BUSM 4177 4194Leading for Change Topic 7 Charismatic Lead.docx

BUSM 4177 / 4194
Leading for Change
Topic 7: Charismatic Leadership
Learning Objectives
Charismatic and transformational leadership
Understand:
how the theories of charismatic and transformational leadership
differ from earlier leadership theories.
similarities and differences among the major theories of
charismatic and transformational leadership.
how attributions of charisma are jointly determined by the
leader, the followers, and the situation.
what traits, behaviours, and influence processes are involved in
charismatic and transformational leadership.
the benefits and costs of charismatic leadership for followers
and the organisation.
how to apply the theories to become more effective as a leader.
A special quality of leaders whose purpose, powers and
extraordinary determination differentiate them from others
(Conger & Kanungo 1988)
Charisma and charismatic leadership

3
Charisma and charismatic leadership
4
Charismatic leadership
points of difference with earlier leadership theories
Charismatic leadership theory calls on emotional and symbolic
aspects of leadership
Charismatic leaders cant succeed without dedicated “followers”
You cannot be charismatic on your own, have to command an
audience
Differentiate between creativity and innovation
Steve jobs and Steve Cameron
5
1947: Weber used the term “charisma” to explain a form of
influence based not on traditional or legal–rational authority
systems but rather on follower perceptions that a leader is
endowed with the gift of divine inspiration or supernatural
qualities
Weber, M. (1947) The Theory of social and economic
organization
(A.M. Henderson & T.Parsons Trans.) New York: Oxford
University Press

1987: Conger and Kanungo argue that Weber’s
conceptualisation is “limited by lack of specificity”. They
developed a behavioural framework within which charisma
could be observed and measured.
If the behaviours related to charisma can be isolated, then
perhaps those behaviours can be developed to improve
leadership or tested in applicants for leadership roles
Conger & Kanungo’s 1987 article is available on the course
website
Early contributions to charismatic leadership
X
Charisma is a basket of qualities eg charm passion innovation
etc
Attributions of Charisma – 1: Concepts
159
Attributions of Charisma – 2: Follower contingencies
Follower attributions of charisma depends on aspects of the
situation
Follower disposition
Follower anxiety
Follow disenchantment

I’m building a wall
I’m building a
cathedral
Two bricklayers one the one project were asked “what are you
building?”
163
Disposition = by nature
8
Charismatic leaders … value and pursue an interrelated set of
images: they are perceived as trustworthy, credible, morally
worthy, innovative, esteemed, and powerful (Gardner & Avolio
1998)
Followers must have a strong desire to identify with the leader
Nine charismatic effects (House 1977); Jane A Halpert clustered
these outcomes into:
referent power,
expert power &
job involvement.
The locus of charismatic leadership
9
X

People are sometimes caught in their own agenda.
Referent power, expert power > charisma < job involvement
Referent power = people refer to a charismatic leader.
Expert power = expert in your area, you know your stuff.
Job involvement = you see them contributing to your cause?
Types of charismatic leaders
Socialized charismatics restrain the use of power in the interest
of others. Followers have clear values and independent and
honest workers. Eg mother Teresa
Personalized charismatics use power to serve their own
interests, followers have an obedient, submissive style
Office-holder charismatics attain their charisma chiefly from
the position they hold
Personal charismatics gain esteem from others faith in them as
people, independent of office or position held.
Divine charismatics were once define by strictly by the theology
concept of possessing divine grace but-
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RMIT University©
School of Management
10
One view of the logic flow of charismatic leadership
Where is the evidence?
X

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A: Charismatic leadership enhances staff motivation
B: Motivated staff achieve superior outputs
C: Superior outputs improve organisational effectiveness
charismatic leadership
Howell and Aviolo (1992)
Charismatic leadership qualities
X
Relational power base – in order to be charismatic they have to
have relations with followers
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Vision
High energy and action orientation

Ability to inspire trust
Superb communications skills
Self confidence and moral conviction
High risk orientation
Relational power base
Ability to empower others
Self-promoting personality
Minimal internal conflict

There are four attributes that distinguish charismatic from non-
charismatic leaders:
Dissatisfaction with the status quo
Compelling nature of the vision
Use of unconventional strategies for achieving desired change
A realistic assessment of resource needs and other constraints
for achieving desired change
Am I a charismatic leader?
X
I need some charisma, do you have any in stock?
some charisma qualities can be enhanced
strategies for acquiring / enhancing charismatic qualities
include:
Developing visionary skills through practice and self-discipline
Practicing being candid
Developing a warm, positive, and humanistic attitude toward
people rather than a negative, cool, and impersonal attitude
Developing an enthusiastic, optimistic, and energetic
personality
charisma is inborn and can not be “picked up”
If you don’t have charisma you aren't “off the leadership track
……….. just in a slower, more challenging lane”

X
Followers trust in “rightness” of the leader’s vision
Similarity of follower’s beliefs and values to those of the leader
Heightened sense of self-confidence to contribute to
accomplishment of the mission
Acceptance of higher or challenging goals
Identification with and emulation of leader
Unconditional acceptance of leader
Strong affection for the leader
Emotional involvement of the follower in the mission
Unquestioning loyalty and obedience to the leader
Effects of Charismatic Leadership on staff motivation
House & Baetx (1979) Leadership: some empirical
generalizations and new research directions in B.M. Staw (ed.)
Research in Organizational Behavior vol 1 (Greenwich, CT:
JAI Press, 1979), 399-401
X
Organizational Effects of Positive Charismatics
Follower growth and development
Environmental adaptation
Achievement-oriented culture
High-performing system
Clearly understood mission
Mission embodies social values

Empowerment
Open communication
Shared information
Structures and systems support mission
169
Are all charismatic leaders necessarily good leaders?
Charisma as a Double-Edged Sword
Adolf Hitler
Charles Manson
David Koresh
Rev Jim Jones
Gandhi
Martin Luther King
John Kennedy
Winston Churchill
Dominant, Machiavellian, narcissistic personality
Pursue leader-driven goals, promote feelings of obedience,
dependency, and submission in followers
Use rewards and punishment to manipulate and control
followers
Use information to preserve the image of leader infallibility or
to exaggerate external threats to the organization
Egalitarian, self-transcendant, empowering personality
Pursue organisation-driven goals, promote feeling of
empowerment, personal growth, equal participation of
followers
Share information with followers and promote a positive
organisational outlook
167

Personalised charismatics
Socialised charismatics
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“Drawing on 770 surveys from top management team members
in these companies, objective stock market and accounting data,
and an objective measure of environmental uncertainty, we
found that
organizational performance was associated with subsequent
perceptions of CEO charisma
but that
perceptions of CEO charisma were not associated with
subsequent organizational performance
even after we [controlled for] environmental uncertainty”
Agle, B Nagarajan, N Sonnenfeld, J, Srinivasan, D
Does CEO Charisma Matter? Academy of Management Journal
Feb 2006 Vol 49 Issue 1 p161-174

Cause and effect conundrum
X
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What is Transactional leadership?
Followers acknowledge the positional power of the leader
Agreed values and motivations between leader and followers
Punish undesirable follower behaviour
Reward follower behaviours and performance
X
Burns (1978) / Bass (1996)
Leaders and followers in an exchange relationship
Very common; tends to be transitory
Ethical element
Transactional leadership
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X
RMIT University©

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What is Transformational leadership?
Followers trust, admire and respect the leader
Moving and changing things in a big way by communicating to
followers a special vision of the future, tapping into the
followers’ higher ideals and motives
There is collective “buy-in” to the organisational vision put
forth by the leader and followers willingly expend exceptional
effort
Changing the status quo by articulating to followers the
problems with the current system and providing a compelling
vision of how things could be
170
Burns 1978
Power wielders v. leaders
Serve to change the status quo by:
Appealing to followers’ values
Reframing issues
Operating at a higher level of moral development than followers
Transformational leadership
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171
Transformational leadership

Appeals to moral values
Serves to change the status quo by articulating to followers the
problems in the current system and a compelling vision of what
a new organization could be
Transactional leadership
Bureaucratic authority
Task completion
Seeks to maintain stability within an organisation through
regular economic and social exchanges that achieve specific
goals for both the leaders and their followers
Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership
Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership New York. Harper and Row
171
Bass 1990 says transformational leaders are:
Charismatic
Practice inspirational leadership
Provide intellectual stimulation
Demonstrate concern for individuals
Qualities for bringing about transformation
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172
Dubrin, Dalglish & Miller 2006 say that the transformational

leader’s role is to:
raise people’s awareness
help people look beyond self-interest
help people search for self-fulfilment
help people understand need for change
invest managers with a sense of urgency
be committed to greatness
adopt a long range, broad perspective
Role of leader in transformation
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X
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Special relationship must be built
Does not develop overnight
Prevalent in countries possessing collectivist * societies (Jung
et al 1995)
Rosener 1990 - men described themselves in transactional
terms; women described themselves in transformational terms
* Is Singapore a collectivist society?
Issues in transformational leadership
25
X

Transformational Leader Behaviours and Attributes
Bass & Avilio’s “Four I” dimensions
Adapted from Bass, B., & Avilio, B. (1994)
Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational
leadership Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage Publications
X
Behaviour dimensions
Idealised influence
[role model, followers subscribe to ideals]
Inspirational motivation
[inspire followers with strong vision and motivation]
Individual consideration
[encourage followers with strong communication / attention]
Intellectual stimulation
[challenge followers to be creative / innovative]

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So, does Transformational Leadership differ from Charismatic
Leadership?
Some researchers say there isn't really any difference.
Others say that charisma is ONE of the attributes that
characterise transformational leaders (the others being honesty,
optimism, communication skills, confidence and consideration)
But we do know that charisma is RELATIONAL in nature (ie it
only works if the followers recognise the leader’s charisma)
177

Leader traits and behaviours
Follower values, needs, perceptions and beliefs
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Transformational but not charismatic:
Can influence followers by meeting their emotional needs and
providing intellectually stimulating rationale on the need for
change.
Bill Gates?
Transformational and charismatic:
Nelson Mandela?
Is it possible to be transformational but not charismatic?
X
Transactional leadership:
-agreed values and motivations with followers
-reward follower behaviors and performance
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Images included in this presentation are licenced under creative
commons. Learn more about the creative commons scheme
here.
RMIT is proud to partner with Pearson Australia in the
development of the customised resources for this course.
This presentation draws on material from chapter seven of the
course textbook Sustainable Leadership people, technology and
design – an RMIT Custom Publication, Pearson® Australia and
is subject to copyright.
Presentation developed by Ian Woodruff, School of
Management,
RMIT University
Graphics used in this presentation were created using Presenter
Media Software licenced to Ian Woodruff, RMIT University.
Presenter Media retains copyright for these graphics.
Acknowledgements
VERSION: 1
BUSM 4177 / 4194
Leading for Change
Topic 6: Contingency Theories of Leadership

Learning Objectives
Contingency theories of leadership:
Understand how aspects of the situation can enhance or
diminish effects of leader behaviour.
Understand key features of the early contingency theories of
effective leadership.
Understand the benefits and limitations of contingency theories
Understand the findings from empirical research on contingency
theories.
Understand how to adapt leader behaviour to the situation.
Understand how to manage disruptions and other crises.
Contingency
Contingency theories describe how aspects of the leadership
situation alter a leader's influence on an individual subordinate
or a work group
Textbook p 139
“contingency” synonyms:
emergency, predicament, crossroads, likelihood, zero hour,
crisis, accident, predicament
Thesaurus.com
ฉฉฉฉฉฉฉ
A contingency is something that might happen in the future

Collins English Dictionary
偶然性
a future event or circumstance which is possible but cannot be
predicted with certainty
Oxford English Dictionary
A contingency plan is a plan devised for an outcome other than
in the usual (expected) plan
Wikipedia
dự phòng
Kontinjensi
Early Contingency Theories
Path-Goal Theory (discussed in this presentation)
Situational Leadership Theory (discussed in this presentation)
LPC Contingency Model (refer to prescribed textbook p 172)
Leader Substitutes Theory (refer to prescribed textbook p 171)
Cognitive Resources Theory (refer to prescribed textbook p
173)
Multiple-Linkage Model (refer to prescribed textbook p 174)
Normative Decision Model (covered in topic 5)
140
1969
Paul Hersey and Richard Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
theory
Paul Hersey
Ken Blanchard
Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1969).

Management of Organizational Behavior – Utilizing Human
Resources.
New Jersey / Prentice Hall
X
Explains how to match leadership style to the capabilities of
group members on a given task
SLII (a recent Blanchard version) is designed to increase the
frequency and quality of conversations about performance and
professional development between managers and group
members so that competence is developed, commitment takes
place, and turnover among talented workers is reduced
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership theory
In Blanchard's own words
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1uyU3YSqes&feature=relat
ed
The Situational Leadership theory
1971
Robert House and the “Path Goal theory”
Professor of Management, Wharton School
University of Pennsylvania

www.wharton.upenn.edu/faculty/house.cfm
MELBOURNE AIRPORT 1971
SINGAPORE AIRPORT 1971
Abstract:
An explanation of the effects of leader behavior on subordinate
satisfaction, motivation, and performance. ………….
Dimensions of leader behavior ………are analysed..
A set of general propositions are advanced which integrate and
explain earlier research. ….. The usefulness of the theory is
demonstrated by showing how several seemingly unrelated prior
research findings could have been deduced from its general
propositions and by applying it to reconcile what appear to be
contradictory findings from prior studies.
Results of two empirical studies are reported that provide
support for seven of eight hypotheses derived directly from the
general propositions of the theory. …………
In the light of these results and the integrative power of the
theory, it is argued that the theory shows promise and should be
further tested with experimental as well as correlational
methods.
House, R. J., (1971) A Path Goal Theory of Leader
Effectiveness
Administrative Science Quarterly 16 (3) 321-339
Robert House and the “Path Goal theory”
X

Path Goal Theory (Robert House)
Model Logic
X
Rationale
Attempts to identify how and why different types of rewards
and different leadership styles affect:
motivation
performance and satisfaction
Suggests leaders may utilise various styles in different
situations (4 styles)
Style preference is dependent on: team-member characteristics
& environmental forces
140
ApplicationSTYLEDESCRIPTIONAPPLICATIONDirective
emphasises formal activities such as planning organising and
controllingImproves staff morale when the task is
unclearSupportive
creates an emotionally supportive environment for staff
Improves staff morale when work is stressful, confusing or
dissatisfyingParticipativeSeeks decision-making input from
staffImproves morale in well-motivated staff who have complex

tasks to performAchievement orientedSets performance goals,
has high expectationsWorks well when staff are also
achievement oriented and are working on complex or
unpredictable tasks
X
Voices from industry:
should a leader’s approach change to suit the situation?
Andrew Dudgeon AM,
CEO Rolls Royce Australia
http://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/bus/login/ltif/dudgeon03/contain
er.php
Christine Nixon,
former Chief Commissioner of Police,
Victoria, Australia
http://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/bus/login/ltif/nixon09/container.
php
Contingency Theory Benefits and limitations
Addresses task requirements
Explores situational constraints
Considers interpersonal processes
Behavior category over-emphasis
Ambiguous descriptions
Inadequate causal explanations
Inattention to behavior patterns
Inattention to joint effects
Moderators versus mediators

Benefits
Limitations
149
152
Comparison of seven contingency theories of effective
leadership
Adaptive Leadership - 1
Contingency theory links leadership effectiveness with an
ability to flex or adapt style to suit the situation.
Seminar brochure Leadership Victoria viewed at
www.leadershipvictoria.org/docs/leavic-11-nov-final.pdf
153
Adaptive Leadership – 2
Guidelines for enhancing your “adaptability”

here.
This presentation draws on material from chapter six of the
Management,
RMIT University
Acknowledgements
VERSION: 1
Intergrsted approaches
4 approaches considered:
-servant leadership
-shared leadership and distributive leadership
-global leadership
-worldly leadership

Integrated approaches
Servant leadership( Robert K Greenleaf 1970)
Leaders are not in their postion to be served but to serve their
followers
Identified 10 critical char of the servant leader
-listening
-empathy
-healing
-awareness
-persuasion
-conceptualization
-foresight
Stewardship
-commitment to growth of people
-building community
Shared and distributive leadership ( see for example, Day et al
2004)
If power is shared it is increased
Leader’s role is to distribute leadership
Create a culture of accountability
Five requirements for the shared leadership model to work:
-Empowerment of all group members
-shared purpose or goal
-shared responsibility for the work of the group
-respect for the person
-people must work together in complex real-world situations

Global Leadership models
Emerged in the early 1990s
Advent of international organizations
How leadership occurred across other cultures and in
multinational orginzations
Global leadership models include:
-global explorer model (Black,Morrison & Gregersn 1999)
-global literacies model (Rosen,digh,Singer & Phillips 2000)
-pyramid model (Bird & osland 2004; Osland 2008)
-Global executive leadership inventory (Kets de Vries, Vrignaud
& Florent-Treacy
2004)
Worldly Leadership
Gosling & Mintzberg 2003
Shift from a global to a world mindset
Local consequences are a key indicator of perfomance
3 key elements:
-ethical leadership
-leadership for sustainability
-leadership for the common good ( countries who are richer
need to reach out to
Poorer countries)
Sustainability – triple bottom line
-Social
-economic
-environmental

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BUSM 4177 / 4194
Leading for Change
Topic 5: Participative Leadership
Sometimes called “empowering leadership”
Learning Objectives
Participative Leadership:
Understand different forms of participative leadership and
empowerment.
Understand the major findings in research on consequences of
participative leadership.
Understand the situations in which participative leadership is
most likely to be effective.
Understand procedures for the effective use of consultation.
Understand the potential benefits and risks of delegation.
Understand when and how to use delegation effectively.

110
Types of Participative Leadership
(a continuum of decision making involvement)
111
Unilateral – makes decision by oneself
3
AUTOCRATIC
Weak (or no) input by other people
Leader decides unilaterally
CONSULTATIVE
Leader seeks opinions of others
JOINT DECISION
Leader asks others to help make decisions
DELEGATION

Strong input by other people
Shares information
Collaborative approach to decisions
Leader is “hands-off” leaving others to self-direct
The “causal model” of participative leadership: Overview
Yukl suggests that there are three factors that determine just
how beneficial participative leadership can be.
(see section in textbook for fuller description)
112
Potential benefits of the consultative approach
113

Decision quality
Decision acceptance
Satisfaction with decision process
Development of participant skills
113
Benefit 1: Decision quality
“Involving other people in making a decision is likely to
increase the quality of a decision when participants have
information and knowledge lacked by the leader and are willing
to cooperate in finding a good solution”
Yukl (p113)
Cultural difference, eg vietnamese tend to eat very early.
Bringing them out for a late dinner ruins their whole night
schedule
6
113
Benefit 2 : Decision acceptance

“People who have considerable influence in making a decision
tend to identify with it and perceive it to be their decision. This
feeling of ownership increase their motivation to implement it
successfully”
Yukl (p113)
113
Benefit 3 : Satisfaction with decision process
“Research on “procedural justice” found that the opportunity to
express opinions and preferences before a decision is made
(called voice) can have beneficial effects regardless of the
actual influence participants have over the final decision (called
choice)”
Yukl (p113)
114
Benefit 4 : Development of participant skills
“…helping to make a complex decision can result in more skills
and confidence by participants….

…involvement in diagnosing the problem, generating solutions
and planning implementation builds skills…
…may require considerable coaching and encouragement from
leader..”
Yukl (p114)
Research evidence on participative leadership claims:
Can we show that it really does result in better
outcomes?Research approachResearchersDoes research show
participative leadership to be more effective?Field research
Examine real situations in organisationsCoch & French (1948)
Latham & Yukl (1975)yesSurvey studies
Questionnaires to leaders and followersKim & Yukl
(1995)yesLit reviews and Meta-analyses
Summarise all research papers
Combine data from many studiesCotton et al (1988)
Leana et al (1990)Mixed outcomes“Laboratory” experiments
Set up experiment where leaders vary participative
leadershipBragg & Andrews (1973)no
115
Research evidence on participative leadership claims: 2
116
“Overall, the results from research on the effects of
participative leadership are not sufficiently strong and
consistent to draw any firm conclusions

Sometimes it results in higher satisfaction, effort and
performance… at other times it does not!”
Yukl (p 116)
What additional factor(s) might help explain the difference in
the outcome?
Depends on cultural, readiness of people to accept participative
leadership. Sometimes people are unwilling to decide,
uncertainty avoidance.
11
Situational variables may explain differences in outcomes seen
116
Does the participative leadership approach only work when the
“situation” or environment is right?
This idea is the basis of contingency theories which we’ll cover
more fully in a separate topic.. We touch on it lightly here
Victor Vroom & Philip Yetton 1973

Model that helps you decide how “participative” to be when
making decisions – hence called “decision model
Normative Decision model
116
Decision Procedures in Normative Decision Model
Autocratic decision
Consultative decision
Group decision
118
Normative Decision model
– Autocratic, consultative and group decision approaches
Vroom & Yetton’s Normative Decision model
– Summary or “contingency table” to determine approach
119
Contingent in this case refers to dependent on

15
Moving beyond consultation:
Joint decision making
120
120
Deciding whether to deeply involve staff
in a decision depends on:
How important the decision is
Whether staff have the relevant knowledge or expertise
Whether staff are likely to cooperate
Whether staff would accept a decision made solely by the leader
(autocratic)
Whether it is feasible to get staff together to make a joint
decision

120
Encouraging staff to participate:
Ensure that staff have confidence / comfort to express concerns
Describe a proposal as “tentative”
Record staff ideas and suggestions
Look for ways to build on these ideas and suggestions
Be tactful in your feedback on suggestions
Listen to opposing views without getting defensive
Show appreciation for suggestions
Delegation as the ultimate decision-making approach
Version Woodruff 2014 SIM
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Delegation
Delegation (or passing down) is the partnership of authority and
not responsibility to another person (normally from a manager
to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities. It is one of the
core concepts of leadership.

Wikipedia
Different forms and degrees of power sharing with individual
staff.
Your textbook
“Major aspects of delegation include the variety and magnitude
of responsibilities, the amount of discretion or range of choice
allowed.. authority to take action and implement decisions
without prior approval…”
Your textbook
Defining delegation
X
entrust (a task or responsibility) to another person, typically one
who is less senior than oneself
Oxford English Dictionary
When you delegate, make sure people understand. When you
delegate, you have to support. Provide the mentor, skills etc
20
Benefits of Delegation
Decision quality improvement
Subordinate implementation commitment
Enriched job
Time management

Management development
124
Downside of Delegation
Power sharing
Mistakes
Competition
Personal achievement
Subordinate characteristics
Distrust
Leader authority
127
What should we delegate?
Tasks that can be done better by a subordinate
Urgent but not high priority
Relevant to a subordinate’s career
Appropriate difficulty
Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks
Tasks not central to the manager’s role
128

How should we delegate?
Specify responsibilities
Provide adequate authority limits
Specify reporting requirements
Ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities
Inform others who need to know
Monitor progress
Arrange for delegate to receive necessary information
Provide support ands assistance
Make “mistakes” a learning rather than a punishing experience
129
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here.
This presentation draws on material from chapter five of the
Management,
RMIT University

Acknowledgements
VERSION: 1
BUSM 4177 / 4194
Leading for Change
Topic 4: Leadership power and influence
Learning Objectives
Power and influence in leadership:
Understand the process by which power is acquired or lost in
organisations.
Understand the consequences of power for leadership
effectiveness.
Understand ways to use power effectively.
Understand the different types of influence tactics used in
organisations.
Understand how the tactics are used to influence subordinates,
peers, and superiors.
Understand effective ways to use the tactics.
76

Defining Power
A non-tangible characteristic of a position-holder in an
organisation
The capacity of one person to influence another
Ability to reward or punish
Access to resources that others do not have
A persuasive personality trait
A force that may be individually or organisationally based
X
Power Concepts
Power
Capacity of one party to influence another
A sense of direction (powerful to powerless)
Only exists within a context
Dynamic variable that may change with time or circumstance
Authority
Rights, obligations an duties associated with particular
positions in organization
Duty for those on the receiving end to obey
May be limited in scope or context
77

Who or what has power in organisations … and how is it
deployed?
Some conversation starters…
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RMIT University©
French and Raven (1959) original power types
Reward
Coercive
Legitimate
Referent
Expert
And more recently added:
6. Information
7. Ecological
Position power
Personal power
Position power

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Using the French and Raven power types
Yukl suggests how best to “deploy” each power type
For example – deploying reward power:
Offer the type of reward that people desire
Offer rewards that are fair and ethical
Don’t promise more than you can deliver
Explain the criteria for giving rewards
Provide rewards as promised if requirements are met
Use rewards symbolically (not in a manipulative way)
See textbook for examples of deploying other reward types
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The four faces of power
(Fleming and Spicer 2007)
Coercion – one individual getting another to follow his/her
orders
Manipulation of agendas through behind the scenes politicking
Domination over the preferences and opinions of participants

Subjectification – people are moulded with certain
understandings of themselves and the world around them
(Fleming and Spicer 2007)
Fleming, P and Spicer, A (2007) Contesting the Corporation:
Struggle, Power and Resistance in Organisations, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
A critical perspective
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The four faces of power - application
COERCION
Direct coercion is about getting another person to do something
that he or she would otherwise not have doneMANIPULATION
Exclusion from decision making authority
Power as manipulation - There is no direct exercise of power
but an implicit shaping of issues considered important or
irrelevant.
DOMINATION
Power that shapes our preferences, attitudes and political
outlook
Implication that power is used to achieve outcomes that are
contrary to the individual’s interests
Examples:

Men dominating women
Corporations dominating workers
SUBJECTIFICATION
Focus of the constitution of the very person who makes
decisions
The organisation moulds people into a certain type
Use of knowledge to produce compliance
The culture of the customer (but people often undermine these
types of organisational cultures – there is resistance)
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The four faces of power – ways of resisting
RESISTING COERCION
Refuse to do what the person in the position of power tells him /
her to do.
Aim to block the effects of power by undermining the
domination rather than changing itRESISTING
MANIPULATION
Gain access to power in order to express voice:
Internal – Women’s groups, trade unions
External – social movements
Sabotage the organisation / plan
RESISTING DOMINATION
“Escape” - ie mentally disengage from the world of work

Use cynicism, scepticism and dis-identification in response to
domination
RESISTING SUBJECTIFICATION
Create something that was not intended by those in authority
Make use of parody or criticism eg Union newsletter
X
The influence of power on leadership effectiveness
I hope I can convince the committee to agree to my proposal
Leadership power
Use with caution
The influence of power on leadership effectiveness (continued)
Effective Leaders:
Have more expert and referent power
Rely on personal power more than position power
Have a moderate amount of position power

86
Power and organisational change
Expert and referent power for persuasion
Personal and position power increase the likelihood of success
Copyright© 2013 Pearson Education Leadership in
Organizations
8-13
Position power is an important source of influence
Position power can enhance personal power
Control over information complements expert power

Reward power facilitates deeper exchange relationships
Reward power enhances referent power
Some coercive power is necessary to support legitimate and
expert power
Coercive power is needed to restrain disruptive influences
89
Influence Concepts
Influence tactics – four major approaches (not mutually
exclusive!)
Impression management
Provide praise, self-promote, offer unconditional help
Political
Influence decision-making, manipulate agendas, silence critics,
deceive
Proactive
Change procedures, support change, allocate new tasks, provide
assistance
Reactive
Resist unwanted influence, modify the request, undermine
leader
Influence Concepts (continued)
Proactive influence is often labelled as the most ethical and
desirable of the four tactics
Research into the proactive approach has identified sub-types of
this tactic.

The graphic on the next slide is Gary Yukl’s view on how this
could / should work.
In his language, the “agent” is the person attempting to
influence and the “target” is the person who is on the receiving
end of the influence.
REFLECTION POINT
Is influence purely one-way (ie from the agent to the target)?
Can you imagine a situation where the influence is bi-
directional?
Yukl’s definition of the 11 proactive influence subtypes
93
The concept of an “escalation” or “sequencing” of tactics to
achieve outcome
Typically, a manager will start with the tactic that is least
intrusive or resource-costly
If resistance is anticipated a more intrusive tactic might be
deployed

People using power to influence employee behaviour have a
responsibility to act ethically.
REFLECTION POINT
What influence tactic would you consider “intrusive” ?
How might organisational or situational factors affect influence
tactics?
8-19
Influence outcomes
Review questions
Which sources of power stem primarily from personal attributes
and which sources of power stem from organisational position?
What types of power are related most strongly to leadership
effectiveness?
Can multiple influence tactics be used at the one time?
What example of “unethical” misuse of power can you suggest?
Which influence tactics would you feel comfortable and
confident to apply? Why?
Thinking critically, what are the downsides of leadership power
and influence?

here.
This presentation draws on material from chapter four of the
Management,
RMIT University
Acknowledgements
VERSION: 1
BUSM 4177 / 4194
Leading for Change
Topic 2: Effective Leadership Behaviour
Leadership Behaviour:
Understand what research methods have been used to study
leader behaviour.
Understand why task and relations behaviours are important for

leadership effectiveness.
Understand why change-oriented behaviours are important for
Understand how specific types of task, relations and change
management behaviours can be used effectively.
Learning Objectives
25
Early research on leader behaviour conducted by US
psychologists in the 1950s and 1960s
Ohio State University
“identify categories of leadership behaviour and develop
questionnaires to measure how often a leader uses these
behaviours”
University of Michigan
“Identify the relationships among leader behaviour, group
processes and measures of group performance”
27
Ohio State University studies
Ohio State University research logic

X
1.
Identified various categories of leadership behaviour
2.
Developed questionnaires to measure how often these categories
were used by leaders
3.
Refined categories according to followers’ perception of the
leader
4.
Discovered that they were broadly groupable as “consideration”
and “initiating”
5.
Refined the questionnaires, which have since been used in
hundreds of surveys since!
Ohio State University questionnaire sample
DIRECTIONS:

READ each item carefully.
THINK about how frequently the leader engages in the behavior
described by the item.
DECIDE whether he/she (A) Always (B) Often, (C)
Occasionally, (D) Seldom or (E) Never acts as described by the
item.
DRAW A CIRCLE around one of the five letters ( A B C D E)
to show the answer you selected.
A = Always B = Often C = Occasionally D = Seldom E = Never
1. Does personal favors for group members. A B C
D E
2. Makes his/her attitudes clear to the group A B C
D E
3. Does little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the
group. A B C D E
4. Tries out his/her new ideas with the group. A B C
D E
5. Acts as the real leader of the group. A B C D E
6. Is easy to understand. A B C D E
7. Rules with an iron hand. A B C D E
8. Finds time to listen to group members. A B C
D E
9. Criticizes poor work. A B C D E
10. …….. (continues through to question 40) A B C
D E
X

The meaning behind “consideration” and “initiating structure”
in the Ohio studies
Consideration
Leader:
has concern for employees
has concern for interpersonal relationships
acts in a friendly and supportive manner
Examples of this behaviour:
does a personal favour for employee
finds time to listen to problems
defends workers in his / her section
consults with employees
accepts that employees have something to contribute
Initiating Structure
Leader:
has concern for completing tasks
defines leader role
defines employee role(s)
focusses on goal achievement
Examples of this behaviour:
assigns tasks to employees
maintains performance standards
focuses on deadlines
criticises poor work performance
separately coordinates the work activity of different employee
groups
X

E.A. Fleishman and E.F. Harris " Patterns of Leadership
Behavior Related to Employee Grievances and Turnover."
Personnel Psychology, 1962, 15, 43-56.
Early findings of the Ohio studies:
Relation between turnover rate and (a) Consideration and (b)
Initiating Structure.
Inverse correlation between turnover and consideration leader
behaviour
Positive correlation between turnover and initiating structure
leader behaviour
X
Daniel Katz
1903 - 1998
Rensis Likert
1903 - 1981
The Michigan studies
X
The Michigan studies (continued)
X
1.

Field studies with variety of leaders (insurance companies,
railroad gangs)
2.
Information collected via interviews and questionnaires
3.
Objective measures of group productivity to classify managers
as effective / ineffective
4.
Comparison of effective vs ineffective managers identified
differences in behaviour
5.
Effective leaders were more likely to be task oriented, relations
oriented and partcipative
Broad Behaviour Categories in the Michigan studies
Copyright© 2013 Pearson Education Leadership In
Organizations
28

Version Woodruff 2014 SIM
task
Concentrated on task-oriented functions such as planning,
scheduling, coordinating, ensuring resources, realistic goals
relations
Showing trust and confidence, friendly and considerate, develop
employees, keeping employees informed, recognise performance
participative
Group (rather than individual) supervision, conflict resolution,
group decision-making, supportive, constructive.

Surveys have two key weaknesses
Limitations of data in fixed-response questionnaires
Bias
Objectivity limits
Repetition familiarity
Attribution of characteristics that are not objectively present
Confirming causality
Cant be sure that behaviours caused the outcome observed
May be other factors influencing outcome
Outcome may cause the observed behavior (reverse causality)
Copyright© 2013 Pearson Education Leadership In
Organizations
A critical view of the survey approach taken at Ohio and
Michigan
34
And so to other research methods
Latham,G.P., & Wexley, K.N., (1977) behavioural observation
scales for performance appraisal purposes. Personal psychology
30, 255-268
Sims, H.P., & Manz, C.C., (1984) Observing leader verbal

behaviour:
Towards reciprocal determinism in leadership theory. J Applied
Psychology, 69, 222-232
30
Experiments
e.g. Sims & Manz (1984)
Studies have shown causality in both directions (behaviour to
outcome and vice versa)
Difficult to set up in “real world”
Critical incidents
e.g. Latham & Wexley (19977)
Examining leader behaviour in relation to positive or negative
critical incidents may indicate link.
Some good results in intervention studies where leader training
resulted in better outcomes
Limited by lack of objectivity

But what about change?
So far, we’ve explored models that attempt to predict the extent
to which behaviours achieve certain “static” pre-determined
organisational outcomes.
Unfortunately (or fortunately depending on your outlook)
organisations can no longer afford to remain static.
The environment is turbulent and fast changing – calling for
change management behaviours as well!
In short:
Task oriented behaviour is concerned with accomplishing a task
efficiently and reliably
Relations oriented behaviour is concerned with increasing
employee trust, cooperation, job satisfaction with the
organisation
Change oriented behaviour is concerned with understanding the
environment, finding innovative ways to adapt to it and, where
possible, developing strategies to control it.
Change as the third element in leadership behaviour

Swedish researchers Ekvall & Arvonen (1991) and US
researcher Yukl (1999) built the case for this new third (change)
element in leadership behaviour.
Today we take it for granted that change management is a
critical skill in any leadership position.
We will return to change management elsewhere in the course!
Ekvall, G., & Arvonen, J., (1991) Change-centered leadership:
An extension of the two-dimensional model Scandinavian
Journal of Management, 7, 17-26
Yukl, G., (1999) An evaluative essay on current conceptions of
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8,
33-48
REFLECTION POINTS
Are today’s leaders more change-aware than those from the
past?
Has the pace of change increased?
Is change equally disruptive in all industry sectors?
28
So, how can we draw on these behaviours to improve our
leadership effectiveness?

28
task
relations
change
Understanding the environment
Planning
Supporting
Clarifying
Monitoring
Developing
Recognising

Adapting to environment
Implementing change

Reflecting on your own emerging leadership behaviours
How confident are you that you could:
Plan work activities?
Clarify roles and objectives?
Monitor operations and performance?
Support staff?
Develop staff?
Recognise staff achievements?
Predict the future?
Manage staff through change?
TASK - ORIENTED
RELATIONS - ORIENTED
CHANGE - ORIENTED
X

Review questions
What did you learn about leadership effectiveness from the
Ohio and Michigan studies?
What problems have limited questionnaire research into
leadership ?
What are critical incident studies?
Can a leader exhibit both task and relations orientation at the
same time?
Why are planning, clarifying and monitoring important for
leadership effectiveness?
Why are supporting, developing nd recognising important for
leadership effectiveness ?
What are the key attributes of the change management
orientation in leadership?
here.
This presentation draws on material from chapter two of the

Management,
RMIT University
Acknowledgements
VERSION: 1
BUSM 4177 / 4194
Leading for Change
Topic 3:
Leadership skills and traits
Learning Objectives
Trait and skill theory of leadership:
Understand how leader traits and skills are related to effective
leadership.
Understand what traits and skills are most relevant for effective
leadership.
Understand how the relevance of a trait or skill depends on the
situation.
Understand the traits and skills that cause some people to
“derail” in their managerial careers.

Understand the limitations of the trait approach.
50
Leadership skills
Definition
“A skill is the ability to do something in an effective manner”
Idea
“People who possess certain skills make more effective leaders”
Grouping
At right, Gary Yukl’s three factor taxonomy of broadly defined
leadership skills
64
Leadership traits

“People who possess certain traits make more effective leaders”
Trait definitions
A distinguishing feature of your personal nature
Physical characteristics such as eye colour, which are
determined by inherited genes
A specific personal characteristic or attribute which occurs
consistently and influences behaviour across a range of
situations
From the latin word “tractus” which means drawing out
An identifying characteristic, habit or trend
A feature or quality in a person’s “make-up”
X
Early research on Leadership skills and traits
In 1974 Stogdill reviewed 163 trait studies from 1949 to 1970
(summary in table below) but argued that there “was still no
evidence of universal leadership traits”
Stogdill, R. M., (1974) Handbook of Leadership: A survey of
the literature. Journal of Psychology, 25, 259-269.
X
Yukl* summarised the findings of research into “relevant
aspects of personality for effective leadership by managers in
large organisations”.
He identified eight aspects of personality:

High energy level and stress tolerance
Self confidence
Internal locus of control orientation
Emotional maturity
Personal integrity
Socialised power motive
Moderately high achievement orientation
Low need for affiliation
* Each of these personality aspects is fully described in the
textbook
Later research on leadership traits
54
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991):
Drive
Desire to lead
Honesty
Integrity
Self-confidence
Cognitive ability
Knowledge of the business
Various researchers have generated lists or groupings of traits
that they believe to be important for effective leadership
Mahtani (2005) describes the characteristics of successful
female leaders in Hong Kong
Document available on course site
Later research on leadership traits (continued)

X
There were so many traits being proposed that researchers
started to “reduce” the traits into a smaller number of broad
categories.
The Big Five is one such example and is reproduced in the table
below
Later research on leadership traits (continued)
Big Five Personality Traits
Specific TraitsSurgency
Extroversion (outgoing)
Energy/Activity level
Need for power (assertive) Conscientiousness
Dependability
Personal integrity
Need for achievement Agreeableness
Cheerful and optimistic
Nurturance (sympathetic, helpful)
Need for affiliation
Adjustment
Emotional stability
Self -esteem
Self-control lntellectance
Curious and inquisitive
Open-minded
Learning oriented
61
What is your view on the trait theory of leadership?

Are leaders “naturals” or do they have to work at it?
Simon McKeown
CEO of CSIRO
Macquarie Bank executive
Chair of MS Research Australia
Chairman Business for Millennium Development
Chairman Essendon Football Club’s Hutchison Foundation
Director of Global Poverty Project
Andrew Dudgeon
CEO Rolls Royce Australia
Qantas Executive
Australia Medal for leadership (Australian Army)
http://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au///bus/public/managementqanda/i
nterview/leadership.htm
http://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/bus/login/ltif/dudgeon01/contain
er.php
Trait Theory - voices from industry
X
Situational Relevance
Reviews of the literature confirm:
A leader with certain traits could be effective in one
situation but ineffective in a different situation.
Furthermore, two leaders with a different pattern of traits
could be successful in the same situation.

68
Situational Relevance of Skills
Impact of leader’s management level is depicted in the diagram
below.
(Figure 2-1 from the prescribed textbook)
69
Situational Relevance of Skills (continued)
Some other factors (contingencies) that may influence the
relevance of a leaders skills or traits:
Position in the authority hierarchy
Type of organisation
Size of organisation
Industry sector
Location
REFLECTION POINT
Is there something specific about YOUR country that might
moderate a particular leadership skill or trait?
70
Leadership sustainability and traits - long term success or
failure

The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL)
First study – interviewed executives or HR managers about 20
“leaders” who had succeeded and 21 leaders who had failed to
perform successfully. Created a list of attributes linked to
success and failure
Second study – executives rated the extent to which certain
“flaws” were linked to career failure.
Trait
Impact on leader “success”Emotional
stabilitypositiveDefensivenessnegativeIntegritypositiveInterpers
onal skillspositiveTechnical skillspositive for low level leaders
BUT
negative for high level leadersCognitive skillspositive
X
So is the Trait Approach Valid or Useful?
REFLECTION POINT
You are on the selection / interview panel for a leadership
position at your work.
How would you evaluate traits in a person applying for this
role?
Which traits would you prioritise? Why?
X
14
Serves as a guide to leader selection
Can guide individuals preparing for leadership

Does not identify which characteristics are essential
Does not specify “how much” of a trait is needed
Can breed an elitist conception of leadership
Review questions
What is the difference between skills and traits?
Which traits are the best predictors of leader performance?
Is it possible to have too much of a “good” trait?
What is idea behind the Big Five trait approach?
Why is it important top consider nature of the job when
deciding which traits might be best suited?
Which skills are most important at the lower, middle and higher
levels of management?
Is there convincing evidence that the trait approach is valid?

here.
This presentation draws on material from chapter three of the
Management,
RMIT University
Acknowledgements
VERSION: 1

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