The Synthesis And Fabrication Of Conductive Polymers Essay

The Synthesis And Fabrication Of Conductive Polymers Essay
Abstract
Conductive polymers have promising applications in the field of tissue engineering as tissue scaffolds. Many tissue types respond favorably to
electrical stimulation, because of this conductive polymers can be used for the regeneration of damaged tissue. This review will focus on the synthesis
and fabrication of conductive polymers as well as their applications in tissue engineering.
Introduction
All cells exhibit some form of electrical excitability, from voltage gated ion channels to muscle contractions and heart beats electromagnetic fields are
critical to the basic functions of life. Galvani famously showed in 1794 that a frog leg will contract when touched with the cut sciatic nerve of the other
leg.This scientific breakthrough led to extensive research of electromagnetism within organisms. Electromagnetic fields have been found to affect a
variety of biological processes including angiogenesis, cell division, cell signaling, nerve sprouting, prenatal development, and wound healing [1].
Only in recent decades with the development of molecular and cellular technology has the link between cell biology and bioelectricity been discovered
[2]. This growth in understanding has led to the development of a variety of electrically conductive devices for uses in biomedical engineering.
Devices that use electrical stimulation that have already been approved by the FDA include the pacemaker, deep brain stimulators and vagal nerve
stimulators [1].
Conductive
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Key Elements For Tissue And Organ Regeneration
Introduction Tissue engineering is an interdisciplinary approach that basically replaces, restore the function and regenerate the damaged cell or tissue
using biological substitutes. Succinctly, extracellular matrix (ECM) in human tissue is a key element for tissue and organ regeneration. It provides a
convenient environment for the cellular attachment, growth and migration stimulate by specific signals. This solid matrix has a complex mixture of
structural and functional proteins that serve as a reliable source of nutrient for the cells. ECM also associated with the cell behaviour, tissue
differentiation, organisation and neovascularisation. In tissue engineering, the suitable scaffolds are use to act as an ECM analogue (1). The various
roles and complicated composition of ECM become a great challenge for the scaffolds to mimic the native ECM in repairing the diseased or damaged
tissue. Thus, it is important to develop the ideal scaffolds with optimal properties and architecture since its mechanical characteristics will greatly affect
the activity of cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. Apparently, the biomaterial used in fabrication of scaffolds may influence its significant
features, such as biodegradability, bioactivity and porosity. The bioactivity, including cell adhesion, cell alignment and interaction between scaffolds
and cellular components could be enhanced by adding the biological cues onto the biomaterials. Besides that, it is also important for

History Of Dental Pulp Stem Cells
Introduction
Regeneration of tissues to replace diseased, missing and traumatized dentin/pulp emerges from recent progress in stem cell and tissue engineering
research. Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) are considered a promising population of cells in regenerative dentistry and have been shown to produce
dentin/pulp–like tissues following implantation in vivo (Gronthos et al., 2000; Gronthos et al., 2002; Shi et al., 2001). Importantly, DPSCs reside in
the microvasculature region of the dental pulp and interact with perivascular cells (Shi and Gronthos, 2003). Therefore, endothelial cells could be a
major source of modulators of pulp–dentin development and angiogenesis. We recently showed that co–culture of human umbilical vein endothelial
cells (HUVECs) with DPSCs enhances osteo/odontogenic differentiation and angiogenesis in monolayer cultures (Dissanayaka et al., 2012). However,
the interactions of these two cells in angiogenesis and pulp–like tissue regeneration in vivo remain unknown.
Shaping functional dentin/pulp complex from monodispersed expanded cell cultures is an ongoing challenge. Tissue engineers have thus mostly
relied on biomaterials/scaffolds in which cells can grow and differentiate. Several reports have shown that dental stem cells being seeded onto a
matrix scaffold and transplanted in vivo form a new tissue similar to that of the native pulp (Cordeiro et al., 2008; Rosa et al., 2013). However, none
of the scaffolds described so far has all the structure

Essay On Junctional Epidermolysis Bullosa
Junctional epidermolysis bullosa (ep–i–der–mo–lie–sis bu–low–suh), also known as JEB, affects about 25,000 people in the US and roughly 500,000
people around the world. Most of these people are young children because JEB is often lethal and 40% of those with the disease do not survive until
adolescence. JEB is a recessive genetic connective tissue disorder, but there are currently no genetic tests that can be done to see if parents may be
carriers of the disease. Parents usually find out that they are carriers after their child is born with the condition.
JEB can be characterized by symptoms including fragile skin that results in blisters and skin erosion, and is prone to bacterial infections and skin
cancers, such as squamous cell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An article in the New York Times recently mentioned a promising new treatment for JEB. After losing в…” of his epidermis due to a bacterial
infection, a 7–year–old boy with JEB was sent to a burn unit in Germany, as burn units typically have treatments for people that lose a majority of their
skin. The boy was put in a medically–induced coma and doctors attempted to treat him with antibiotics, bandages, special nutritional measures and a
skin transplant from the boy's father. None of the treatments worked and the boy was expected to live for only an additional two months.
Doctors at the hospital reached out to Dr. Michele De Luca, the director of the Center for Regenerative Medicine Stefano Ferrari at the University of
Modena and Reggio Emilia in Italy. Dr. De Luca had previous experience with smaller skin grafts for JEB, larger skin grafts for burn victims and
corneal grafts for eye injuries. His team removed ВЅ in2 of the boy's skin in an area where his skin was not yet affected and genetically engineered his
cells with a retroviral vector to the full version of the LAMB3 complementary DNA, which was a precursor to the normal version of his mutated gene.
The cells were grown into sheets totaling 9 ft2 and grafted back onto his body. 80% of the patient's skin was replaced and the treatment was successful.
The boy remains recovered two years after the treatment and is now

Navicular Syndrome Research Paper
Navicular syndrome, or navicular disease, is a hoof problem in horses. Navicular syndrome is a degenerating bone disease that causes lameness in
the horse. It deteriorates the navicular bone as well as the surrounding tissues. Navicular generally occurs on the front feet and happens when horses
are between the age of eight and twelve. Navicular can lead to significant and even disabling lameness ("Navicular Problems: Symptoms and
Treatment). The navicular bone is a small bone in a horse's hoof that sits in between the coffin bone and the pastern. The bone is shaped like a canoe.
This led to the name navicular bone. The prefix "nvicu" means small boat in Latin. The bone is also called the distal sesamoid bone
("Navicular Problems: Symptoms and Treatment). Associated with the navicular bone are several structures of soft tissue. The collateral sesamoidean
ligament is located on the upper side of the bone. This ligament attaches to the distal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the most common ways to prevent navicular is proper shoeing and care of the feet, as well as adding joint supplements to feed. If a horse has
navicular syndrome, corrective shoeing is an option. There are many types of shoes used when treating a horse with navicular. Some of these shoes
are a wedge shoe, heart bar shoes, egg bar shoes, and steel shoes with a pad insert. Another form of treatment is anti–inflammatory drugs such as
phenylbutazone. Most horsemen call it Bute for short. This drug can come in the form of oral paste or mix in powder. There is also coffin injections
which help give the horse more cushion between the navicular bone and the coffin bone. A neurectomy, or denerving, is the process in which the
nerves are surgically removed from the hoof so the horse has no more feeling to the foot. Studies show that almost 60 percent of horses with navicular
will get a neurectomy (Navicular

Ceramics in the Medical Field
Ceramics have been used for thousands of years and have been used in a multitude of different application. In the past 70 years ceramics have started
to be used in the medical field1. Ceramics can be categorized by its bio–safety and bioactivity. Bio–safe materials are non–toxic and non–inflammatory
as to avoid rejection from the body. Where the bioactivity is how it reacts to biological material and processes. Typically ceramics have been used in
surgical replacements such as bones and teeth. These ceramics must be designed and optimized in order to perform in the body's aggressive internal
environment. Newer ceramics are being researched in order to improve structure, functionality, and life expectancy. Some ceramics likecalcium
phosphate ceramics increase the bioactivity by stimulating bone growth2. Some are designed to incorporate drugs that can be release by external
stimuli or by time releasing mechanisms. These bioceramic drug delivery systems are being researched, as well as nano scale ceramics. Current
research is not only looking at new and improved bioceramics but is also looking into using ceramics for use in cancer treatments. The use of ceramics
in hyperthermia therapy is one of the methods currently being looking into3. The ceramic that is used in have magnetic materials incorporated into the
ceramic this allows for external magnetic forces to heat up the ceramic which cause an increase of heat at the site of implantation. This can causes

The Stages Of Acute Cutaneous Wound Healing
The stages of acute cutaneous wound healing and why some processes may be altered in diabetic patients
"The process by which tissue repair takes place is termed wound healing and is comprised of a continuous sequence of inflammation and repair, in
which epithelial, endothelial, inflammatory cells, platelets and fibroblasts briefly come together outside their normal domains, interact to restore a
semblance of their usual discipline and having done so resume their normal function". ("The Cellular Biology of Wound Healing" 2016)
Wound healing has 3 distinct stages, an inflammatory response, a proliferation phase and a maturation phase, however wound healing is not a linear
process and a patient can move back and forth throughout the stages.
After the occurrence of a wound the inflammatory process immediately begins and can last up to 3 days ("Wound Healing" 2016), the initial injury
causes the small vessels around the wound site to be disturbed resulting in bleeding, the body's first response is a haemodynamic one in that it restricts
these vessels in order to prevent blood loss. There then comes a rapid release of preformed inflammatory mediators from the cells surrounding the
injury, the first thing this causes is the aggregation of platelets, these platelets adhere to extracellular surface structures which are exposed, such as
collagen and basement membranes, this in turn causes serotonin from platelet stores to be stimulated. (Kirk, Phillips and Murray 2001)
As well as

Regenerative Wound Medicine
Regenerative medicine such as tissue replacement and wound healing has been used quite extensively for skin treatments over the years.
Understanding the pathology of skin injury will bring effective treatments and wound healing outcomes. Several strategies like traditional skin grafts,
certain biomaterials, and stem cell therapies are vital for current tissue injuries and the future of tissue regeneration.
Introduction and Pathology
The skin is said to be the largest organ in a human body. It is divided into 3 layers: epidermis (outer layer or superficial layer of the skin), dermis
(connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands), hypodermis (subcutaneous fat) (Chen, 2009). These layers act as a barrier by protecting the body
from environmental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Stem cells are multipotent which give rise to multiple cell types and are known for their self–renewing and tissue differentiation abilities. Research has
shown SCs to have successful results in the field of skin regeneration (Duscher, 2016). SCs of interest for wound healing include adult mesenchymal
stem cells (MSC's), embryonic stem cells (ESC's), and induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSC's). MSCs are isolated mainly from the bone marrow and
other tissues such as adipose and nerve tissues and are administered locally as well as systemically with little to no immunoreactivity (Tartarini, 2016).
MSCs regenerative benefits in wound injury is not seen in its structural capabilities rather it's seen in its escape of trophic mediators (Duscher, 2016).
Bone marrow MSCs injected in wound sites produce high amounts of collagen and growth factors leading to faster healing, epithelialization,
angiogenesis, and cellularity (Duscher, 2016). Studies also show that bone marrow derived MSCs injected in injury sites had decreased wound size,
increased vascularity and dermal thickness (Duscher, 2016). Although MSCs for wound therapy has been proven effective and well tolerated in
patients, there still seems to be limitations such as invasiveness of their harvest, cost of resources, and hazards that deal with growing cell cultures to
attain healing

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Laparoscopy
Laparoscopic surgery is one of the most commonly used modality in surgical technique, being performed 7.5 million surgeries annually worldwide.
It is an alternative technique for carrying out many operations that have traditionally required an open approach. Laparoscopy is a minimally invasive
surgery performed though small incisions. It presents benefits, compared with traditional open surgeries, including shorten recovery times; lower
postoperative morbidity; allow patients to return to work and regular activities faster; and produce better cosmetic results. Laparoscopic procedure
starts with small incisions kept open with trocars. Then, to make room for the surgery to be performed, the abdomen is insufflated with carbon dioxide
gas and a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Generally divided into running and interrupted closures. Running sutures have the advantage of speed, since knots need only be tied at two or three
points. And comparing to interrupted sutures, the helical nature of running stitch evenly distributes tension along the entire wound and allows for
superior perfusion. However, if one is insecurely tied, or breaks, the whole incision will not come apart. If tied only tightly enough to approximate the
tissue, but loosely enough to permit adequate perfusion of the fascia within the suture, such sutures can provide a secure closure without necrosis.
There is, however, an inherent tendency to pull forcefully on these sutures as they are being tied. This is unquestionably the reverse of what is best. If
interrupted sutures are not done properly, they can be a greater impediment to a strong closure than a running suture that produces inherently less

The Growth Of The Tissue
Article # 1:
Barzegari, Abolfazl and Amir Ata Saei. "Tissue Engineering in Microgravity Bioreactors." BioImpacts 2.1 (2012): 23–32. Academic Search Complete.
EBSCO. Web. 24 October 2014.
Article Summary:
The growth of the tissue can be accomplished more efficiently in microgravity. This article discussed the methods that dependent completely on
microgravity. Along with that these methods also explains the various cell types such as stem cells. The ensuing builds can be utilized for poison and
sustenance security testing notwithstanding organ substitution treatment. Case in point, researchers can develop models of tumor to study, or to test
against growth drugs against. Both of the creators are partnered with the Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, staff of Pharmacy, Tabriz
University of Medical Sciences in Tabriz, Iran.
Article Use:
The article is helping in determining the methods that helps the cells and explain the types of cells in tissue engineering. The cardiac patients need more
detailed attention toward the tissue engineering for better treatment. This article helps to focus on the cells that helps to increase the productivity of
cardiac patients.
Article # 2:
Moody, William Lafayette, Dan Cameron, Jean–Pierre Timmermans, Nora De Clerck, Alexander Sasov, Christophe Casteleyn, Jeremy Woodward,
Susana Lai–Yuen, Les A. Piegl. "The Basement Membrane: Key to Reverse Engineering Biological Tissues." Computer–Aided Design &
Applications8.1

Traumatic Arthritis Essay
Introduction
Rheumatic arthritis (RA) is a chronic, progressive disorder that commonly presents a group of mechanically related disorders concerning the
degenerative nature of joints that is specifically affecting the articular cartilage and subchondral bone (1). Thus, causing a dip in the quality of life in
RA patients. The aetiology for RA is unclear, however, a combination of hereditary susceptibility causes a reaction that causes severeinflammation in
the synovial membrane (1). However, other factors such as the immunological, hormonal and environmental factors plays a role in development of RA
(2). The pathology of RA is characterised by an insidious order of biological events that will eventually lead to articular cartilage destruction and
secondary changes in surrounding tissues (1). The pathological changes to joints consequently lead to structural deformity and functional disability.
The clinical presentation of RA patients are often intermittent joint pain, worse on movement; stiffness; and, limited range of motion (ROM) and joint
instability, either due to loss of articular cartilage, or effusions into the joint cavity (1–3). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
IL–1ОІ induces other cytokines, such as IL–6, IL–8 and leukaemia inducing factor (LIF), causing a catabolic event by stimulating either an additive or
synergistic effects (11, 24). IL–1ОІ also cause nociceptive sensitisation through activation of intracellular kinase or the production of kinins and
prostanoids (25). Hyperalgesia and hypersensitivity in joints is also associated with IL–6; primary afferent neurons responds to IL–6 and plays a role in
pain transmission (1, 24). Similarly, TNF–О± activates sensory neurons causing neuropathic pain via the receptors TNFR1 and TFNR2, which initiates
a cascade of inflammatory responses through the production of IL cytokines (9,

Bone Injury Paper
There are 206 bones in the human body. Broken and fractured bones are one of the most common injuries, about 6 million people in the US will
break a bone each year. And out of these 300,000 people will have a serious injury that will require different methods to heal. There are a variety ways
of bone tissue repairing but most of them are not long term and can cause other complications. There are different stages for bone repair. The first step
is the formation of hematoma at the break, then the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus, the third step is the formation of a bony callus, and finally
remodeling and addition of compact bone. In the early stages, a hematoma develops within the fracture location during the first few hours and days. ...
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After the animals were sedated their heads were shaved so an incision can be made on the dorsal region of the skull so that the parietal bone can be
exposed. This was so that a calvarial hole defect could be made in the parietal region with the help of a trephine bur. Adherent hMSC's were extended
on each patch for 24 hours at 37 Celsius in a 5% CO2 moistened atmosphere. After the cells were incubated they were placed on the calvarial defect.
And an equal number cells treated with 0.5% of fibrin–gel and place on the calvariel defects for the control

The Extracellular Matrix Network
The structural support of heart is attributed to the extracellular matrix network of the heart. Pumping action of heart is due to the force generated by
cardiomyocyte. The extracellular matrix network mainly consist of type I collagen with smaller amounts of type III collagen. This collagen network
facilitates the transmission of a systolic force [9]. Tensile strength is provided by thick fibers mainly of type I collagen (85 % of total myocardial
collagen). Type III collagen (11 % of the total collagen protein in theheart), forms thin fibers and is responsible for elasticity of the matrix network.
Cardiac matrix network, morphologicaly can be subdivided into three constituents: the epimysium, perimysium and endomysium [10] (Figure 1). The
entire cardiac muscle is enveloped by epimysium and is located on the endocardial and epicardial surface providing support for endothelial and
mesothelial cells. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The individual muscle fibers are enwrapped by endomysium, the final arborisation of the perimysium. Endomysial struts tethers muscle fibers together
and with their nutrient microvasculature. It also functions as the sites for connections to cardiomyocyte cytoskeletal proteins across the plasma
membrane [9, 11]. Increased perimysial deposition of collagen results in interstitial fibrosis, and involvement of the intramural coronary arterial
vasculature causes perivascular fibrosis in a fibrotic heart. In addition to collagens, glycoproteins, glycosaminoglycans (hyaluronan), and proteoglycans
forms the cardiac extracellular matrix. Latent growth factors and proteases in the cardiac extracellular matrix may trigger the fibrotic response with
their activation following injury

Osteobiologic Materials
Different types of osteobiologic materials include: metal–based, ceramic–based and polymer–based bone graft substitutes either with or without various
types of cells. Some of these materials may have various bioactive molecules such as growth factors embedded in them [47], [48–52] for example:
BMP–2 [53–55], TGF–b [54], GDF–5 [56, 57] and VEGF [58] or a mixture [57], since these growth factors are among of the multiple factors
expressed during bone regeneration [59–61]. Such materials have been investigated widely in literature[62], [63] to exhibit specific responses. Calcium
phosphate showed osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties in the form of sintered ceramics [64–67], cements [68, 69], and coatings [70, 71].
Besides calcium phosphate ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One method is uses ion impregnation of the surface [84]. This method allows the material to act in such a way that they can either promote bone
formation or reduce bone loss, since ions are essential factors for enzymes. Bioinorganic ions can modulate angiogenesis to accelerate healing, induce
osteogenesis, and stimulate proliferation of osteoblast control. However the use of inorganic ions can also cause toxicity [85]. An example of a
bioinorganic ion used on titanium is calcium ions. Calcium–modified implants, create a concentration gradient of chemo attractants for mesenchymal
and osteoprogenitor cells on the implant surface. Moreover, calcium–modified titanium surfaces have electrical characteristics different from normal
titanium surface, this change in the electrical properties on the surface increases the composition of adsorbed biofilm [86]. Other ions used to modify
titanium surfaces are phosphate ions [87]. Phosphate ions are associated with proteins in formation and regeneration of bones through phosphorylation
of serine, threonine and tyrosine amino residues. Phosphate–modified titanium implants block the incorporation of mineral ions into the crystal surface,
inhibiting thereby crystal growth. The last ion coating consists of both phosphate and calcium [88], coating it with hydroxyapatite [89].
Additional treatments involves changing the structure of titanium to become porous and bio–active

The Effects Of Wound Healing On Diabetic Patients
eous wound healing and why some processes may be altered in diabetic patients
"The process by which tissue repair takes place is termed wound healing and is comprised of a continuous sequence of inflammation and repair, in
which epithelial, endothelial, inflammatory cells, platelets and fibroblasts briefly come together outside their normal domains, interact to restore a
semblance of their usual discipline and having done so resume their normal function". ("The Cellular Biology of Wound Healing" 2016)
Wound healing has 3 distinct stages, an inflammatory response, a proliferation phase and a maturation phase, however wound healing is not a linear
process and a patient can move back and forth throughout the stages.
After the occurrence of a wound the inflammatory process immediately begins and can last up to 3 days ("Wound Healing" 2016), the initial injury
causes the small vessels around the wound site to be disturbed resulting in bleeding, the body's first response is a haemodynamic one in that it restricts
these vessels in order to prevent blood loss. There then comes a rapid release of preformed inflammatory mediators from the cells surrounding the injury,
the first thing this causes is the aggregation of platelets, these platelets adhere to extracellular surface structures which are exposed, such as collagen
and basement membranes, this in turn causes serotonin from platelet stores to be stimulated. (Kirk, Phillips and Murray 2001)
As well as attracting further

Macrophage Research Paper
Usage of Growth Factors Loaded Macrophage Derived Microvesicles in Wound Care
Background
Microvesicles are fragments of Cell ranging from 50 nm to 1000 nm shed from almost all cell types. MVs are also known as micro particles, shedding
vesicles and exosomes.
Microvesicles play a role in intracellular communication and transport mRNA, miRNA, and other proteins between the cells.
Microvesicles are released by exocytosis through a mechanism dependent on cytoskeleton activation and under the regulation of p53 protein. This
release is enhanced by different environmental stimuli like oxidative stress, injury or hypoxia.
Extracellular MVs circulating in body fluids are functional and could serve as potential biomarkers.
Mechanism of signaling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Add 10 ml of the medium to a 15 ml conical tube.
Take a vial of frozen cells (1x105 cell/ml) and thaw it as quickly as possible by swirling in the 37ЛљC water bath until the cell suspension get dissolved.
Transfer the vial contents into the warmed media and centrifuge at 1000 rpm x 5 min.
Aspirate the DMSO medium, and re–suspend the cells belts in 20 ml media & incubate overnight.
Change media every 2 to 3 days.
Feeding
Cultures can be maintained by the addition of fresh medium or replacement of medium. Notes
Do not allow the cell concentration to exceed 1 X 106 cells/ml. Splitting
Let the cells grow to approximately 1 x 106 cells/ml by allowing to grow for 3–4 days. Split 1/5 by centrifuging cells, re–suspend the cells in 5 ml.
Transfer 1ml to new flask and add 19 ml of media.
Cell Differentiation
Use the PMA in concentration 100nM.

After addition of the PMA, Allow the cells to differentiate for 3 days.
Microvesicles Release (3)
1. Uptaking
Incubate the cells in serum–free medium with each growth factor for 3–5 hours. (Flask for each growth factor)
2. Washing
Wash the cells 3 x in serum–free medium.
3.

Guided Tissue Regeneration Essay
1) define and explain the concept of Guided tissue regeneration(in detail) (GTR)
According to the Glossary of Periodontal Terms 4th Edition, Guided tissue regeneration is defined as "Procedures attempting to regenerate lost
periodontal structures through differential tissue response."
The concept of Guided tissue regeneration is centered on placing physical barriers to block the apical migration of the gingival connective tissue and
epithelium cells of the flap, while allowing the inward migration of periodontal ligament cells on the exposed root surface. This allows periodontal
regeneration to occur. Physical barriers also protect the blood clot during healing and preserve space for the growth of a new periodontal apparatus.
2) explain the major studies which proved the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In guided tissue regeneration, we are excluding connective tissue and epithelial, while allowing PDL cells to inhabit the surface of the root and
allowing bone cell to grow into defect region. On the other hand, in guided bone regeneration, we are excluding only connective tissue to allow bone
regeneration to occur.
The basic concept for guided bone regeneration includes placing physical barriers to protecting the blood clot, maintaining the blood supply to the
defect area, releasing growth factors, and isolating the bone defect to allow access for bone cells to cause bone regeneration.
6) Give examples of when GBR would be indicated
GBR is mainly used to increase the volume of the bone in bone deficient ridges. Indications for GBR include: Bone defects related to failing implants,
Dehiscence and fenestrations related to implants, ridge deficiencies, osseous fill around immediate implants and bone lesions.
7) List possible complications associated with GTR and GBR and the remedy or treatment for

A Study On Cell Adhesion Molecules
Name:
Instructor's Name:
Course:
Date:
Cell Adhesion Molecules
Introduction
Cells are independent units of life. However, when a cell becomes part of an organism, it becomes part of a tissue and organ system. Cells in a tissue
are joined to each other and to the extracellular matrix (ECM) by cell junctions. There are three kinds of cell junctions: Occluding junctions, anchoring
junctions and communication junctions. Occluding junctions occur in the epithelium where the adjacent cells are so tightly sealed together that even
small molecules cannot pass. Communicating junctions allow the exchange of chemical and electrical signals between cells. Anchoring junctions are
the ones which attach a cell either to its neighbor or to the extracellular matrix. Formation of an anchoring junction requires the cells to stick to each
other. Various molecules mediate adhesion between cells following which thecytoskeleton forms a structure around them. The anchoring junctions thus
formed can be of four types– desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, focal adhesions and adherens junctions. In order for a proper tissue to form, it is
important for the cells of the tissue to bind together. It is equally important to prevent the invasion and binding of other cells. Thus, cell adhesion has
to be specific. This is where the cell adhesion molecules come into play (Alberts et al. 2002).
Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) Adhesion of cells to other cells and to the ECM is mediated by certain proteins on the

Dislodged Cell Essay
Dislodged cells undergo a Special type of cell death named anoikis based on loss of cell – matrix interaction mediated by intrinsic and extrinsic
apoptotic pathway. In intrinsic pathway after cell–ECM detachment, BH3–only proteins (Bim and Bid) stimulate Bax and Bak pro–apoptotic proteins
oligomerization and pore creation in mitochondrial outer membrane. Because of these pores, cytochrome C and SMAC/DIABLO proteins will be
release from mitochondria into the cytosol. Ultimately apoptosome complex formation induces executioner caspase activation and proteolysis. Another
involved route activate when extracellular death ligand such as FAS or TRAIL bind to their receptors on the cell surface and launches downstream
pathway. After... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also in oxidative stress, inducing ATG proteins expression through PERK (Protein kinase RNA–like endoplasmic reticulum kinase) activate canonical
autophagy. DUE TO the activation of these proteins autophagy begins, (and consequently or so) sustains the required energy of the cell. Another
temporary saving strategy in physiological condition is Provisional disengagement occurs during cell migration. Cells take a different type of motility
style in their transient displacement like Mesenchymal and amoeboid movement. Motile cells with Mesenchymal form exhibit pro–survival signals
activation. In amoeboid motile cells interaction with ECM does not require for movement and survival and they suppress anoikis by using cytokine
and growth factor instead of ECM proteins. Acquisition of the Mesenchymal phenotype is functionally associated with the ability to overcome anoikis
/another process involved in anoikis resistance is EMT which is an essential feature that allows epithelial cells participate in physiological process like
embryogenesis. EMT in cancer cells / also cancer cells acquire Mesenchymal feature which allow/permit them to overcome anoikis and become motile
and metastatic/in this process, cancer cells launch chain of event that enable them to acquire Mesenchymal feature and overcome anoikis. During EMT
cancer cell downregulate cell–adhesion molecules like E–cadherin and Оі–catenin, and increase Mesenchymal associated markers such as fibronectin
and

Cystic Fibroblasts
Fibroblasts are mesenchymal cells that play an important role in the wound healing process. These cells are responsible for releasing inflammatory
agents that recruit white blood cells to areas of damaged tissue. Fibroblasts also respond to these chemicals and differentiate into myofibroblasts. These
myofibroblasts are characterized by their up–regulated rate of extracellular matrix component production and their ability to physically manipulate the
extracellular matrix. When the wound healing process becomes unregulated, this results in what is referred to as a fibrotic response (Kendall). As a
result fibrosis, or the thickening and scarring of connective tissues, occurs. Fibrosis is the excess deposition of ECM components like collagen and ...
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The first experiment we ran was the О±–smooth muscle actin (asma) stain. The purpose of this stain was to use a primary and secondary antibody to
indirectly stain the microfilaments that characterize myofibroblasts. Under a fluorescent microscope, this will provide a visual representation of how
many fibroblasts in our samples had differentiated into myofibroblasts. To set up for this experiment, fibroblasts were plated on coverslips and
incubated for seven days, to reach 100% confluency, in either the presence or absence of allopurinol. After one week the coverslips were fixed with
methanol and the first antibody, a mouse anti–human asma, was applied onto the coverslip and kept refrigerated overnight. The next day the
coverslips were rinsed with PBS, all rinses are performed with PBS, and the second antibody, a goat anti–mouse rhodamine, was applied to the
coverslips for thirty minutes in a dark place. Lastly, after another rinse, a DAPI counterstain, which would interact with the DNA in the nucleus of
every fibroblast to make them visible, was applied for fifteen minutes and rinsed. Then the coverslips were mounted onto slides with glycerol and
looked at under the fluorescent microscope. The nuclei of all of the cells lit up blue and the microfilaments in the differentiated fibroblasts,
myofibroblasts, lit up bright

Failures Of The World Is Not An Easy Place
The world is not an easy place to get by in. Whether it's the physicality of the world itself or the forces of nature, there is so much variation in the
breadths of danger present that survival is difficult if not impossible without the ability to dynamically respond to these challenges. Simplicity,
though robust in its nature, could not possibly thrive in a world like ours. Life, it seems, is up to the challenge though, and the response is more
than just a single answer. Rather, the life found on earth is so diverse, so different from one another; it would fly in the face of the challenge
presented. That said, none of the forms of life could be complex enough to avoid mistakes. Missteps that lead to damage and damage to failed
survival. What is seen from those mistakes is not an acceptance of failure and an inability to go on, but rather a dogged determination to recover
from and overcome. The complexity needed to survive poses a problem as the process to recover becomes just as intricate. So intricate that it could
not possibly be fully covered in all its depths with just a handful of pages. However, this paper will attempt to cover in a more general manner what
occurs and point out some details of the more complex processes occurring. The goal of this paper is to explore the method by which a cutaneous
wound is healed for humans and the three involved processes of inflammation, tissue formation, and tissue remodeling. Cutaneous wound healing, or
the process of

Functions Of Type Vii Collagen
Pathophysiology
The COL7A1 gene contains the instruction manual for making proteins that are used for strengthening and supporting the connective tissue in the body
which includes tendons, ligaments, bones and skin. "The proteins produced from the COL7A1 gene, called pro–О±1 (VII) chains, are the components
of type VII collagen." (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/COL7A1) When three pro–О±1 (VII) chains twist together, they form a triple–stranded molecule
called a procollagen, these molecules are secreted by the cell and are processed by enzymes which remove extra protein segments. When these
procollagen molecules are processed by getting rid of the extra segment on the ends, they then can arrange themselves into longer, thinner bundles of
mature type VII collagen.
Type VII collagen is the major component of anchoring fibrils which is found in the basement membrane zone, which is a two–layer membrane found
between the epidermis, and the dermis. "Anchoring fibrils hold the two layers of skin together by connecting the epidermal basement membrane to the
dermis." (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/COL7A1) Without the anchoring fibrils holding those layers together the skin become extremely fragile and
blistering occurs with the slightest of trauma, heat, rubbing or friction. Injury may also occur from the removal of adhesive tape or tight clothing.
Children with EB are called "Butterfly Children" because their skin is so fragile, like a butterfly's wings.
Diagnosis

Animal Models And Clinical Trials
(WY Mak et. Al, 2014) discusses the concerns of the fact that many drugs that are successful in animal trials are not successful in clinical trials, most
specifically, drugs used in cancer treatments. Animal models have been an important factor in the testing of a new drug before it is used in clinical
trials, but many drugs that are approved in animal models are not successful in human models. It has been shown that 85% of early clinical trials for
novel drugs are not successful and from the remaining 15%, only half are approved for human use. The reason there is a difference in results
between animal models and clinical trials have to do with the inability of animals to identically mimic human body functions. An example of a trial
that had a difference in results is the TGN1412 trial. TGN1412 was a drug used to treat diseases such as MS, rheumatoid arthritis, and certain cancers.
Before used in clinical trials, this drug was first tested in mice. There were no complications shown in mice that would indicate complications in
humans. Humans in clinical trials were given a dose 500 times lower than the dose given to mice and it resulted in catastrophic organ failure. Another
study involving IPI–296 in patients with advanced chondrosarcoma was ended early due to the fact that it had no effect shown in clinical trials. When
IPI–296 was used on mice, they were shown to have an increase in survival rate. This showed that the effects of the drug on animal models was different

The Reorganization Of Structural Components Of Tumors Essay
6.EDC exposure elicits oncogenic changes in matrix components and tumor architecture The importance of extracellular matrix (ECM) composition,
stiffness, 3D architecture and its influence cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and survival have been well characterized(Jansen et al., 2015)
(Kourouklis, Kaylan, & Underhill, 2016; Yang et al., 2016) (Coombs, Leonard, Rush, Santistevan, & Hedberg–Dirk, 2016; Rammensee, Kang,
Georgiou, Kumar, & Schaffer, 2016; Subbiah et al., 2016).Cells can sense discreet changes in ECM make–up, and have been shown to behave
differently in a 2D in vitro setting compared to in 3D in vitro culture (Alessandri et al., 2014; Lu et al., 2013). While the precise mechanism remains to
be defined, the tumor stiffness has been implicated as a potential initiator of metastasis and tumor progression (Fenner et al., 2014). The reorganization
of structural components of tumors has been shown to enhance both tumor formation and metastasis, demonstrating a structural link between density,
the stromal component, and the tumor (Chaudhuri et al., 2014). Furthermore, epithelial cells are known to respond to changes in environmental
stiffness enhancing proliferation and cell motility (Chaudhuri et al., 2014). The composition of the architecture of tumors differs from that of normal
tissue both in molecular makeup and mechanical properties (rigidity and tensile forces) (Hansen & Bissell, 2000)Tumor cells will react to changes in
architecture leading to

Orthopedic Bone Essay
Bone is a miraculous triphasic organ that contains cellular components, hydrated extracellular organic matrix and an extracellular mineral phase which
is primarily composed of calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite (HA), playing leading roles in critical functions in human physiology
including support, movement and protection of other critical organs, storage and homeostasis of calcium, blood production, mineral and blood pH
regulation. Bone injuries and defects are serious health problems especially those caused by complex breaks and pathological fractures arising from
malformation, osteoporosis and tumors that have resulted in over 2.2 million bone transplantation procedures in different fields including orthopedics,
neurosurgery ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Alternatively, modifications in mechanical properties of natural and synthetic biomaterials can be introduced through enzymatic, physical, or chemical
crosslinking. Thermosetting resins (or thermosets) play an important role in industry because of their high flexibility for tailoring preferred ultimate
properties leading to high modulus, strength, durability with thermal and chemical resistances provided by high cross–linking density. In view of the
fact that being prepared from phenol and formaldehyde and having desirable characteristics and dimensional stability along with high resistance against
various solvents, acids and water, phenolic resins are broadly used as commodity and engineered materials in transportation industry showing the
versatility for having potential to cope with challenges of advanced technology. Phenolic resins can be synthesized under both acidic and alkaline
conditions [48]. Acid–catalyzed resins called as Novolacs are prepared at a formaldehyde/phenol ratio between 0.75 and 0.85, whereas
alkaline–catalyzed resins called Resoles are prepared at a formaldehyde/phenol ratio higher than 1.(resol ftir for synthesis) Phenol formaldehyde resins
(PF) are characterized by their capability of forming hydrogen bonds with the polymer containing complementary hydroxyl groups (resin theory boron
novolac). As a synthetic polymer, resol is soluble in

Pdl Lab Report
PDL cells that induce coronally the periodontal regeneration coming from flap. It was said that they came from progenitor cells from within.
In a study, a tooth was made with slits inside the chamber and was implanted into 5 mm tissue with the dentinal wall remaining and an implant was
insurted in to the root and collagen barrier was added. The histological specimen after 3 months showed formation of cementum and PDL was formed
between the dentinal wall and implant.
So, projenitor cells in PDL are strongly associated in the regeneration of periodontal apparatus.
Role of epithelium in periodontal wound healing: It seems that as the tooth is merged into the mucosa the epithelial lining is continuous apically
inhibiting the periodontal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In an experiment, a Widman flap was made and after each two consecutive month professional cleaning was made it was noticed that we have new bone
formation either 2 walled or 3 walled but it was said it's due to the new CT attachment.
Grafting procedure:
In multiple experiments where bone grafts or implant bone substitutes where made with either:
1.Autogeneous graft: from same person
2.Allogenic graft: frozen red bone marrow and calcellous bone from genetic dissimilar members
3.Xenograft: from another species
4.Alloplastic graft: synthetic material with bone substitute
These contained:
1.Osteo–induction: Bone inducing substances
2.Osteo–genesis Bone forming cells
3.Osteo–conduction: Scaffold for bone formation
It has showed promising results but the documentation varried due different:
1.Attachment levels
2.Location
3.Xrays
4.Re–entery procedure.
A new cementum was made and collagen fibers bonded to it making new periodontal attachment.

3.Nonresorbable membranes:
Usage of membranes as cellulose acetate filters and EPTFE (EXPANDED polytetraflouro ethylene) as GRT barriers as they has these properties: a–
Manageable clinically b– Make space for tissue healing c– Allow tissue integration d– Biocompatible e– Cellular barrier
With the use of ePTFE, THE THICK KERATINIZED attached gingiva must be

Bone : Distal Radius Fracture Essay
Bone: Distal radius fracture, non–displaced, in a healthy middle–age adult.
The primary cellular components of bone tissue are osteoblasts and osteocytes, and these are distinguished by their location and their function.1 The
osteoblast is the bone–forming cell that eventually becomes an osteocyte. During this intermediate changeover, the cells are referred to as intermediate
cells. "Bone matrix is comprised of three elements: organic, mineral, and fluid. Organic components constitute 39% of the total bone volume, which
contains 95% type I collagen and 5% proteoglycans. Minerals include primarily calcium hydroxyapatite crystals and contribute about half of total bone
volume."1 Within the matrix, collagen fibers are responsible for providing tensile strength. Eventually, calcification and ossification of the fibrous
matrix forms individual bony trabeculae that together constitute a primary ossification center.2 The arrangement of the collagen/trabeculae along the
length of the bone give the bone its tensile strength; the resistive strength against bending/breaking.1,2 The density of the bone is provided by calcium
salts which are necessary to provide resistive strength against compressive forces, such as load/weight bearing activities.1 Stresses from weight bearing
and using muscles provide the necessary stimulus for the formation and organization of collagen/trabeculae to form architecturally strong bones.
Typically, when no injury or disease is present, bone

The Extracellular Matrix of Multi-Cellular Animals
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a feature of all multi cellular animals . It is a complex network of proteins secreted locally by cells via
exocytosisalberts. The protein components that form the ECM include proteoglycans, glycoproteins such as fibronectin and fibres such as collagen. In
addition a family of five matricellular proteins called thrombospondins are present.
All cells are in close contact with the ECM either continuously or at important phases of their development27. The ECM provides a physical
environment in which a cell exists. It supplies the substrate for cell anchorage, wound repair and for transmitting environmental signals which affects
the proliferation, differentiation and survival of a cell 1.
Even though the assembly of ECM proteins into the highly organized functional matrix is known to be absolutely vital for the survival and normal
development of animals it is still not fully understood5. Continued understanding of this dynamic structure is needed due to the important role the
ECM plays in the normal development and function of tissues, homeostasis, wound repair and regeneration in multi cellular organisms. Therefore
among the many ECM protein components that interact, the formation of collagen networks is pertinent to this study.
The collagens are arguably the most dominant protein in the ECM. The collagens represent a large heterogeneous family of ECM glycoproteins which
contain at least one triple helical domain collagen family. All

Case 4.19 The Extracellular Matrix Of Animal Cells
4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells function in support and regulation
Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that remain outside the plasma membrane
Animal cells produce elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
This layer holds cells together in tissues and protects and supports the plasma membrane
Main components of ECM are, glycoproteins, proteins bonded with cars
The most abundant glycoprotein is collagen, which forms strong fibers outside the cell
ECM many attach to the cell through other glycoproteins that then bind to membrane proteins called integrins
Integrins span the membrane attaching on the other side to proteins connected to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
Integrins transmit signals between ECM and the cytoskeleton ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
4.22 Review: Eukaryotic cell structure can be grouped on the basis of four main functions
First category: genetic control – nucleus that houses genetic instructions and ribosomes that produce proteins coded for in those instructions
Second category: organelles of the endomembrane system that are involved in manufacturing, distribution, and breakdown of materials
Third category: two energy processing organelles (mitochondria & chloroplasts)
Fourth category: structural support, movement, and intercellular communication
Manufacturing depends on membranes
Energy–processing depends on endomembranes
STRUCTURE OF CELL IS CLOSELY RELATED TO ITS SPECIFIC FUNCTION
?: Mitochondria gives the energy, Cytoskeleton is made up of muscle cells, and smooth ER gives the calcium to muscle cells in order to have muscle

Combinatorial Extracellular Matrix Essay
Combinatorial extracellular matrix microenvironments promote survival and phenotype of human induced pluripotent stem cell–derived endothelial
cells in hypoxia; a review
Endothelial cells derived from induced human pluripotent stem cells (iPSC–ECs) are a promising candidate for enhancing the treatment of ischemic
tissues. However, current understanding of the microenvironmental factors involved in endothelial differentiation is limited, leading to low cell survival
following transplantation. Ultimately this masks the therapeutic potential of stem cells and regenerative medicine. To address this limitation, research
published in Acta Biomaterialia examined the role of combinatorial extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins on endothelial ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Had this experiment not been performed using a microscale high–throughput platform, these interactions would have been difficult to observe.
In analyzing the detailed methods used to achieve these results, it is apparent that the systematic analysis of cell survival, phenotype and function stems
from the authors' decision to use a high throughput ECM microarray platform. While previous studies typically focused on ECM–mediated induction of
stem cell differentiation and renewal. The authors of this article envisioned the microarray platform as a powerful tool to advance clinical applications
of stem cell therapy under conditions of disease. This idea was quickly validated as data was replicated in both two–dimensional and
three–dimensional settings. However, one limitation of the microarray platform was its inability to determine the cause of the synergistic and
redundant relationships when performing cross–comparisons of individual ECM combinations. While these findings reaffirm the ECMs role in
regulating the function of cells, more work is needed to understand how combinatorial ECMs fine–tune iPSC–EC responses. Given that the induced
pluripotent stem cells chosen for this experiment lack the gene expression of a primary endothelial cell. This studies entire clinical application depends
on the ability of an iPSC–EC to express those same

Histopathological Analysis
6.3.5.2. Histopathological Analysis Documented Enhanced Granulation Tissue Formation, Angiogenesis, Collagen Deposition, and
Neo–Epithelialization by NCs Treatment
The process of recovery in skin wounds occurs through complex biological mechanisms, which are generally classified into three distinct but
overlapping phases: inflammation, cell proliferation leading to granulation formation, and tissue remodeling (Kalashnikova et al., 2015). At the outset
of the healing process (day 3), wound margins were easily demarcated by an abrupt interruption in continuity between epithelium and dermis.
Differences among the groups were semi–quantitatively on the basis of inflammation, angiogenesis, fibroplasias and re–epithelialization were analyzed
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
6.16). NCs also exhibited more neo–vascularization and neo–epithelialization. The neo–epithelial layer from marginal wound edges was thick and
connected to the underneath matrix in treatment groups. A special M&T procedure was also carried out to evaluate collagen re–organization and
density of collagen fibrils (stained blue) as tissue repair progresses (Fig. 6.17a and b). At day 8 post–wound (acute) and day 10 post–injury (diabetes),
nano–structured cellulosic fibers present in NCs were able to promote fibroblast migration, collagen deposition in the dermis and wound closure more
efficiently than control groups (Li et al., 2015). Similarly, bacterial cellulose–ZnO nanocomposites have been known to accelerate healing by increasing
proliferation of fibroblasts and keratinocytes in burn wounds (Khalid et al., 2017). The dermal layer contained diffuse deposition of collagen fibers
with very little evidence of granulation tissue organization in control mice. The increase in angiogenesis of NCs treated groups could be due to the
release of lysozyme from the wound. Lysozyme acts on cellulose to break it into monosaccharides and oligosaccharides facilitating angiogenesis and
tissue regeneration (Liu et al., 2014). AgNPs have also been known to increase the angiogenetic effect.
On day 14 post–wounding (acute) and day 18 post–wound (diabetes), the regeneration of the neo–epithelium has almost finished. The neo–epidermis
by this time

Epidermal Keeratinocytes Angiogenesis
As the inflammation receds the proliferation phase begins, in this phase of healing, cellular activity predominates. The major events during this phase
are the creation of a permeability barrier (ie, reepithelialization), the establishment of appropriate blood supply (ie, angiogenesis), and strengthening of
the injured dermal tissue (ie, fibroplasia). Reepithelialization is the process of restoring an intact epidermis after cutaneous injury. It generally involves
several processes, including the migration of adjacent epidermal keratinocytes into the wound. Epidermal stem cells from the hair follicle are now
thought to originate from the hair bulge that is believed to be the germinative portion of the hair and serve as a reservoir for keratinocytes... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
In response to the injury, microvascular endothelial cells initiate an angiogenic process consisting of activation of endothelial cells, local degradation of
their basement membrane, sprouting into the wound clot, cell proliferation, tubule structure formation, reconstruction of the basement membrane, and,
eventually, regression and involution of the newly formed vasculature as tissue remodeling (22). Newly formed vessels participate in granulation tissue
formation and provide nutrition and oxygen to growing tissues. Various cytokines are released by endothelial cells and macrophages stimulate the
process of angiogenesis. Several growth factors play important roles in wound angiogenesis, they include vascular endothelial growth factor,
angiopoietins, fibroblast growth factor, and TGF–b. Vascular endothelial growth factor is a potent mitogen for endothelial cells and induces endothelial
cell migration and sprouting by upregulation of several integrin receptors (23). Recent study showed that laminins are one of the major extracellular
matrix proteins important in wound angiogenesis, they have profound effects on human skin dermal microvascular endothelial cells( HDMEC)
functions, they promote endothelial cell migration and capillary structure formation

The Uses Of Tissue And Skin
The use of fibroblasts in skin substitutes is a crucial step toward better burn wound healing. Fibroblasts, which are naturally found in the dermis layer,
are in charge of synthesizing and secreting the components that make up the extracellular matrix. In order for the skin to heal properly, one component
that is especially important is collagen, for it plays a major part in the structure of the skin. Lack of collagen synthesis during healing can lead to raised
scar, resulting in poor skin function and appearance[18].
TransCyte is a temporary, bioactive synthetic covering with a similar structure to Biobrane, with an addition of fibroblasts. Like Biobrane, it is also
used as covering for burn patients before autografting or for patients with partial thickness burns who do not require autografts[11][12]. TransCyte
consists of two layers, a silicone outer layer and an inner nylon mesh seeded with fibroblasts. The outer silicone layer is a semipermeable membrane,
containing a series of laser–punched holes that allow excess fluids to be drained[13]. The inner nylon mesh membrane is coated with porcine collagen
peptides, creating the base onto where the neonatal fibroblasts can be cultured, since collagen is a main component of the skin. In order to seed the
fibroblasts within the nylon mesh, the entire membrane, silicone outer layer included, was placed inside a specially designed bioreactor. This
bioreactor provided a continuous, constant flow of fibroblasts at a rate of about

Conjoint Tissue: A Case Study
within the tissue. Although there is obvious evidence that ultrasound temperature heats up thetarget tissue, there is a lack of evidence depicting exactly
how much the tissue is heated, so themajority of evidence–based science regarding this aspect is qualitative in nature (Haar, 1999). Itis theorized that
the positive effects of ultrasound therapy, referring to strictly the thermal effects,result from increased flexibility of tendons, ligaments, and scar tissue.
These effects increasejoint movability, decrease stiffness, aid in pain relief, and increase blood flow to the area treated.The non–thermal effects are
quite a bit more complex, involving more physics that centeraround sound–pressure dynamics. The largest non–thermal effect is thought ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The sound waves heat up the tissue, offering thermal benefits, while at the sametime slightly oscillating the tissue, offering non–thermal benefits
(Watson, 2015). The thermaleffects including bringing more blood flow to the treated area, decreasing joint stiffness, andincreasing the elasticity of
tendons (Haar, 1999). The non–thermal benefits include moving thetissue in a form of miniature massage and altering the concentration gradients of
potassium andsodium in the target tissue. Ultrasound therapy can be beneficial for soft tissue, bone, and jointdamage. Ultrasound stimulates tissue
repair by increasing blood flow and collagen production indamaged soft tissue. In damaged bone, ultrasound applied during the inflammation and
earlyproliferative phase speeds up the recovery process (Haar, 1999). During the application process,the area being treated should only be roughly two
times the size of the transducer head, and thehead should be perpendicular to the area being treated. It is also important that the transducerstays in
contact with the gel matrix on the skin (Watson, 2015). Although ultrasound is typicallyagreed upon as an effective treatment, there is still a group of
scientists and healthcare providersthat disagree. There is a lack of evidence of exactly how ultrasound works, which is needed toensure the utmost
safety for patients being treated (Powers, 2017). Another

Tissue Engineering Research
By living in a broken world, people become subjected to devastation and times of hopelessness. Some encounter this through job struggles or family
disputes. Others encounter it while waiting at death's door, waiting for an organ transplant. On January 8, 2014, 120,990 people were waiting for an
organ transplant, wondering if they will be added to the 3,381 people who died last year waiting for a new kidney or wondering if they will become one
of the 26,000 people in the United States who die each year from end–stage liver disease (Kaihara and Vacanti; National Kidney Foundation). Every 20
minutes, a person is added to the kidney waitlist and each day, 14 people die while waiting for a kidney transplant (National Kidney Foundation).
These numbers cannot be ignored because blindness only results in loss of life.
Currently, alternatives, such as mechanical devices and artificial prostheses, don't repair tissue or organ functions because they are not intended for
integrating host tissues, and if these alternatives are used for long–term implantation, the recipient could suffer from an inflammatory response
(Chapekar). For illnesses such as end–stage liver disease, the only successful treatment is through transplant, and the odds of receiving a new liver is
improbable (Kaihara and Vacanti). Another treatment must be discovered. In 1988, a NSF sponsored meeting defined a new treatment idea called
tissue–engineering: the "application of the principles and methods of engineering

The Importance Of A 3d Supportive Structure
As mentioned before, in tissue regeneration is of crucial importance the use of a 3D supportive structure because when cells are seeded into these
scaffolds enables the proliferation of cells and chondrogenic differentiation; and with it the three–dimensional tissue formation. Scaffolds must be able
to withstand physiological loading until sufficient tissue regeneration occurs. Moreover, the material must be sufficiently porous to allow for effective
transport of nutrients. Finally, it should be biocompatible and, if biodegradable, degrade as the tissue matrix is produced leaving only nontoxic
degradation products.
When using biomaterial scaffolds in tissue–engineered constructs the 3D environment of the extracellular matrix is being ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
General scaffold requirements are shown in table 4:
Scaffold Requirements:Biological and material basis:
BiocompatibilityTo prevent adverse inflammatory or immune responses.
Cell attachmentTo optimize cell seeding for delivery and retention of cells and promote maintenance of chondrogenic phenotype.
Porous 3D environmentSupport cell migration, proliferation and ECM production. High surface area to volume ratio.
Interconnected/permeableMaximize nutrient/waste exchange and limit oxygen gradients.
BiodegradationPreferably in harmony with desired repair or regeneration process, whereby, by–products are metabolized or excreted from the body
without eliciting an inflammatory response.
Bioactivity/gene deliveryAct as a cell carrier or control the release of growth factors, transfection vectors and/or genetically modified cells.
Mechanical integrity and integrationSufficient to support or match surrounding native tissue at site of implantation, as well as mediate mechanical
stimulus to cells during loading.
Structural anisotropyPromote native anisotropic tissue structure.
Size and ShapeReproducibly create scaffold of clinically relevant size and shape.
Surgical applicationPreferably allow minimally invasive techniques using injectable/flexible scaffold

Research Paper On Keloid
Keloids were described around 1700 BC by Egyptian Surgeon1. In 1806 Baron Jean Louis identified keloid as an entity2. Initially he called it as
'Cancroide' then changed as 'cheloide' to avoid confusion with cancer3. The word keloid is derived from Greek "chele" which means hoof/crab
pincers and "oid" means like.
Keloid scar occur as a pathological response to cutaneous injury and occur only in humans. Keloid scar grows beyond the borders of original wound
and does not regress spontaneously. It grows in Pseudo tumour fashion with distortion of lesion which recurs after excision. They are resistant to
therapy. Numerous treatment modalities are available none of them are effective.
A prototype of fibrotic skin disease is keloid. It is localized ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It occurs by two types of reaction 1)Regeneration by proliferation of residual cells and maturation of tissue stem cells. 2) Deposition of connective
tissue to form scar.27
Normal wound healing is very important in understanding the pathogenesis of keloid.It comprises three phases which are 1) Inflammatory phase
2)Fibroblastic Proliferation 3) Remodelling
After skin injury complement cascade stimulates the migration of inflammatory cells by releasing vasoactive and chemotactic mediatiors.
Macrophages plays a vital role in transition from inflammation to granulation phase by releasing cytokines. In fibroblastic phase fibroblast migrate into
the wound and produce new structural framework by deposition of type Р† and type Р†Р†Р† collagen. In maturation phase stimulatory and
angiogenetic factors decreases resulting in regression of hyperemia associated with early wound repair.
After injury Platelets adhere to the site of injury, then platelet gets activated and aggregated followed by activation of coagulation cascade and
formation of clot.28,29

Gingival Margin Case Study
In Table 4, BDR was compared across different studies. The six studies also reported the bone defect fill. Reduction in bone defect in experimental
group was reported between –2.50В±0.78 mm to 2.80В±0.89 mm and in control group from –0.09В±0.11 mm to1.24В±0.69 mm. The overall
difference of mean changes in two groups was significant with standardized mean difference of 1.789 [98% CI: 1.493, 2.084] and the corresponding
P–value of 0.0001. The parameter showed significant heterogeneity across studies with I2 of 98% and P–value < 0.0001. A forest plot representation
showing mean difference of parameter across studies.
GINGIVAL MARGIN LEVEL
The Gingival Margin Level is measured from the CEJ to the Gingival Margin.
9 articles were reviewed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Every effort to restore the health, function and esthetics of periodontium is taken.
The purpose of the present systematic review and meta–analysis is to clinically and radiographically evaluate the effectiveness of autologous PRF in
the treatment of IBD in patients with chronic periodontitis. Although, the efficacy of PRF has been tested elsewhere in the treatment of chronic
periodontitis and systematic reviews and meta– analysis have been published, to our knowledge this is the most recent update to the pool of literature
that included articles till 2016.
The studies included had a moderate risk of bias and no heterogeneity was observed in terms of quality, design, PRF preparation, surgical procedure,
outcome variables and post–operative follow– ups.
Plaque Index is unique among the most widely used indices for assessment of plaque because it ignores the coronal extent of plaque on the tooth
surface area and assesses only the thickness of plaque at the gingival area of the tooth and thus demonstrated good validity and reliability. The gingival
index and the modified sulcular bleeding index were designed to determine the severity of the diseased gingiva and thus establish the activity of the
periodontal lesion with the gingival bleeding. Plaque is considered the most important factor in the initiation, progression and severity of periodontal
infection and also a major contributor to the failure of

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