O Level notes

1. Geography of Food Copyright of Ang Ray Yan. All rights reserved.
1
Geography of Food Notes
Note:
1) Be prepared to memorize things in super short times
2) Skip examples if you do not have the time, it is only worth the
extra 3-8 marks compared to an A1.
3) Don’t panic, panic makes you blank out immediately
- A * for any point represents don’t learn if you no time.

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Contents:
- Format of answering page 2
- Types of farming systems page 3
- Consumption trends page 5
- Food supply (production and distribution) page 6
- Demographic transition model page 8
- Green Revolution page 9
- Blue revolution page 9
- Malthus vs. Boserup theory page 10
- Hi-tech farming page 11
- Organic farming page 12
- GM foods page 12
- Food diseases page 14
- World Food Crises page 15
Format of answering:
- Describe trends: Quote exact figures from the graph, 1 point ½
mark.
- Account/Explain… : 1 point ½ mark, try to score full
- LORMs:
 Read the question
 Highlight the 2 issues for elaboration (e.g. rich and poor)
 Discuss the pros and cons of each issue
 each pro/con should be a new paragraph
 touch on social, economic and environment
 give examples if possible* for each type of factor
 conclude that paragraph
 repeat the above for the remaining paragraphs

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Types of farming systems
Remarks: Just memorize to this part to the best of your ability.
The variety of farming types include:
- Arable farming: crops on flat lands with high soil quality.
- Pastoral farming: crops on land less favourable than arable farming.
Desertification occurs if there is overgrazing of an area.
- Mixed farming: the growing of crops and rearing of animals together.
- Subsistence farming: growing of crops/rearing of animals for self-
survival (family/local community), very vulnerable to food shortages.
- Commericial farming: single type of crop/animal on large profit making
scale, maximizing yield per hectare.
- Shifting and sedentary (settled) farming: Shifting cultivation practiced if
there is low demand for food and low population density, exhausting
poor soils after 3-4 years and moving to another area.
- intensive and extensive farming:
Intensive Extensive
Land size
(main factor)
Small Large
Capital Low High Low High
Yields per
hectare
Low High Low Low
Output per
farmer
Low High Low High
Labour High Low Low Limited / Low
Example Paddy rice
farming
Hi-tech
Farming
Shifting
cultivation
Oil palm
cultivation
IPO system (Input, process, Output)
Definition: What farming needs, the processes involved and the output.
Applied to all farming types regardless of scale and location.*

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Input:
Natural: Climate, soil, relief (land elevations and surface)
Man: Seeds, Labour, tools, fertilizers, pesticides.
Processes:
Plants: Ploughing, planting, applying fertilizers and harvesting
Animals: Rearing / Feeding of animals
Outputs:
Crops / Animals for own use, sales and the farm (seeds / young animals).
Case studies involved: Paddy rice farming * (the rest of the page)
Rice has specific growing requirements:
submerged in water (depth 2-3cm) and constantly high temperatures (> 21o
C)
Step by step (1-2-3) approach to paddy rice farming:
1) Preparation of land & seed: land is flat and surrounded by earth banks;
seeds soaked in water (depth 1-2cm) overnight and left to sprout.
2) Ploughing: Land prepared for rice, remove weeds.
3) Casting: Rice transferred to fields, usually by hand.
4) Resting: Rice left to grow in flooded field for 3-4 months.
5) Draining: At end of growth period, water is removed.
6) Harvest: When ground is dry & light brown, rice is harvested.
Examples:
Ganges: fertile soil, 1st
rice crop monsoon, 2nd
rice crop irrigation from water
stored during monsoon.
Thailand: mainly in poor, rural areas, single cropping season, low rice yields,
leading exporter of rice.

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Trends in food consumption
Remarks: Very simple, only 3 parts. 1) State the trend. 2) Account for it. 3) Impact? That’s all.
1) STATE the trend
- MEDCs
 Gradual shifts from staple foods (cereals) to non-staple foods
(meat, dairy products)
 Eating healthier food  less red meat + saturated fat meat, more
poultry and fish.
- LEDCs
 More variety in diets: Narrowing income gap compared to MEDCs
 Eating less starchy food and more non-staple food: cereals
replaced with meat, fish and vegetables.
2) ACCOUNT FOR the trend
- Economic factors (write at least 1 for LORMS)
 MEDCs stockpile food for bulk sales, food shortages and inflation.
 Subsidies help promote farming a certain type of food and
maintain affordable food prices.
 Fluctuations in food prices due to diseases, disasters and wars.
 MEDCs have greater purchasing power, thus importing and
stockpiling greater varieties of food.
 Farmers in LEDCs start growing non-staple food for profit, causing
a decline in food production.
- Technology
 MEDCs are self-sufficient, using advanced agricultural
technologies to increase yields.
 Well developed transport network help in food distribution.
 Storage helps preserves freshness of food.
- Social factors (write at least 1 for LORMS)
 Rise in population results in food deficit
 Insufficient labour due to rural-urban migration.
- Environmental factors (write at least 1 for LORMS)
 Different climates influence type of food grown.
 Landlocked regions eat less fish, which costs more as well.

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3) IMPACT OF the trend
- MEDCs
 Obesity  too much food high in sugar (processed), proteins
and fats, increasing rate of heart disease, stroke and diabetes.
 USA highest rate (32% total, 17% 2-19 years old) *
- LEDCs
 Poverty causes famine and deaths
 Due to malnutrition (Definition: condition when one
consumes less than the necessary amount to keep one
healthy), diseases like kwashiorkor, rickets occur.
Trends in food supply, production and distribution
Remarks: Memorize the only definition and ONE of EACH factor (except those with *), regret
it if you don’t. It is divided into 2 sections, definition and factors.
Definitions (actually only 1):
- “Globalization of food supply” means one can easily gain excess or
source for any food in any part of the world due to lower
transportation costs and advancement in technology and
communications. (e.g. convenience of supermarkets * )
The probably shortest 4m answer for such a typical question.
- Disadvantages to LEDCs: tariffs imposed on LEDCs to protect their
own industries, especially processed food. With agricultural
commodities always changing, MEDCs farmers with subsidies
compete with LEDCs farmers, reducing the LEDC farmers’ income.
TNC domination threatens small scale producers in LEDCs since they
can monopolize the whole production chain.

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Factors (high chance for LORM):
- Physical factors *
 Climate: type of crop and length of growing seasons
(temperature) and influences period of sowing, growing and
harvesting (rainfall).
 Relief: Flat land retains water and allows use of machines
while slopes provides well drained conditions for crops (e.g.
tea *)
 Soil: Fertility of soil determines productivity, influenced by
amount of humus. (e.g. Yangtze river in China and Ganges River
in India *)
- Economic factors
 Capital: For clearing land, buying seeds, fertilizers, machines,
building greenhouses and researching to improve productivity.
 Demand: Farmers grow crops with high demand. The ease of
transportation is considered.
- Political factors
 Government policies: provides incentives/subsidies, promoting
growth of a certain crops.
 Example: Jenka Triangle project  clearing of land to grow
cash crops like oil palm and rubber. *
- Social factors
 Land fragmentation: Farms are small and cultivated due to
inheritance law. Traditional farming method used by farmers
due to refusal of new ones.
 Land tenure: Tenant farmers do not have incentives to
maintain farms and only want profit. Land could be damaged.

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- Technological factors
 Green revolution: High yielding varieties (HYV) increase the
output for the particular crop and new management practices
introduced.
 Blue revolution: Use of biotechnology to increase productivity
in aquatic farming. Aquatic animals are reared in farms under
controlled conditions and not from the wild, increasing output.
 Irrigation (VERY IMPORTANT FACTOR)
 Refers to watering of crops through artificial rains,
especially during water shortages.
Advantages Disadvantages
Increase agricultural land If not drained properly, it
holds stagnant water,
breeding pests and
damaging crop growth
Ensure regular water supply
Computerized, less labour
Enable cultivation
throughout the year
Alluvium enriches the soil * Expensive to construct
Demographic transition model
Remarks: Not really that hard. Just know how the graph works can already. Brackets ()
represents factors involved for the BR/DR
Introduction: 5 stages, describing birth rates (BR), death rates (DR) and overall
population change. The stages are as follows:
1: High fluctuating  high fluctuating BR (birth control, religion, labour
needed) and DR (diseases, famine, poor hygiene)
2: Early expanding  High BR, falling DR (better medical care, hygiene & food)
3: Late expanding  Low DR, falling BR (family planning, women preferring to
work, increased industrialization reducing labour needed)
4: Low fluctuating  Low BR and DR, giving steady population
5: Natural decrease  BR drops below DR (aging population)

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Green revolution
Remarks: Extremely important, whether for LORMS, structured, whatever. Study!
Introduction: the Green revolution introduced High yielding varieties (HYV),
irrigation, machinery for replacing labour and chemical fertilizers/pesticides.
Advantages Disadvantages
World production of rice doubled Wastage due to inadequate storage
facilities and distribution to far places.
An extra rice crop a year as HYV seeds
require shorter growing seasons
Chemical fertilizers pollute water
supplies used by rural areas.
Farmers turn wealthier.( >1 hectare) Farmers become dependent on
imported input, which costs a lot.
Need for fertilizers created jobs. 1-2 types of HYV seeds mean outbreak
of pests/disease destroys all crops.
Irrigation consolidates fragmented
lands for large-scale production
benefitting the farmers.
Only rich farmers can adopt these
new farming techniques.
Widening income gap between the
rich and the poor.
Increased yields means surpluses to
increase the farmer’s income
Unemployment in rural areas might
increase due to machinery.
Examples: *
India  19% drop for malnutrition from 1970-2001 / wheat production
increased by 63 tonnes from 1968-2006 / 94% wheat and 65% rice is sown with
HYVs.
Philippines  33% drop for malnutrition from 1969-2003 / rice yield increased
by 1.38 tonnes from 1983-2006 / fertilizer usage increased by 800,000 tonnes
from 1965-2005 / 1.9 million hectare of rice is irrigated from 1965-2006.
Blue revolution
Remarks: Similar to green revolution, but might not be as familiar.
The blue revolution is the rapid expansion of commercial aquaculture
(Algaculture, pearl farming and aquatic animal farming). Most pearls sold are
from pearl aquaculture farms and seafood is an important protein source.

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Advantages Disadvantages
Generate export revenue for paying
foreign debts.
Chemical addictives like antibiotics
may contaminate surrounding waters.
Natural populations of fish can
reproduce while farm-raised ones are
meant for food.
If aquatic life escapes, they establish a
new habitat, degrading native species.
Economic value of fish is high, hence
there are potential benefits by
cultivating in large quantities.
Fish are grown closely, making them
more disease-prone.
Farm fish grow faster, have
antibiotics and are visually pleasing.
Capital is needed as it is expensive.
Contribute to growth of export-
orientated agribusinesses in LEDCs
Triggers red tides, an explosive growth
of toxic algae contaminating seafood.
Singapore aquaculture supports 5% out of 100,000 tonnes per year of
consumption, with Qian Hu excelling in ornamental fish and Swee Chioh
breeding 16 different breeds of food fish. *
Challenges faced include overfishing (depletion) and bycatch (i.e. catching
turtles instead of the intended fish/prawns).
Malthus vs. Boserup theory
Remarks: Know the theory, then compare, not that difficult right?
Malthus theory (pessimistic):
- Human population increases geometrically (i.e. exponential) and
food supplies can only grow arithmetically (i.e. 1,2,3…).
- The population would be controlled by diseases, famine or war.
- Failed in the end due to not taking into account the advancement of
agricultural technology.
Boserup theory (optimistic):
- Population pressure acts as incentives to invent new technology to
produce more food, thus there will be no problems.

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Hi-tech farming
Remarks: This section is basically memory work.
- Definition: an intensive system of farming applying modern science
and technology, producing high value and high quality crops.
Advantages Disadvantages
Higher yields (200 vs. 90 tonnes). Set-up and operations costs are
very high.
Nutrient solution makes it easier
to control plants.
Farmers need to learn the skills/
knowledge/technical know-how,
taking time and money to train.
No pollution due to controlled
environments.
Products are expensive, thus a
smaller consumer market.
Automated and computerized
farm operations save labour.
Diseases spread easily due to
sharing of nutrient solutions.
Healthier vegetables (protected
against pests with netting, no
weed problems *).
Limited plants can be grown due
to insufficient knowledge of
nutrient requirements.
Shorter Growth Periods
Intensive cultivation saves space.
R&D in agricultural technology
(for Knowledge Based Economy)
- Methods of cultivation:
 Sow 2-4 seeds in a precut sponge
 Germination of seeds in water-soaked sponges for 2-4 days in
the dark.
 Transfer seedlings to nursery for development young leaves
and root systems.
 2 weeks later, seedlings are transported to DRF greenhouse
until harvest.
 Roots are immersed in nutrient solution in the trough
(hydroponics) / Roots are suspended in the air for spraying of
nutrient solutions (Aeroponics). Requires 3-4 weeks.
 Computers used for monitoring and adjusting water, nutrient
solutions and ideal temperature.

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Organic Farming
Remarks: Not so common, but just in case it comes out.
- Characteristics:
 Self-sustaining, creates more energy than it consumes.
 Prohibits use of fertilizers. Instead, animal/green manure is
used with natural mineral fertilizers. Soil texture is improved,
retains moisture when dry, drains better when wet.
 Intensive farming , labour per unit area is high
 Crop rotation is used, together with ‘Leguminous’ crops which
add nitrogen to the soil.
 Healthier soil, contains more bacteria, humus and earthworms,
thus less likely to be exhausted or eroded.
 Animal rearing is free range and care is taken not to overstock
(too many animals grazing on a particular area of grass)
 Uses natural pest control, e.g. ladybirds eating aphids, thus no
chemicals affect others such as butterflies and bees.
 Inter-cropping (alternating lines of different crops) is used (e.g.
onions discourages carrot root fly)
 No nitrate runoff, thus no pollution of watercourses.
- Healthier crops produced due to absence of pesticides and more
nutrition, despite being more expensive.
- Marketing strategies include setting up bakeries, publishing recipes,
placing orders from the internet (Riverford Organic Farm), organizing
farm tours, limiting distance of transportation and getting small
investors to invest in return for free products. (Western Lawrenceton)
GM foods
Remarks: A common section on LORMS.
- Definition: crops plants created for human or animal consumption
using the latest molecular biology techniques.

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- Below are advantages and examples* if any (in bold):
Advantages Examples
Pest resistance  Pests destroy
crops, reducing food supply and
causing financial losses.
b.t. (Bacillus Thuringiensis)
corn  produces their own
pesticides.
Herbicide tolerance  mass
spraying of herbicide might harm
crops and environment.
GM Monsanto soybeans are
not affected by Roundup, one
of the herbicides.
Disease resistance  plant
biologists still researching.
Work in Progress by scientists.
Cold tolerance  unexpected frost
could destroy seedlings.
Used antifreeze gene of cold
water fish for plants such as
tobacco and potato
Drought / salinity tolerance 
farms forced to move to areas with
long periods of drought or soil with
high content.
N/A
Nutrition  reduces malnutrition,
esp. in developing countries.
Biofortified rice  rich in zinc,
iron and vitamin A
Pharmaceuticals  vaccines in
tomatoes/potatoes for developing
countries.
Work in Progress by scientists.
- Below are the disadvantages an examples* if any (in Bold):
Disadvantages Examples/Effects
Unintended harm to other
organisms, for instance natural
predators and its larvae.
Reduction in the population of
helpful organisms e.g. minute
pirate bug
Reduced effectiveness of
pesticides due to resistance.
Mosquitoes became resistant
against the now banned DDT.
Cross breeding due to pollination Organic foods become non-
organic, superweeds produced.
Allergenicity poses certain
health risks to consumers since
they are mostly unknown.
Brazil nuts incorporated into
soybeans abandoned due to
allergy concerns.
Costly crops and lengthy
processes
Poor people do not enjoy the
benefits, low profit for farmers.

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- Future challenges (other than disadvantages listed) include labeling
of GM foods in simple language as the detection rate is < 1%.
Food diseases
Remarks: A surprisingly common topic sometimes. Pure memory work.
- Cows have mad cow disease, a brain disorder earliest known in 1986
which causes cows to behave crazily, infecting humans upon
consumption. It is caused by feeding meat to cows as farmers are
poor, causing cows to lose weight, produce less milk, become more
aggressive/ anxious and inability to coordinate movement properly.
Preventions include surveillance and reducing intake of beef and
cattle over 3 months old (time to grow teeth and consume food).
- Fish have anisakiasis caused by nematode worms in the fish after
feeding on planktons. Raw/partially cooked fish might infect humans
as larvae and adults are not properly removed, resulting in severe
gastric/intestinal pain, vomiting and diarrhea. Fish should be cooked
for at least 5 minutes at 60 degree Celsius to be safe.
- Poultry has the avian influenza, the most common subtype being
H5N1, killing millions of poultry around the world. It is easily
transmitted to humans and can be lethal.
- Pigs have the swine influenza which is rarely transmitted to humans,
but airborne sneezes/coughs and direct body contact allows
transmission between pigs and intensive farming increase the risk of
transmission (overcrowding). Symptoms in pigs include fever,
sneezing, coughing, breathing difficulties, etc. Vaccines are no longer
as effective, and face masks and gloves are recommended for pig
farmers.
- Recent example* : H1N1 in 2009 due to intensive pig farming broke
out in Mexico, causing bans to be placed, causing he agriculture
industry to take a big hit.

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World Food Crises
Remarks: An uncommon topic with not much information at hand.
- Food crises include famine and price fluctuations of food.
- Causes of famine include political (Wars, Corruption), natural
disasters (Droughts, pests. E.g. locust, epidemics), population growth
(overpopulation), and the increasing amount of crops used or
biofuels.
- Causes of fluctuations in food prices include population growth,
declining food stockpiles, increase in petroleum prices, food for
biofuels, natural disasters, idled farmland and loss in soil productivity.
- Effects of famine and fluctuation in food prices include widespread
malnourishment, deaths and heightened mortality confined to
young children.
- Examples:
 (corruption) North Korea continues to face famine as of 2009
as the limited food is directed to the military and the
government. External sources (US food aids) will be available if
a satisfactory declaration of its nuclear program is given.
 A recent food price crisis increased the average world price for
rice by 217%, wheat by 136%, maize by 125% and soybeans by
107%.
- According to Amartya Sen (Nobel Prize in Economics), most famines
mainly result from inefficient distribution of food, often aggravated
by misinformation or lack of information.
- In Ethiopia, World Food Program was allowed to buy food locally
from surplus areas to distribute in areas with a shortage of food.
- UN's World Food Program, has begun distributing cash and vouchers
instead of food in some areas.