Spiders by Slidesgo - an introduction to arachnids
Minerals
1. THE MINERALS / THEIR
UTILIZATION MANAGEMENT
Prepared by MJ Salvaña
2. MINERALS
Mineral - a naturally occurring
substance composed of
specific chemical elements or
compounds, with characteristic
crystal structure, and certain
fixed or slightly variable
physical properties
Minerals are considered as
archetypal and are the core of
non-renewable resources.
-are extracted from the earths
crust.
The deposits are formed on geological
time scales of a totally different order
from that of the human scales of
their use
3. Classification of Minerals
a) metallic minerals;
b) non-metallic or industrial minerals; and
c) fuel minerals
4. Four types of Mineral
Resources
Metals ( e.g. Iron, Copper, Aluminum)
Industrial Minerals (e.g. Lime, Potash)
Construction Materials
(e.g. sand, stone, gravel)
Energy Minerals
(e.g. Uranium)
5. Mineral ClassificationMineral Classification
There are 7 MajorMineral Groups:There are 7 MajorMineral Groups:
SilicatesSilicates
Native ElementsNative Elements
HalidesHalides
CarbonatesCarbonates
OxidesOxides
SulfatesSulfates
SulfidesSulfides
Minerals are classified by theirchemical composition and internal crystal structure.
7. 2.Native Elements2.Native Elements
Native elements are minerals that are composed of a singleNative elements are minerals that are composed of a single
element.element.
Some examples are: Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe),Some examples are: Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe),
Diamonds (C), Graphite (C), and Platinum (Pt)Diamonds (C), Graphite (C), and Platinum (Pt)
Image Courtesy of the USGS
GoldGold SilverSilver
Image Courtesy of the USGS
10. 5.Oxides5.Oxides
Oxides are minerals that include one or more metal cations bondedOxides are minerals that include one or more metal cations bonded
to oxygen or hydroxyl anions.to oxygen or hydroxyl anions.
Examples of oxide minerals include: Hematite (FeExamples of oxide minerals include: Hematite (Fe22OO33), Magnetite), Magnetite
(Fe(Fe33OO44), Corundum (Al), Corundum (Al22OO33), and Ice (H), and Ice (H22O)O)
HematiteHematite
11. SulfatesSulfates
Sulfates are minerals that include SOSulfates are minerals that include SO44 anionic groupsanionic groups
combined with alkali earth and metal cations.combined with alkali earth and metal cations.
Anhydrous (no water) and hydrous (water) are the twoAnhydrous (no water) and hydrous (water) are the two
major groups of Sulfates.major groups of Sulfates.
Barite (BaSOBarite (BaSO44) is an example of a anhydrous sulfate and) is an example of a anhydrous sulfate and
Gypsum (CaSOGypsum (CaSO4·4· 2H2H22O) is an example of a sulfate.O) is an example of a sulfate.
GypsumGypsum
Image Courtesy of the USGS
BariteBarite
Image Courtesy of the USGS
14. .. Crystal FormCrystal Form
Crystal form is the external expression of the internally orderedCrystal form is the external expression of the internally ordered
arrangement of atoms.arrangement of atoms.
During mineral formation, individual crystals develop well-formedDuring mineral formation, individual crystals develop well-formed
crystal faces that are specific to that mineral.crystal faces that are specific to that mineral.
six major crystal forms:
1.1. Isometric (Cubic)Isometric (Cubic)
2.2. TetragonalTetragonal
3.3. OrthorhombicOrthorhombic
4.4. HexagonalHexagonal
5.5. MonoclinicMonoclinic
6.6. TriclinicTriclinic
18. Moh’s Scale of Mineral HardnessMoh’s Scale of Mineral Hardness
1-Talc1-Talc
2-Gypsum2-Gypsum
3-Calcite3-Calcite
4-Fluorite4-Fluorite
5-Apatite5-Apatite
6-Orthoclase6-Orthoclase
7-Quartz7-Quartz
8-Topaz8-Topaz
9-Corundum9-Corundum
10-Diamond10-Diamond
........your fingernail has ayour fingernail has a
hardness of 2.5hardness of 2.5
....a penny has a hardness....a penny has a hardness
of about 3.5of about 3.5
....glass and a steel nail....glass and a steel nail
have nearly equalhave nearly equal
hardness of 5.5hardness of 5.5
....a streak plate has a....a streak plate has a
hardness of 6.5hardness of 6.5
Hardness of Common Minerals:Hardness of Common Minerals: Common Scratching Tools:Common Scratching Tools:
SoftestSoftest
HardestHardest
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Table of Contents
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2
19. ColorColor
Mineral color is determined by how the crystals absorb and reflect light.Mineral color is determined by how the crystals absorb and reflect light. Although color isAlthough color is
easy to recognize, it is often misleading.easy to recognize, it is often misleading.
Minerals, such as quartz, fluorite, halite, and calcite occur in a wide variety of colors, andMinerals, such as quartz, fluorite, halite, and calcite occur in a wide variety of colors, and
other minerals, such as olivine, malachite, and amphibole have fairly distinctive colors.other minerals, such as olivine, malachite, and amphibole have fairly distinctive colors.
Variations in a mineral’s color may be the result of impurities in the atomic structure of theVariations in a mineral’s color may be the result of impurities in the atomic structure of the
crystal or the presence of a particular chemical when the crystal formed.crystal or the presence of a particular chemical when the crystal formed.
Because some minerals can occur in several colors, color is generally not a goodBecause some minerals can occur in several colors, color is generally not a good
characteristic for describing and identifying minerals.characteristic for describing and identifying minerals.
Different Colors of Calcite
Image courtesy of the USGSImage courtesy of the USGS
copyright@Stonetrust, Inccopyright@Stonetrust, Inc
Different Colors of Fluorite
copyright@Stonetrustcopyright@Stonetrust, Inc, Inc
Image courtesy of the USGSImage courtesy of the USGS Image courtesy of theImage courtesy of the
Albert Copley OklahomaAlbert Copley Oklahoma
University ArchivesUniversity Archives
Different Colors of Quartz
copyright@Stonetrustcopyright@Stonetrust, Inc, Inc
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Table of Contents
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2
20. StreakStreak
Streak refers to the color of a mineral’s powdered form left behind afterStreak refers to the color of a mineral’s powdered form left behind after
it is scraped or rubbed across a porcelain streak plate.it is scraped or rubbed across a porcelain streak plate.
A mineral may appear one color and then produce a streak with aA mineral may appear one color and then produce a streak with a
different color.different color.
A mineral’s streak color is a more reliable identification characteristicA mineral’s streak color is a more reliable identification characteristic
than the minerals perceived surface color.than the minerals perceived surface color.
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Table of Contents
Even though the mineral pyrite isEven though the mineral pyrite is
gold in color, it leaves a greygold in color, it leaves a grey
“pencil lead” streak on the“pencil lead” streak on the
porcelain streak plate.porcelain streak plate.
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2
Photo: SCGS
21. CleavageCleavage
Cleavage refers to the tendency of aCleavage refers to the tendency of a
mineral to break along planes ofmineral to break along planes of
weakness in the chemical bonds, or alongweakness in the chemical bonds, or along
planes where bond strength is the least.planes where bond strength is the least.
23. Specific GravitySpecific Gravity
Specific gravity refers to the weight or heaviness of a mineral, andSpecific gravity refers to the weight or heaviness of a mineral, and
it is expressed as the ratio of the mineral’s weight to an equalit is expressed as the ratio of the mineral’s weight to an equal
volume of water.volume of water.
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Table of Contents
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2
24. But how can we get these
minerals from the earth surface???
25. Mining
Mining is the process of extracting minerals
from the earth, and it follows a cycle of
operations of rock breakage and materials
handling.
26. The Mining Process
Surface Mining
Surface mining areas are developed by means of:
a) area mining (on flat terrain);
b) contour mining and
c) open-pit mining.
27. Mining process
Underground Mining
Underground mining areas are developed as follows:
a) drift mine (horizontal tunneling);
b) slope mine (downward, slanted tunneling); and
c) shaft mine (vertical tunneling).
28. Scales of mining operations
a.) Small-Scale;
b.) Medium- Scale; and
c.) Large-Scale
small-scale mining operations rely heavily on
manual labor using simple implements and
methods and do not use explosives or heavy
mining equipment.
Large-scale mining, involves the mobilization
of substantial capital, heavy equipment, high
technology and a much bigger workforce.
29. Impacts of mining
Extracting minerals from the earth and
processing them produces enormous
environmental damage.
Mining produces ¾ of all waste (Colins)
Waste
In 1991 990 million tons of ore were mind to produce
only 9 million tons of copper!-this wastage will
increase as poorer deposits are mind.
This waste pilled into slagheaps which are difficult to
re-vegetate.
30. Mining produces as much soil erosion as all
rivers combined.
Air pollution from the mineral industry has
made tens of thousands of hectares of land
uninhabitable and
causes thousands of birth deformities and
illness each year.
31. Pollution
Tailings and slag often toxic materials which can
be leached out into surroundings soil and can
pollute waterways.
Such toxins include sulfuric acid, arsenic,
mercury, cyanides etc.
32. Soil erosion
Caused principally because dirt roads are built to
reach mines
Landscape also often dotted with “Borrow Pits”
left after small deposits are dug out of surface
Such pits often fill with water and are dangerous
and unsightly.
