2. Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 36 editor@iaeme.com
such as the long working hours of seafarers, irregular sleep patterns, frequent
changes in the maritime industry, environmental hardships of seafarers,
improper exercise and nutrition.
Key words: Seafarer, Fatigue, Stress, Stressors, Extent of fatigue, Causes of
fatigue, Effects of fatigue, IMO.
Cite this Article: Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani. Seafarers
Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers, International
Journal of Management, 6(10), 2015, pp. 35-47.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/issues.asp?JType=IJM&VType=6&IType=10
1. INTRODUCTION
“Shipping is perhaps the most international of all the world's great industries, and
also one of the most dangerous” (International Maritime Organisations [IMO], 2011).
A range of approaches have been introduced to enhance maritime transport safety,
such as developing new methods of transportation, introducing numerous technical
innovations, increasing traffic surveillance and control, etc. Nevertheless, accidents
with catastrophic consequences still happen, which implies that all these measures are
not sufficiently effective.
There are risk factors in the marine industry, which degrade the seafarers
endurance especially their safety and performance. Seafarers endurance is a function
of operational risk factors such as physical conditioning, threshold of motion
discomfort, duration of sleep, quality of diet and other related aspects. Generally
organizations pay attention to improve overall quality enhancement, updating with
latest equipments and wires more than on training of staff. But many organizations do
not give importance to improve the individual performance of their staff, which alone
facilitate them to deliver knowledge and effective decision makings which are
essential for the successful operation of any organization. The International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) guidelines on Fatigue Mitigation and management are
comprehensive and practical advice to all the various stakeholders and how to combat
it. The United State Coast Guard’s crew endurance management programme
identified various operational, psychological, physiological and environmental
programme factors that can affect crew endurance and address the specific endurance
risks related to ship operations.
Maritime Industry does not have prescribed maximum hours of work and
minimum hours of rest like other transportation sectors. Whereas there is a necessity
to ensure that all the crew members are fit for duty when keeping a watch by the
mariners. Fitness can be made possible provided Fatigue Management programme are
being given adequately to the seafarers. IMO guidelines stresses that all vessel
operators should implement fatigue management plan but it is not practically
implemented. In the maritime Industry many factors are present which may cause
work related fatigue. For example, it is suggested that long and unsociable working
hours, lack of training, poor communication between office staff and sea personnel,
job insecurity, and physical health problems may all cause work related fatigue. If a
number of these factors are presented in combination, as they frequently are for those
working onboard vessels, the likelihood of individual suffering from work related
stress is greatly increased.
Although many companies as part of their health and safety policies do try and
take measures to reduce work related fatigue, evidence suggests that such measures
3. Seafarers Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers
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are frequently not taken seriously, often being seen only as a paper exercise. Work–
related fatigue may also effect productivity. Workers who are stressed are also more
likely to be unhealthy, poorly motivated, less productive and less safe at work. This
has implications not only for the wellbeing of the seafarer, but also for the
competitiveness, and ultimately successes of the company. Despite the strong a priori
case for fatigue at sea, historically there has been relatively little research on
seafarers’ fatigue compared to other transport sectors. In recent years, examples of
fatigue at sea, and its consequences, have been more formally documented, not least
due to the high profile pollution and accident cases linked to fatigue. Examination of
this type of information supports the view that fatigue is a major health and safety
issue in the shipping industry with potentially severe environmental and economic
consequences.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In the first systematic review of work hours, stress and safety at sea, Brown (1989)
found little objective evidence of the effects of stress, although he did find anecdotal
evidence regarding personal stress experiences. Seafarers reported that they were
often expected to work continuously, under conditions of task-induced or
environmental stress for excessive (in relation to other industries) periods of time.
Respondents attributed a number of stress symptoms to their working arrangements
that were in general agreement with research into stress effects. Thus early research
on seafarers’ stress was largely based on Brown’s (1989) assertion that long hours are
a major contributor to stress and accidents at sea. Eleven years later a review focused
on the British offshore oil support industry found a similar picture to Brown,
concluding that stress has been noticeably under-investigated in the maritime domain
(Collins, Mathews and McNamara 2011).
Working at sea is likely to be fatiguing for a number of reasons: fast port
turnarounds, demanding (often split) shift systems, regular periods of sustained
attention, physical exertion and harsh environmental conditions have all been
associated with interrupted sleep patterns and stress (Smith, Lane and Bloor, 2011,
2013; Allen et al., 2014).
Fatigue is a common problem in the general population (Bensing, et al, 1999;
David, et al, 1990). It is well known that stressful social events frequently lead to
acute mental fatigue and sometimes cause problems with mental health and chronic
fatigue, even resulting in death in the case of overwork (Amagasa, et al, 2005; Der-
Shin Ke, 2012; Iwasaki, et al, 2013).
Prevalence of fatigue in the general working population has been estimated to be
as high as 22% (Bültman et al., 2002). Considerable onshore studies on fatigue show
that as much as 20% of the working population experience extreme fatigue in their
life. In Japan, 60% of the general adult population complains of fatigue and one third
of the population suffers from chronic fatigue (Watanabe, 2008). Fatigue was
regarded as the first concern of seafarers in a study concerning ship manning
(National Research Council, 2012).
But such estimates were difficult because of the lack of systematic reporting
procedures (Gander, 2005). In a survey (Wadsworth et al., 2008) of over 1,800
professional seafarers, a quarter of respondents reported fatigue or sleep while on
watch and nearly half of the sample reported that fatigue leads to reduced collision
awareness. A great amount of research has shown that fatigue is still a major issue at
sea. However, estimates of the prevalence of fatigue will vary depending on the
4. Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 38 editor@iaeme.com
indicator of fatigue we choose. Different aspects of the fatigue process will lead to
different results. It is also suggested that seafarers may be unlikely to admit and report
their experience of fatigue in the investigations due to the worry of being derided
(Houtman, et al, 2005).
3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The target population was considered as seafarers of Indian origin who were working
at various levels/job categories on the deck side and the engine side of foreign going
merchant vessels. The total sample size considered for the study was 150. The study
consists of five parts such as seafarer’s demography, extent of fatigue, causes of
fatigue, effects of fatigue and prevention of fatigue. The survey elicited the
demographic and job-related data, usual shipping routes, shipboard working hours,
type and size of the ships and fatigue levels of crew members on board. To assess the
fatigue due to long continuous working days, the occurrence of extremely long
working times was registered. Furthermore, the most stressful job activities such as
watch-keeping at sea (officer on watch on the bridge), district route of a seagoing
vessel (navigation through highly frequented routes), port clearance (loading and
unloading, safety techniques and hygiene control measures), port manoeuvres (arrival
and departure), administrative tasks, and routine activities during the voyage. The
work-related fatigue of the seafarers such as mental strain of accomplishing the set-
task, Lack of rewards for accomplishment, Lack of self-confidence to work, Social
relations, Feeling of threat, Physical oppressiveness, Unpleasant work conditions,
Lack of support & Sense of responsibility, were measured by using a structured
questionnaire. The questionnaire designed for the evaluation of subjective perception
of work and the individual feeling of work-related fatigue, allows the individual
estimation of the feeling of fatigue. The structured questionnaire followed a simple
model of fatigue which is presented below:
A simple model of Seafarers Fatigue
4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of the study were to analyze the factors of fatigue as specified:
5. Seafarers Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers
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To investigate the mean differences of the extent, causes & effects of seafarer’s
fatigue.
To study the relationship between the age, extent, causes & effects of fatigue
To study the relationship between the seagoing experience with the extent and effects
of fatigue.
To identify the prevention of seafarer’s fatigue
5. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
This article is organized around the following working hypotheses:
There is a significant difference in the mean values of the extent of fatigue, causes of
fatigue and effects of fatigue.
There is a significant association between the age and the factors of the extent of
fatigue
There is a significant association between the age and the factors of the causes of
fatigue
There is a significant association between the age and the factors of the effects of
fatigue
There is a significant association between the seagoing experience and the factors of
the extent of fatigue
6. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS
6.1. Demographic Data Analysis
The study pertains to the management of seafarer’s fatigue and 39% of the
respondents fall under the age category of 30-40 years (Table-1). 32% of the
respondents have acquired the educational qualifications equivalent to under
graduation (Table-2) and 41% of them have the seagoing experience of 5-10 years
(Table-3). Equal percentage of master level ranks & chief engineer level ranks were
held by the respondents of the present study about the seafarer’s fatigue (Table-4).
55% of the seafarers have received training on mitigating the fatigue at work (Table-
5). The demographic details are specified in-detail.
Table 1 Age of Seafarers
Age Respondents Percentage
Below 30 28 19
30-40 59 39
40-50 38 25
50-60 18 12
Above 60 7 5
7. Seafarers Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers
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Table-5 Training of Seafarers in Fatigue Management
7. MEASURE OF SEAFARER’S FATIGUE
Cronbach’s alpha is used to test the reliability and validity of the data collected. A
value more than .70 is significantly good measure for sufficient scale of reliability
(Cronbach, 1951, Nunnally, 1987). According to the Cronbach’s alpha test, the values
of alpha in this study for the factors of fatigue would be 0.792, 0.802 & 0.826
respectively, considering all the factors under investigation. A closer look at the
Cronbach’s alpha values of the individual constructs have yielded acceptable results.
It is evident from the Table-6 that the cronbach’s alpha values are reasonably high and
hence it can be inferred that the scales are consistent and reliable.
Table 6 Cronbach’s Alpha Values
Fatigue Factors Cronbach’s Alpha
Extent of fatigue 0.792
Causes of Fatigue 0.802
Effects of Fatigue 0.826
The result of the Questionnaire survey regarding the work-related fatigue of the
seafarers shows that the p-values of all the fatigue factors are less than 0.05 (Table-7).
This clearly indicates that the seafarers, irrespective of the deck-side seafarers or the
engine-side seafarers, have a sort of mental strain while accomplishing their tasks and
they are also incurred to the high levels of physical oppressiveness. In addition, the
seafarers have strong feeling towards the factors such as lack of sleep, insufficient
Training Respondents Percentage
Yes 82 55
No 68 45
8. Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 42 editor@iaeme.com
rest, lack of self-confidence to work, feeling of threat, unpleasant working conditions
and the lack of support from their peers or superiors. The stress level on ships
travelling worldwide was considered higher due to the separation from their family as
well. This is probably caused by the long distance from home as well as by missing
social contacts due to the fact that these ships only stop a few times in ports.
In spite of the levels of stress incurred by the seafarers on-board, the seafarers
with long period of service at sea subjectively estimated their work as less burdening
and stressing as compared to the new entrants. The seafarers were aware of their own
abilities of meeting job requirements, the seafarers work experience at sea reduced
uncertainty while solving problems, the seafarers were aware of the safety and health
related rules of work on vessels, the seafarers had gained and consolidated theoretical
and practical knowledge and skills of coping with difficult situations.
Table 7 Student's t-test of Fatigue factors (significance level = 0.05)
Fatigue factors
t p
Extent of fatigue
1. Inability to stay awake 1.92 0.001*
2. Hand-eye coordination skills 1.89 0.004*
3. Speech difficulties 2.01 0.005*
4. Sluggish feeling 2.11 0.001*
5. Inability to exert force 2.12 0.001*
6. Slip of tools/equipment 1.23 0.001*
7. Physical discomfort 1.35 0.001*
8. Headaches 1.46 0.000*
9. Giddiness 1.24 0.000*
10. Heart palpitations 1.57 0.002*
11. Rapid breathing 1.23 0.003*
12. Loss of appetite 1.37 0.001*
13. Insomnia 1.58 0.008*
14. Sudden sweating 1.69 0.003*
15. Leg pains or cramps 1.23 0.007*
16. Digestion problems 1.77 0.012*
17. Risk taking 2.38 0.013*
18. Intolerance 2.43 0.001*
19. Needless worry 2.57 0.007*
20. Reduced motivation to work well 2.89 0.009*
21. Mood swings 2.24 0.015*
22. Poor judgement 2.57 0.004*
23. Inaccurate interpretation of a situation 2.36 0.003*
24. Failing to anticipate danger 2.32 0.002*
25. Slow response 2.37 0.003*
26. Reduced attention 2.68 0.004*
27. Difficulty in concentration 2.75 0.001*
28. Inability to pay attention 2.87 0.011*
Causes of Fatigue t p
1. Lack of sleep 2.62 0.019*
2. Poor quality of sleep 1.22 0.024*
3. Insufficient rest time 1.63 0.035*
4. Poor quality of rest 2.47 0.036*
9. Seafarers Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers
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5. Stress 1.23 0.003*
6. Boring and repetitive work 1.39 0.001*
7. Noise or Vibration 2.48 0.013*
8. Ship movement 2.55 0.015*
9. Food 1.63 0.018*
10. Medical conditions 2.39 0.008*
11. Ingesting chemicals 1.64 0.003*
12. Jet-Lag 2.87 0.032*
13. Excessive work load 1.98 0.001*
Effects of Fatigue t p
1. Inability to concentrate 2.49 0.004*
2. Diminished decision making ability 1.58 0.000*
3. Poor memory 2.87 0.001*
4. Slow response 2.85 0.002*
5. Loss of bodily control 1.25 0.001*
6. Mood change 1.49 0.016*
7. Attitude change 2.66 0.009*
* p < 0.05.
The correlation between age of seafarers and the extent of fatigue is 0.819 (Table-
8). This shows that the age of seafarers and the extent of fatigue are positively
correlated. The two-tailed significance value (0.017) is less than the p-value (0.05). It
can be specified that the age of seafarers and the extent of fatigue are significantly
associated with each other. This clearly shows that as age increases, the extent of
fatigue also increases.
Table 8 Age and Extent of Fatigue
Age Extent of Fatigue
Age Pearson Correlation 1 0.819
Sig. (2-tailed)* 0.017
Extent of Fatigue Pearson Correlation 0.819 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.017
* p < 0.05.
To further establish that the age and the extent of fatigue are associated with each
other, the chi-square statistics has been calculated and presented in Table-9.
Table 9 Chi-Square Analysis: Age and Extent of Fatigue
Age/Extent of fatigue
Chi-square
df
Asymp.Sig*
53.67
27
0.001
* p < 0.05.
It is evident from the above table that there is a significant association between the
age and the extent of fatigue.
The correlation between age of seafarers and the causes of fatigue is 0.792 (Table-
10). This shows that the age of seafarers and the causes of fatigue are positively
correlated. The two-tailed significance value (0.013) is less than the p-value (0.05). It
10. Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 44 editor@iaeme.com
can be specified that the age of seafarers and the causes of fatigue are significantly
associated with each other.
Table 10 Age and Causes of Fatigue
Age Causes of Fatigue
Age Pearson Correlation 1 0.792
Sig. (2-tailed)* 0.013
Causes of Fatigue Pearson Correlation 0.792 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.013
* p < 0.05.
To further establish that the age and the causes of fatigue are associated with each
other, the chi-square statistics has been calculated and presented in Table-11:
Table 11 Chi-Square Analysis: Age and Causes of Fatigue
Age/Causes of fatigue
Chi-square
df
Asymp.Sig*
41.24
12
0.003
* p < 0.05.
It is evident from the above table that there is a significant association between the
age and the causes of fatigue.
The correlation between age of seafarers and the effects of fatigue is 0.846 (Table-
12). This shows that the age of seafarers and the effects of fatigue are positively
correlated. The two-tailed significance value (0.009) is less than the p-value (0.05). It
can be specified that the age of seafarers and the effects of fatigue are significantly
associated with each other.
Table-12 Age and Effects of Fatigue
Age Effects of Fatigue
Age Pearson Correlation 1 0.846
Sig. (2-tailed)* 0.009
Effects of Fatigue Pearson Correlation 0.846 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.009
* p < 0.05.
To further establish that the age and the effects of fatigue are associated with each
other, the chi-square statistics has been calculated and presented in Table-13:
Table 13 Chi-Square Analysis: Age and Effects of Fatigue
Age/Effects of fatigue
Chi-square
df
Asymp.Sig*
58.61
30
0.007
* p < 0.05.
It is evident from the above table that there is a significant association between the
age and the effects of fatigue.
The correlation between seagoing experience of seafarers and the extent of fatigue
is 0.711 (Table-14). This shows that the seagoing experience of seafarers and
11. Seafarers Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers
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the extent of fatigue are positively correlated. The two-tailed significance value
(0.002) is less than the p-value (0.05). It can be specified that the seagoing experience
of seafarers and the extent of fatigue are significantly associated with each other.
Table 14 Seagoing Experience and Extent of Fatigue
Seagoing Experience Extent of Fatigue
Seagoing Experience Pearson Correlation 1 0.711
Sig. (2-tailed)* 0.002
Extent of Fatigue Pearson Correlation 0.711 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.002
* p < 0.05.
To further establish that the seagoing experience and the extent of fatigue are
associated with each other, the chi-square statistics has been calculated and presented
in Table-15.
Table 15 Seagoing Experience and Extent of Fatigue
Seagoing experience /Extent of fatigue
Chi-square
df
Asymp.Sig*
49.77
27
0.001
* p < 0.05.
It is evident from the above table that there is a significant association between the
seagoing experience and the extent of fatigue.
8. CONCLUSION
The research study reveals that the factors related to the extent of fatigue such as long
working days, heat & vibration in work places, separation from their family, time
pressure / hectic activities, lack of rest, lack of sleep, excessive work load and
repetitive work are the most important fatigue related factors on board. The seafarers
with higher fatigue level due to heat in shipboard operations had shorter job duration
at sea. The stressors of heat and noise show that physical stressors on ships currently
are still very important in spite of the increasing mechanization in seafaring.
In the study, there are significant associations between the age of seafarers and the
factors of extent of fatigue. Especially the engine room personnel, permanently being
close to the heat-producing engines, stated a higher stress level due to heat &
vibration in their workplaces. Additionally, the time pressure aboard was regarded as
more stressful by less-than one third of the engine personnel, but by half of the deck-
side seafarers.
The deck-side officers stated a higher stress level due to time pressure and hectic
activities on board. This can be attributed to their frequently extremely long working
days due to unexpected situations and to the increasing amount of administrative
duties. Extremely high number of working hours over a lengthier period of time
combined with a lack of sleep can elicit chronic fatigue, health problems and safety
risks on the vessels. The study showed that engine room seafarers had a lower fatigue
level than deck side seafarers due to long working days and time pressure or hectic
activities. This indicates regular working hours and routine procedures in the engine
room, whereas especially the deck personnel has to react to permanently changing job
demands such as port clearance, navigation and watch-keeping at sea.
12. Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani
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The extended working hours including inappropriate rest between periods of duty,
are given high preference. This priority is based on the considerable weight of
evidence in the study relating to the impact of extended working hours on the factors
of fatigue of Indian Seafarers. It can be clearly understood that operating a 24-hour
industry in a hostile environment will result in additional work hours from time to
time. However, the Indian seafarers suggested that following major industry reform,
issues such as decreased crew sizes, increased commercial pressure, and extended
duties have contributed to both acute and chronic Fatigue. In some cases, particularly
during periods involving heavy traffic or bad weather, seafarers raised concern that
safety may be compromised as a result of persistent stress.
The study indicated the majority of the maritime sample (72%) reported poor to
very poor quality sleep, and half the workforce reported less than 6 hours of sleep per
day at sea. The seafarers experience considerable demands from broken rest including
being woken unexpectedly, being on call and unpredictable working hours. The sleep
quality was the highest ranked of the factors contributing to physical ill health among
seafarers. The suggestions for the prevention of Seafarers Fatigue is to improve the
Sleep time, Duration & continuity of sleep time, Quality of sleep time, Appropriate
rest between break time, provision of good working environment, Consumption of
nutitious food, Peer interaction and Job rotation.
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[1] Allen P, Wellens B, McNamara R, Smith AP. It`s not all plain sailing. In: Bust P,
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[2] Amagasa, T., et al. (2005). Karojisatsu in Japan: Characteristics of 22 cases of
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[3] Arnold, J., C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson. 1995. Work Psychology:
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[7] Collins, A., Mathews, V., & McNamara, R. (2011). Fatigue, health and injury
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[13] Iwasaki, K., Takahashi, M. and Nakata. A. (2013). Health problems due to long
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![Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 36 editor@iaeme.com
such as the long working hours of seafarers, irregular sleep patterns, frequent
changes in the maritime industry, environmental hardships of seafarers,
improper exercise and nutrition.
Key words: Seafarer, Fatigue, Stress, Stressors, Extent of fatigue, Causes of
fatigue, Effects of fatigue, IMO.
Cite this Article: Col. Dr .G. Thiruvasagam and Dr. J. Rengamani. Seafarers
Fatigue Management – An Empirical Study on Indian Seafarers, International
Journal of Management, 6(10), 2015, pp. 35-47.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/issues.asp?JType=IJM&VType=6&IType=10
1. INTRODUCTION
“Shipping is perhaps the most international of all the world's great industries, and
also one of the most dangerous” (International Maritime Organisations [IMO], 2011).
A range of approaches have been introduced to enhance maritime transport safety,
such as developing new methods of transportation, introducing numerous technical
innovations, increasing traffic surveillance and control, etc. Nevertheless, accidents
with catastrophic consequences still happen, which implies that all these measures are
not sufficiently effective.
There are risk factors in the marine industry, which degrade the seafarers
endurance especially their safety and performance. Seafarers endurance is a function
of operational risk factors such as physical conditioning, threshold of motion
discomfort, duration of sleep, quality of diet and other related aspects. Generally
organizations pay attention to improve overall quality enhancement, updating with
latest equipments and wires more than on training of staff. But many organizations do
not give importance to improve the individual performance of their staff, which alone
facilitate them to deliver knowledge and effective decision makings which are
essential for the successful operation of any organization. The International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) guidelines on Fatigue Mitigation and management are
comprehensive and practical advice to all the various stakeholders and how to combat
it. The United State Coast Guard’s crew endurance management programme
identified various operational, psychological, physiological and environmental
programme factors that can affect crew endurance and address the specific endurance
risks related to ship operations.
Maritime Industry does not have prescribed maximum hours of work and
minimum hours of rest like other transportation sectors. Whereas there is a necessity
to ensure that all the crew members are fit for duty when keeping a watch by the
mariners. Fitness can be made possible provided Fatigue Management programme are
being given adequately to the seafarers. IMO guidelines stresses that all vessel
operators should implement fatigue management plan but it is not practically
implemented. In the maritime Industry many factors are present which may cause
work related fatigue. For example, it is suggested that long and unsociable working
hours, lack of training, poor communication between office staff and sea personnel,
job insecurity, and physical health problems may all cause work related fatigue. If a
number of these factors are presented in combination, as they frequently are for those
working onboard vessels, the likelihood of individual suffering from work related
stress is greatly increased.
Although many companies as part of their health and safety policies do try and
take measures to reduce work related fatigue, evidence suggests that such measures](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)