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Describe how the composition of MALT tissue bypasses the need for dendritic cells to travel to the lymph node to present antigen to B and T cells. What benefit does this provide, given that gut mucosal membranes are a major avenue for pathogen entry? Is this benefit provided during the first or subsequent encounters with a specific pathogen? Why? Solution Ans Problem 3. Problem Type: Comprehension: MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) is scattered along all mucosal linings of body and is responsible for initiating immune responses to antigens that are specifically encountered along these mucosal linings. Mucosal epithelium contains special flat epithelial cells called M (which are membrane-like) cells or FAE (also known as follicle associated epithelial cells). These special cells take small amounts of gut antigens that enter the lumen of gut, and pass them to antigen producing cells and lymphocytes of the MALT. M Cells also produce B-lymphocytes in gut react to micro-organisms that tend to cross mucosa, and make IgA type of antibodies, which are then secreted directly onto the gut lumen. These antibodies help in prevention of micro-organisms entering the gut by sticking to the epithelium of gut, and can neutralise toxins and viruses both first and subsequently also due to presence of memory B cells and T cells that then move to mucosal effector sites..

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a. Sn2/E2 mixture (secondary; strong nucleophile) b. Mostly Sn2 with some E2 (primary; strong nucleophile) c. E2 (secondary and very hindered, blocking Sn2) d. Sn1/E1 mixture (tertiary; water indicates it\'s going Sn1/E1) a. cyanide b. alcohol c. ester Solution a. Sn2/E2 mixture (secondary; strong nucleophile) b. Mostly Sn2 with some E2 (primary; strong nucleophile) c. E2 (secondary and very hindered, blocking Sn2) d. Sn1/E1 mixture (tertiary; water indicates it\'s going Sn1/E1) a. cyanide b. alcohol c. ester.

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If Mendel had chosen \'factors\' to follow in his pea plants poorly, and had unwittingly chosen to observe gene traits on the same chromosome: a. which one of his laws would he not have been able to figure out? why? Solution Mendel performed classical experiments on pea plant considering following points: Based upon these assumption, Mendel performed some experiments and resulted in following conclusions: Till that time, it was not known that these \'factors\' were actually genes which are very active at molecular levels. These genes can indeed show segregation and independent assortment but for that to take place, a minimum prescribed distance should be present between two genes. If two genes are located very close to each other, it is very highly probabale that these gene-pair will be inherited as a single unit in the successive generations. Thus, the law of segregation and independent assortment fails here. Tthus, if Mendel was able to figure out the molecular nature of genes/factors, the laws of segregation and resultantly, the law of independent assortmuent would have failed..

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Which of the following is a good example of homoplasy (convergent ev.pdf

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What happens at the mid-blastula transition in Xenopus? Which part of the Xenopus blastula becomes the mesoderm? Where does the dorsal lip tissue end up when, Xenopus gastrulation is finished? Where does the vegetal pole end up when gastrulation is finished? How is the central nervous system formed? Where does the neural crest come from and what does it become? What are the main tissue types formed from the mesoderm? What happens during the cortical rotation? What is the principal determinant for endoderm formation in Xenopus? What are the main mesoderm-inducing factors in Xenopus? Solution 2. Midblastula transition refers to a number of dramatic changes that occur at this stage in Xenopus. The important event that happens during this stage is activation of zygotic genes. The Cell cycle is lengthened, the asynchronous cycle of different cells. Development of cellular motility. 3. The blastula is composed of three different regions out of which the equatorial or marginal zone, which compose the walls of the blastocoel differentiate primarily into mesodermal tissue. 4. The lip of the blastopore nearer to the animal pole is termed the dorsal lip of the blastopore. The dorsal lip of the blastopore forms due to the contraction of bottle cells. It becomes the head and the dorsal midline structures all along the body. It forms notochord, flanking parts of somites, floor plate of neural tube. 5. The vegetal plate undergoes primary invagination to produce the archenteron or primitive gut. Primary invagination is thought to result from changes in the shape of cells in the vegetal plate. 6. During the development, the dorsal ectoderm rolls up into a tube, which becomes the brain at the anterior end and the spinal cord at the posterior end. 7. The neural crest is a population of migratory cells, derived from the neural folds. In the head, it forms much of the skeleton. It forms dorsal root ganglia, enteric ganglia and pigment cells. 8. Mesoderm develops into notochord, somites, kidneys, gonads, limbs, lateral plate, blood islands, heart and blood vessels during the Xenopus development. 9. On the surface of the dorsal egg cortex egg toward the animal pole and internally components associated with cortex move from a vegetal to a dorsal position..

What happens at the mid-blastula transition in Xenopus Which part o.pdf

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