough
iron then they can't make enough hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is an iron–containing protein that is the
chief means of oxygen transport. If the red blood cells does not get oxygen it will change shape. If
you have the sickle cell disease your cells split at high altitudes and they get stuck is small blood
vessels. If you have too many red blood cells it reduces fatigue by increasing the supply of oxygen
to the exercising muscles. These are all malfunctions that can happen to the red blood

White Blood Cell Pathogens
In a single drop of blood, there is about 7,000 – 25,000 white blood cells. The white blood cell
works for the immune system. The white blood cell is small and it is shaped like an oval to move
quickly around the body and to not get stuck. The main function of the white blood cell is to kill any
pathogen that tries to harm the human body system. When a group of cancer called leukemia attacks
the bone marrow, it cause the bone marrow to produce abnormal white blood cells that do not
function properly. The white blood cell is part of the immune system. The cells in the immune
system distinguish between different kinds of pathogens. Then the immune system makes a defense
targeted specifically at that pathogen. Lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, produce proteins that
help damage or kill the pathogen. There are five kinds of white blood cells that produce different
antibodies to help defend against different kinds of pathogens. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the
lungs, and they also help release carbon dioxide. (Textbook). White blood cells are round like an
oval, small, and has a big nucleus to move efficiently and to help direct other white blood cells to
the invader. "White blood cells flow through your bloodstream ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
When the white blood cell count is low, you are vulnerable to bacteria and viruses. Leukemia, a
group of cancers, affects blood–forming tissue, and the bone marrow. Leukemia causes your bone
marrow to produce abnormal white blood cells that do not function normally. "A person with cancer
can get a low white blood cell count from the cancer or from treatment for cancer. Cancer may be in
the bone marrow, causing fewer white blood cells to be made" (medlineplus.gov 1).When the body's
white blood cell count is too high, it could mean you have an infection, stress, or

Material And Methods Of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells
Material and Methods:
Media and reagents
Cells were cultured in RPMI–1640 Glutamax medium, supplemented with 10% heat–inactivated
FBS (Fetal Bovine Serum) and 4 mM L–glutamine (all from Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA).
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS, Sigma–Aldrich Co., Alcobendas, Madrid, Spain) was used in this study.
Generation of human monocyte–derived DCs
Normal samples were prepared from healthy blood donors (Iranian Blood Transfusion
Organization). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated by density gradient
centrifugation over Ficoll (Inno–Train Diagnostic GmbH, Germany) gradient. In order to isolate
monocytes, cells were labeled by MACS CD14 MicroBeads (Miltenyi Biotec, Teterow, Germany)
and then were positively selected by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cells were re–suspended in lysis buffer (7 M urea, 2 M thioura, 4 % CHAPS, 40 mM tris, 0.2 %
Biolyte 3/10, and 50 mM DTT). Whole–cell extracts were prepared by sonication of cell suspension
for 4×40 s of 30 kHz with 20 s intervals followed by centrifugation at 14,000×g for 15 min at 4 °C.
Protein concentration was determined by Bradford method. The lysate aliquoted and kept in −80 °C
for further use.
Two–dimensional gel electrophoresis
Two–dimensional gel electrophoresis was performed based on previous protocol (Vaziri et al. ,
2012). In order to have three biological replicates in each group, lysates were prepared from DCs
produced from three different healthy donors. 100μg of prepared lysates were dissolved in
rehydration buffer (8 M urea, 4 % CHAPS, 0.2 % 100× Biolyte and 50 mM DTT) and loaded onto
IPG strips (17 cm, nonlinear pH 3–10) and incubated at room temperature for 16hrs. IEF (isoelectric
focusing) was performed using the PROTEAN IEF cell (BioRad, USA) for a total of 60 kVh at
20ºC. IPG strips were equilibrated for 20 min in the equilibration solution (50 mM Tris–HCl pH 8.8,
6 M urea, 20 % glycerol, 2 % SDS, 0.01 % bromophenol blue) containing 2 % DTT and then
alkylated for 20 min in the equilibration solution containing 2.5 % iodoacetamide. For second–
dimension electrophoresis, the strips were transferred on top of gradient SDS–polyacrylamide gels
(18 cm×20 cm×1.0 mm 8%–16 %). The gels were run at 16 mA/gel for 30 min and 24 mA/gel for 5
h at 18 °C

The Heart Of Blood Cells
It should be common knowledge that red blood cells are one of the most important details of the
body, but unfortunately, that is not the case. Most people believe that the heart makes blood because
it is common knowledge the heart is known as the main component of the body. However, the bone
marrow in the body is what produces the red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells. The
general population may also believe that having more than the normal count of white blood cells
could be beneficial to the immune system. Nonetheless, having more than the normal count could be
diagnosed as a cancer. On the other hand, there is a bone marrow disease that leads to a rise in the
number of blood cells called Polycythemia Vera (PV) which is usually found in adults over age
forty. Polycythemia Vera (PV) is not an uncommon disease. Even though it is regularly found in
older adults from age 40 to 60, it can also be found in people even younger. "Statistical data indicate
an incidence of 1 to 2 per 100,000 per year, which increases with age" (Najean and Rain Par.2). The
biggest effect of this disease is on the cardiovascular system and because of that, it has a direct
impact on the quality of life for the patient and is quite expensive to treat. The Polycythemia Vera
Study Group, the France division, was proposed an experiment to try different treatments on
individuals who had the disease with ages sixty–five and older. The drugs given to the subjects were
Hydroxyurea (HU) and

Blood Disorders: Anemia And Red Blood Cells
Anemia is a blood disorder where patients do not receive sufficient oxygen due to an insufficient
amount of red blood cells. It is considered the most common blood disorder. Anemia often a
byproduct of other diseases/conditions has the ability to disrupt the body's ability to produce healthy
red blood cells. Red blood cells (RBCs) are one of three types of blood cells that are produced in
bone marrow from a process called hematopoiesis. Red Blood cells are important for are our body;
they use hemoglobin an iron containing protein. Hemoglobin is very important because it contains
four oxygen molecules which deliver oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Anemia can be divided
into three different categories based off the cause. The groups include:

Anemia In Red Blood Cells
Blood plays an essential role in the overall function of the body. It consists of formed elements,
leukocytes and erythrocytes. The erythrocytes are formed during a process called hematopoiesis
within the red bone marrow. The condition of these formed erythrocytes can attribute to many
different blood disorders. More specifically a commonly known disorder known as anemia. Anemia
is denoted as a condition where either the red blood cells have decreased significantly or the amount
of hemoglobin within the cells has decreased, which in turn will decrease the amount of oxygen that
reaches the tissues during transportation. Anemia comes in many different forms. They all affect the
transportation of oxygen as well as general body function in terms of physical health. To detect
anemia, a red blood cell count may performed to obtain the hematocrit, or the volume of red blood
cells in the total volume of blood. If the red blood cell count is low, this can be an indication of
anemia. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hypochromatic anemia occurs when there is an insufficient production of hemoglobin in red blood
cells. This is normally attributed with thalassemia, which is a genetically linked disorder that
prevents the individual from making proper functioning hemoglobin. This causes the erythrocytes to
appear pale since hemoglobin attributes to the red pigmentation in these cells. Hypochromatic
anemia can be compared to iron–deficiency anemia, which is caused by a decrease in iron
production within the hemoglobin. Both of these anemias are caused by issues involving the
hemoglobin component in erythrocytes which in turn leads to issues with nutrient transport. Similar
to another anemia called pernicious anemia. This anemia is diagnosed when the vitamin B12 is
insufficiently absorbed by the digestive system. B12 is significant in

White Blood Cells

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