124 CHAPTER 4 Hellenistic Civilization CHRONOLOGY: THE WORLD OF THE CELTS ca. 750 B.c.E. ca. 450 B.c.E. ca. 400 B.c.E. ca. 390-386 B.C.E. 279 B.C.E. 270s B.c.E. Hallstatt Celts start settling in Europe La Tene Celts develop centers in Rhine and Danube valleys Celts expand from Central Europe Celts invade Italy and plunder Rome Celts invade Greece Celts establish kingdom of Galatia in Anatolia HELLENISTIC SOCIETY AND CULTURE B W h a t were the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g features o f H e l l e n i s t i c society a n d c u l t u r e , a n d w h a t was the result o f encounters b e t w e e n Greeks a n d non-Greeks? Chronic warfare among monarchs made p o l i t i - cal u n i t y among the Hellenist ic k ingdoms impos- sible. Nevertheless, the social inst i tut ions and culture of Greek-speaking people in a l l these k ingdoms gave them a u n i t y that their monarchs could n o t achieve. Urbaiii Society Greek city l ife defined Hellenist ic c i v i l i z a t i o n . Alexander and his successors seized dozens of Greek city-states scattered across the eastern Medi te r ranean and founded dozens of new cities in all the terri tories they conquered. Hel lenist ic cities were m u c h more than garrisons estab- lished to enforce the conquerors ' power. They cont inued t radi t ions o f learning, ar t , architec- ture, and cit izen par t i c ipa t ion in public l i fe that had f lour ished i n the classical poleis. M o s t i m p o r t a n t , people i n cities t h r o u g h o u t the H e l - lenistic w o r l d spoke a standard version of Greek called Koine that gave t h e m a sense of c o m m o n ident i ty . O n the surface, many of the inst i tut ions of the classical poleis remained the same: magis- ' trates, councils, and p o p u l a r assemblies r a n the cities' affairs, and some f o r m of democracy or election to office remained the n o r m in local government . Yet beneath the surface, the poleis had undergone radical changes. Because kings wielded absolute power, once-independent cities such as Athens and C o r i n t h lost their freedom to make peace or wage war. A l t h o u g h they chose their o w n local governments, these cities n o w served as the bureaucratic centers that adminis- tered their rulers ' huge kmgdoms . As we saw i n Chapter 3, cit izenship i n the city-states of classical Greece was a careful ly l imi ted c o m m o d i t y that gave people a sense of identity, guaranteed desirable r ights and p r i v i - leges, and demanded certain responsibilit ies. The terr i tories that any city-state c o n t r o l l e d were relatively smal l , yet even Athens at the height of its empire i n the f i f t h century B.C.E. never considered g iv ing A t h e n i a n cit izenship t o all the people i t r u l e d , even w i t h i n A t t i c a . I n contrast , d u r i n g the Hellenist ic Age, large k i n g - doms conta in ing many cities were the basic po l i t i ca l .

1. 124 CHAPTER 4 Hellenistic Civilization
CHRONOLOGY: THE WORLD OF THE CELTS
ca. 750 B.c.E.
ca. 450 B.c.E.
ca. 400 B.c.E.
ca. 390-386 B.C.E.
279 B.C.E.
270s B.c.E.
Hallstatt Celts start settling in Europe
La Tene Celts develop centers in Rhine and Danube valleys
Celts expand from Central Europe
Celts invade Italy and plunder Rome
Celts invade Greece
Celts establish kingdom of Galatia in Anatolia
HELLENISTIC SOCIETY AND
CULTURE
B W h a t were the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g features o f
H e l l e n i s t i c society a n d c u l t u r e , a n d w h a t
was the result o f encounters b e t w e e n
Greeks a n d non-Greeks?
Chronic warfare among monarchs made p o l i t i -
cal u n i t y among the Hellenist ic k ingdoms impos-
sible. Nevertheless, the social inst i tut ions and

2. culture of Greek-speaking people in a l l these
k ingdoms gave them a u n i t y that their monarchs
could n o t achieve.
Urbaiii Society
Greek city l ife defined Hellenist ic c i v i l i z a t i o n .
Alexander and his successors seized dozens of
Greek city-states scattered across the eastern
Medi te r ranean and founded dozens of new cities
in all the terri tories they conquered. Hel lenist ic
cities were m u c h more than garrisons estab-
lished to enforce the conquerors ' power. They
cont inued t radi t ions o f learning, ar t , architec-
ture, and cit izen par t i c ipa t ion in public l i fe that
had f lour ished i n the classical poleis. M o s t
i m p o r t a n t , people i n cities t h r o u g h o u t the H e l -
lenistic w o r l d spoke a standard version of Greek
called Koine that gave t h e m a sense of c o m m o n
ident i ty .
O n the surface, many of the inst i tut ions of
the classical poleis remained the same: magis-
' trates, councils, and p o p u l a r assemblies r a n the
cities' affairs, and some f o r m of democracy or
election to office remained the n o r m in local
government . Yet beneath the surface, the poleis
had undergone radical changes. Because kings
wielded absolute power, once-independent cities
such as Athens and C o r i n t h lost their freedom to
make peace or wage war. A l t h o u g h they chose
their o w n local governments, these cities n o w
served as the bureaucratic centers that adminis-
tered their rulers ' huge kmgdoms .

3. As we saw i n Chapter 3, cit izenship i n the
city-states of classical Greece was a careful ly
l imi ted c o m m o d i t y that gave people a sense of
identity, guaranteed desirable r ights and p r i v i -
leges, and demanded certain responsibilit ies.
The terr i tories that any city-state c o n t r o l l e d
were relatively smal l , yet even Athens at the
height of its empire i n the f i f t h century B.C.E.
never considered g iv ing A t h e n i a n cit izenship t o
all the people i t r u l e d , even w i t h i n A t t i c a . I n
contrast , d u r i n g the Hellenist ic Age, large k i n g -
doms conta in ing many cities were the basic
po l i t i ca l units . People were both subjects of a
k i n g and citizens of their par t i cular cities. To be
sure, some philosophers played w i t h the idea o f
a universal cit izenship of a l l h u m a n k i n d , b u t
there was no n o t i o n of a cit izenship that al l the
people in one k i n g d o m w o u l d share. Cit izenship
lost its p o l i t i c a l force because i n d i v i d u a l cities
had lost their p o l i t i c a l autonomy. I n a sharp
break w i t h earlier practice, i m p o r t a n t men
sometimes gained the honor of cit izenship i n
more than one city, w h i c h Greeks i n the Classi-
cal Age w o u l d have f o u n d inconceivable.
To mainta in the i l lusion of the cities' inde-
pendence, Hellenistic kings permitted considerable
autonomy ir
while democr
the Archaic s
interests of t l
Hellenistic A
and governm
deteriorated, i
the k ing con

4. magistracies,
court of the k
civic leaders A
land grants,
the monarchs
ties that hour
these urban (
their vast for t
gymnas iums, ;
citizens.
Hel len is t !
their cities in
Dis t inc t ive st
t i o n q u i c k l y s
R o m e , and o
Medi terranea j
t u r a l i n n o v a t i
complexes, w
the Hellenisti<
i n the success
o n a g r i d p l a n
ranean w o r l d ,
space. Stone t
counc i l halls ,
stoas sprang
baths w i t h [
complexes w i t
lecture halls.
Hellenistic
populat ions thi
Egypt's largest
city, boasted la
Greeks, Jews, ;
these groups l i

5. and often f o u g l
all part ic ipated
culture. For e:
spoke Greek
into Greek, a •
Hellenistic Society and Culture 125
autonomy in local government. Nonetheless,
whi le democracies had developed i n Greece dur ing
the Archaic and Classical periods to protect the
interests of the poor as wel l as the r ich, in the
Hellenistic Age the wealthy dominated society
and government, and the condit ion of the poor
deteriorated. Rich men appointed or approved by
the k i n g control led all the courts, held all the
magistracies, and represented all the cities at the
court of the kings, w h o i n return showered these
civic leaders w i t h honors and rewards. T h r o u g h
land grants, tax immunit ies , and other favors,
the monarchs developed networks of personal
ties that bound civic leaders to them. I n return,
these urban elites served their k ing and spent
their vast fortunes bui ld ing magnificent temples,
gymnasiums, and other structures for their fe l low
citizens.
Hel lenist ic kings and aristocrats turned
their cities in to showcases of art and design.
Dis t inc t ive styles of b u i l d i n g and ornamenta-
t i o n q u i c k l y spread f r o m the east to Carthage,
Rome, and other communi t ies i n the western
M e d i t e r r a n e a n . The most dis t inct ive architec-
t u r a l innovat ions i n the cities were vast palace

6. complexes, w h i c h were b u i l t to accommodate
the Hel lenis t ic monarchs and their entourages
in the successor k i n g d o m s . L a y i n g o u t streets
on a g r i d p l a n became standard i n the M e d i t e r -
ranean w o r l d , l ending a sense of order t o u r b a n
space. Stone theaters for plays and spectacles,
counci l halls, and roofed colonnades called
stoas sprang up everywhere, as d i d p u b l i c
baths w i t h heated pools and gymnas ium
complexes w i t h sports faci l i t ies , l ibrar ies , and
lecture halls .
Hellenistic cities contained more diverse
populat ions than had classical poleis. Alexandr ia ,
Egypt's largest and most cosmopol i tan Greek
city, boasted large communit ies of Macedonians,
Greeks, Jews, Syrians, and Egyptians. A l t h o u g h
these groups lived i n different areas of the city
and often fought violent ly w i t h one another, they
al l part ic ipated to varying degrees in Alexandria 's
culture. For example, Alexandr ian Jews w h o
spoke Greek translated the H e b r e w Bible
in to Greek, a version called the Septuagint, so
li APHRODITE OF MELOS
Ij Aphrodite, the goddess of sexual love, displayed the
p perfection of the female form. This marble statue of
Ij her, which was found on the Greel< island of Melos,
!j was sculpted in the middle of the second century
I B.c.E. Popularly known by her Italian name, Venus di
i Milo, the goddess is half-nude. She rests on her right
I foot and seems to step forward toward the viewer.
1 Originally one of her missing arms was probably
I raised to cover her breasts in a gesture of modesty.
I Her facial expression is serene. The garment draped
i! loosely around her hips allowed the sculptor to

7. ;] explore the play of thin cloth over her thighs,
I; expressing his delight in movement and physicality.
More sedate than other voluptuous representations
1 of Aphrodite from the Hellenistic period, this statue
li portrays a male vision of a perfect woman, highly
i sexual but also charmingly modest.
that Jews w h o had lost their command of
H e b r e w could understand i t . The Septuagint
later prov ided early Christians, many of w h o m
126 CHAPTER 4 Hellenistic Civilization
spoke and read Greek, w i t h their knowledge of
the H e b r e w Bible, w h i c h Christians refer to as the
O l d Testament.
N e w Opportunities for Women
One measure of the status of w o m e n i n a society
is the level of female infant ic ide . Greek parents
in the Classical Age rout ine ly abandoned
unw a nted female babies, leaving them to die.
Hel lenist ic famil ies , however, p a r t i c u l a r l y those
of the Ptolemaic n o b i l i t y , raised more baby girls
than before. Greek w o m e n i n Egypt and other
Hellenized lands as w e l l as m a n y other H e l l -
enized lands, enjoyed f u l l citizenship and held
religious offices. M a n y o w n e d land and p r o p -
erty, paying taxes as men d i d , but they could
o n l y enter in to business contracts of m i n i m a l
value o n their o w n .
Some aristocratic Hellenistic w o m e n wielded

8. considerably more power than had been conceiv-
able i n the classical Greek per iod. The wives of
Hellenistic kings were models of the new, more
p o w e r f u l Hellenistic w o m a n . Inscriptions praise
Hellenistic queens for demonstrat ing such t rad i -
t ional female virtues as piety and for produc ing
sons. As publ ic benefactors, these w o m e n bui l t
temples and publ ic w o r k s , sponsored charioteers
at the O l y m p i c Games, and prov ided dowries for
poor brides. Queens sometimes exerted real
authori ty , support ing and commanduig armies.
For example, Arsinoe 11 (r. 276 -270 B .C.E . ) , sister
and wi fe of Ptolemy I I , directed the Egyptian
armies and navies of the Ptolemaic k i n g d o m i n
their conquest of Phoenicia and m u c h o f the coast
of Anato l ia . Egyptian sources refer to her as
Pharaoh, a roya l t i t le usually reserved for men,
and she was often identtfied with the goddess Isis.
To a lesser extent, opportuni t ies for non-
aristocratic Greek w o m e n also increased d u r i n g
d'i'ivcws,, wvwc, Kadvug, and w r i t i n g ,
and scholarship and phi losophy. O f t e n the
daughters o f scfiofars became scholars chem-
seWes. We k n o w that non-aristocratic Greek
w o m e n w r o t e about astronomy, musical theory,
and i i terature , and many female poets competed
for honors . I n a d d i t i o n , a few Hellenistic w o m e n
distinguished themselves as p o r t r a i t painters,
architects, and harpists. Despite these accom-
plishments, w o m e n stil l had fewer rights and
opportuni t ies than men, and they remained
under the supervision of their male relatives. I n

9. Egypt, a w o m a n could not travel overnight w i t h -
o u t her husband's permission.
A r t and architecture d u r i n g the Hellenist ic
per iod changed as Greek c iv i l iza t ion was i n t r o -
duced i n t o the successor k ingdoms . Art ists and
architects continued to use classical mot i f s and
themes, but instead of s imply i m i t a t i n g classical
models, they used them i n new ways. This cre-
ative development of Greek classicism resulted
f r o m b o t h the freedom that artists experienced
w o r k i n g in a new environment and f r o m the
influences of native cultures. The most notable
stylistic i n n o v a t i o n of the Hellenist ic age was the
baroque style, w h i c h suggested movement rather
than repose and of ten appealed to the emotions.
The baroque style was evident i n m a n y of
the Hellenist ic temple precincts, where the
designers created sweeping vistas across care-
f u l l y p lanned terraces and grand stairways.
Some of the finest examples of Hellenist ic
baroque architecture have survived i n Perga-
m u m , a Greek c i ty on the southern coast of
modern Turkey, close to the Aegean Sea. To
commemorate the v i c tory of Pergamum over the
Celts and the Seleucids, K i n g At ta lus I ( 2 4 1 - 1 9 7
B.C.E.) commissioned a series of monuments .
The Acropohs i n Athens prov ided the classical
model for this w o r k , but the commiss ion of
native craftsmen to create these monuments
helps to expla in their baroque features, most
notab ly their vast scale and their m a n y di f ferent
local ^Qvrtts, v>;lvvcb. lead tlve wewev's e across
tie bqades ol tVieWVid'mgs.

10. Hellenist ic sculptors also t o o k classical
GreeJc lornis in new directions. T u r n i n g
away f r o m representations of ideal perfection,
Hellenistic artists delighted i n explor ing the
movement of rhe h u m a n body and varieties of
XysTicj
Divine fusi
The widespi
such as illne
property, in
led people i
crimes. The
such as thel
eery, and ac
crimes such
insulting thi
ary without
clothes. It d
person had
intentionall;
sign of the >
offenders b̂
guilt, they c
ary to disco
anger and I
their misbel
receive sign
cles or in di
lnscripti(
dess Demel
the late sec
reveal that '
sometimes

11. depositing.
sanctuary. 1
the alleged
force the of
ary to conf(
inscriptions
dedicate to
goddess, D
who has m
[claiming] t
mv own m.
j „ : n inscn]
"curse tabl
tic world 0
128 CHAPTER 4 Hellenistic Civilization
justice that would give the aggrieved party moral
satisfaction or possibly revenge.
People suspected of crimes could also appeal to
the gods to establish their innocence. When a
woman named Tatias heard rumors that she had
given her son-in-law a magical potion that had
driven him insane, she went to the local sanctuary
and "deposited curses in the temple." This public
ceremony, which differed from the writing of a
malevolent curse in private, was her way of
demonstrating to the community that she was
innocent. Unfortunately for Tatias, her relatives
publicly annulled her curses, leaving her guilty in
the eyes of society.

12. Ideally the only parties involved in this
process were the accusers, the confessing
criminals, and the gods, but the priests in the
sanctuary often played a crucial role in the
process. They would receive or perhaps even
solicit accusations from the victims of crime,
assist in writ ing the confessions, and interpret
the supposed signs of the divine wil l . In many
cases they attempted to show that the afflictions
that brought people to the sanctuary in the first
place were punishments for their offenses. The
priests did not, as historians once believed,
inflict corporal punishment, but they did advise
those who confessed how they might atone for
their transgressions. Sometimes they interro-
gated an afflicted person who came to the sanc-
tuary to determine the cause of the gods' wrath.
Thus, the priests played a role usually assigned
to judges in actual trials. The procedures fo l -
lowed in the sanctuaries were not trials in the
proper sense of the word because they did not
involve the testimony of witnesses or the deliv-
ering of verdicts. But the inscriptions often used
legal language, which the priests probably
suggested, and the procedure served the same
purpose as a trial, which was to resolve conflict
in society. Like trials, these proceedings involved
encounters between the priest serving in a
quasi-judicial capacity and the person w h o came
to the sanctuary, as well as between that person
and the god who was believed to have spoken
through an oracle or a dream.
The involvement of priests in a process that
resembled a trial of both secular and religious

13. crimes reveals that Hellenistic societies drew no
f irm line between the secular and the religious
spheres. Crimes that were prosecuted in the sec-
ular courts could also be dealt with in religious
sanctuaries. Without the assistance of the priests,
who controlled access to the sanctuaries and
helped formulate the confessions, the process
could not have functioned properly. The dedica-
tion of appeals and confessions to the gods also
shows that the gods in these polytheistic societies
were believed to play an active role not only in
the resolution of problems of everyday life, but
also in the administration of justice.
For Discussion
1. Why might a person in a Hellenistic kingdom
go to a local sanctuary and later confess to a
religious or secular offense?
2. How did Hellenistic religious beliefs influence
prevailing notions of justice?
Taking It Further
Angelos Chaniotis, "Under the Watchful Eyes of
the Cods," in S. Colvin (ed.). The Creco-
Roman East: Politics, Culture, Society (2006). A
study based on more than 140 confessions
inscribed in stone.
PERGAMl
The buildin
the Helleni;
facades tha
shown here

14. with a 371-
the altar w;
of the Cree
founder of
b o w of a sf
her garmen
painted i n I
human fra i l i
ebrated beai
rhe Celt and
the t h i r d ce
not only ph
of h u m a n ei
is c o m m i t t i r
facial expression. Their subjects ranged f r o m
al lur ing love goddesses to drunks and haggard
o ld boxers. Artists enjoyed p o r t r a y i n g the play of
fabrics across the human body to accentuate the
contours of male and female flesh. The statue of
N i k e of Samothrace, probably carved on the
island of Rhodes about 200 B.C.E., depicts this
Greek goddess as i f she has just landed o n the
Literature
M u c h H e l l
sui'viving w
originaUty
Hellenistic Society and Culture 129
j PERGAMUM ALTAR OF ZEUS

15. i The buildings at Pergamum in northwest Anatolia (present-day
Turkey) were constructed in
the Hellenistic baroque style. They were based on classical
Creek models but had sweeping
facades that presented the viewer with multiple focal points.
The Altar of Zeus at Pergamum,
shown here in a twentieth-century reconstruction, is positioned
on a massive stone podium
with a 371-foot colonnade (a porch with a line of columns).
Like many baroque buildings,
the altar was opulently decorated. The two long friezes below
the colonnade depict the life
: of the Creek mythological figure Telephos, son of Heracles,
who was believed to be the
ii founder of the city of Pergamum.
b o w of a ship, w i t h her wings outstretched and
her garment b l o w i n g i n the w i n d . Sometimes
painted i n bright colors, these statues explored
h u m a n f ra i l ty and homeliness as often as they cel-
ebrated beauty and lof ty emotions. The statue of
the Celt and his wi fe , also carved in Pergamum i n
the t h i r d century B.C.E. (see page 109), conveys
not only physical movement, but also the depth
of h u m a n emotions experienced by the m a n w h o
is c o m m i t t m g suicide.
Literature
JVIuch Hellenistic literature has vanished, but
surviving works give a glimpse of creativity and
or iginal i ty that often combined urbani ty and
.scholarship. Hellenisdc poets turned to f r ivolous
themes because the repressive poHtical climate dis-

16. couraged them f r o m questioning authorit)-. L ight
comedy became immensely popular, especially i n
the hands of the p l a y w r i g h t JMenander of Athens
(ca. 300 B.C.E.) . This clever author delighted audi-
ences w i t h escapist, f ro thy tales of temporar i ly
frustrated love and happy endings. These plays,
k n o w n n o w as N e w Comedy, developed f r o m the
risque satires of classical Athens. They featured
v i v i d street language and a cast of stock charac-
ters: crotchety parents, naive young men, silly
young w o m e n , clever slaves, and wicked pimps.
Theocritus (ca. 300-ca. 260 B.C.E.) , w h o came
f r o m the city of Syracuse in Sicily but wrote i n
Alexandria, invented a new genre called pastoral
130 CHAPTER 4 Hellenistic Civilization
NIKE OF SAMOTHRACE
This statue of Nike, the winged Creek goddess of victory,
found on the Creek island of Samothrace, captures the
sensation of her flight through the air by portraying her
wings outstretched and the wind blowing the folds of her
garment. The statue was situated on the sculpture of a bow
of a ship, where Nike has just landed.
learning in works ranging f r o m Collections of
Wonders of the World to his moving love
poems, the Elegies. His poetry provides the
best example of the erudite style k n o w n as
Alexandrianism, which demonstrated a com-
mand of meter and language and appealed
more to the intellect than to the emotions.

17. The most accomplished h is tor ian of the
Hellenistic period was Polybius (ca. 2 0 2 - 1 2 0
B .C .E . ) , a native of the Greek ci ty of Me ga-
lopol is . Polybius devoted the latter par t o f
his life to w r i t i n g a history of Rome's mete-
oric rise to power w i t h i n the Medi terranean
region. As a w o r k of l i terature, Polybius's
Histories cannot compete w i t h those of the
great Greek historians Thucydides and
He ro do tus ; his leaden style prevented h i m
f r o m captur ing the drama of events. The
strength of Histories lies i n its comprehen-
sive coverage o f events i n al l the countries
of the Mediterranean w o r l d and its adher-
ence to high standards of accuracy and
impar t ia l i ty , both of w h i c h were noticeably
absent in the w o r k s of his predecessors.
HELLENISTIC PHILOSOPHY
AND SCIENCE
m W h a t d i d Hel lenis t i c th inkers
c o n t r i b u t e t o p h i l o s o p h y and the scientif ic
invest igat ion o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d ?
poetry. His verses described idyllic life in the coun-
tryside, but his rustic herdsmen reflected the sad-
ness and tensions of city life. O f all the Hellenistic
poets, Theocritus has had the most wide-ranging
and enduring influence, providing a model for pas-
toral verse in Rome, Shakespeare's England, and
even nineteenth-centuty Russia. The other great
poet of Alexandria, Callimachus (ca. 305-240
B.C.E.) , combined playfulness w i t h extraordinary
Hellenist ic philosophers distinguished
between three branches of their discipline:

18. logic or the study o f abstract reasoning;
ethics, the study of h o w one should conduct
one's l i fe ; and physics, the study of the natura l
w o r l d . I n the M i d d l e Ages educated people
began to refer to physics as natural phi losophy;
since the eighteenth century they have identi f ied
this type of investigation as science. D u r i n g the
Hellenistic period al l three branches of philoso-
phy remained anchored i n the w o r k s of Plato
and Aris to t le , but phi losophy acquired its o w n
distinctive features.
• f i g
Philosop
of Mind
The Hel ler
most s t r i k i
p h i l o s o p h i
p e r i o d — t h
Cynics—si
an inner tj
ing to X e i
the Platoni
s tudying p
disturbanc
t r a n q u i l i t y
people. Its
interact ing
w h i c h w e r