Top of Form Bottom of Form Strategies for Decision Making Problem Solving and Decision Making Components of a problem · Givens: pieces of information that are provided when the problem is presented · Goal: The desired end state – what a problem solution will hopefully accomplish · Operations: Actions that can be performed to approach or reach the goal Steps in Problem-Solving Process What is Groupthink? Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that may cause a failure of a group’s performance. This is a trap that any previously successful group may get in. The "groupthink" term was proposed by social psychologist Irving Janis (1972). It occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures lead to a deterioration of “mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment” (p. 9). The alternatives are ignored and irrational actions dehumanize other groups. A group is especially vulnerable to groupthink when its members are similar in background, when the group is insulated from outside opinions, and when there are no clear rules for decision making. Janis, Irving L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Janis, Irving L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Second Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Symptoms of Groupthink There are eight symptoms of groupthink: · Illusion of invulnerability –Creates excessive optimism that encourages taking extreme risks. · Collective rationalization – Members discount warnings and do not reconsider their assumptions. · Belief in inherent morality – Members believe in the rightness of their cause and therefore ignore the ethical or moral consequences of their decisions. · Stereotyped views of out-groups – Negative views of the “enemy” make effective responses to conflict seem unnecessary. · Direct pressure on dissenters – Members are under pressure not to express arguments against any of the group’s views. · Self-censorship – Doubts and deviations from the perceived group consensus are not expressed. · Illusion of unanimity – The majority view and judgments are assumed to be unanimous. · Self-appointed ‘mindguards’ – Members protect the group and the leader from information that is problematic or contradictory to the group’s cohesiveness, view, and/or decisions. Remedies for Groupthink Decision experts have determined that groupthink may be prevented by adopting some of the following measures: 1. The leader should assign the role of critical evaluator to each member 2. The leader should avoid stating preferences and expectations at the outset 3. Each member of the group should routinely discuss the group's deliberations with a trusted associate and report back to the group on the associate's reactions 4. One or more experts should be invited to each meeting on a staggered basis. The outside experts should be encouraged to challenge views of the members. 5. At least one articulate and knowledgeable member should be given the role of devi ...

1. Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Strategies for Decision Making
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Components of a problem
· Givens: pieces of information that are provided when the
problem is presented
· Goal: The desired end state – what a problem solution will
hopefully accomplish
· Operations: Actions that can be performed to approach or
reach the goal
Steps in Problem-Solving Process
What is Groupthink?
Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that may cause a
failure of a group’s performance. This is a trap that any
previously successful group may get in.
The "groupthink" term was proposed by social psychologist
Irving Janis (1972). It occurs when a group makes faulty
decisions because group pressures lead to a deterioration of
“mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment” (p. 9).
The alternatives are ignored and irrational actions dehumanize
other groups. A group is especially vulnerable to groupthink
when its members are similar in background, when the group is
insulated from outside opinions, and when there are no clear
rules for decision making.
Janis, Irving L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink. New York:
Houghton Mifflin.
Janis, Irving L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological Studies of
Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Second Edition. New York:
Houghton Mifflin. Symptoms of Groupthink
There are eight symptoms of groupthink:

2. · Illusion of invulnerability –Creates excessive optimism that
encourages taking extreme risks.
· Collective rationalization – Members discount warnings and
do not reconsider their assumptions.
· Belief in inherent morality – Members believe in the rightness
of their cause and therefore ignore the ethical or moral
consequences of their decisions.
· Stereotyped views of out-groups – Negative views of the
“enemy” make effective responses to conflict seem unnecessary.
· Direct pressure on dissenters – Members are under pressure
not to express arguments against any of the group’s views.
· Self-censorship – Doubts and deviations from the perceived
group consensus are not expressed.
· Illusion of unanimity – The majority view and judgments are
assumed to be unanimous.
· Self-appointed ‘mindguards’ – Members protect the group and
the leader from information that is problematic or contradictory
to the group’s cohesiveness, view, and/or decisions.
Remedies for Groupthink
Decision experts have determined that groupthink may be
prevented by adopting some of the following measures:
1. The leader should assign the role of critical evaluator to each
member
2. The leader should avoid stating preferences and expectations
at the outset
3. Each member of the group should routinely discuss the
group's deliberations with a trusted associate and report back to
the group on the associate's reactions
4. One or more experts should be invited to each meeting on a
staggered basis. The outside experts should be encouraged to
challenge views of the members.
5. At least one articulate and knowledgeable member should be
given the role of devil's advocate (to question assumptions and
plans)
6. The leader should make sure that a sizeable block of time is
set aside to survey warning signals from rivals; leader and

3. group construct alternative scenarios of rivals' intentions.
W5 reading – what is problem solving
Real education is about developing the ability and the knack for
solving problems, by thinking independently. At every step, life
poses us with problems. Some are well-defined enough and most
are complex by nature. Life is all about a quest to keep finding
solutions to these problems, fired at us in succession.
There are various approaches to solve a problem and people
have spent years in developing systems of thought, to which
problems may easily yield. Yet, there is always a new problem
around the corner that defies a solution to any kind of
established thought. Such problems pose a challenge, which
inspires newer ways of thinking.
What is Problem Solving?
A problem is anything that obstructs your path to achieve a
goal. Solving it is about devising a strategy and executing it to
achieve the goal, by overcoming the difficulty. A problem may
have more than one possible solutions. Many times, what is
needed is an optimized solution, which represents the shortest
path to overcome the difficulty, with economy of resources.
To find a solution, using specific techniques, what's most
important is defining the problem clearly. Many times, a
solution is not possible because the problem is not well-defined.
A clear statement of the problem at hand, can often point
towards an effective solution. What is needed, is also a clear
analysis of the degree of complexity of a problem. There are

4. various techniques, that deal with problems of varying levels of
difficulty and complexity. One needs to select one, that suits the
specific problem.
In my personal experience, problems have a nature to
proliferate. A solution to a problem, often creates new ones.
That is because we can never control all the variables in a
problem and find a totally optimal solution.
Solution
Techniques
Techniques in problem solving can probably be as many, as the
number of unique problems that exist. The domain of human
knowledge is ever expanding and so are tools and techniques
that exist. The recent revolution in information technology and
globalization has flooded us with information but we still starve
for wisdom.
What we need is clarity in thinking and a clear sense of
purpose. Here is a list of some of the best solution techniques.
These methods are generic strategies for problem solving, that
could be applied to solving any problem in business, personal
life, or any kind of technical problem. The success of a solution
also lies in its clinical execution. Even if you have a solution,

5. you need to have the gumption to execute it and stand by its
soundness, for it to work.
The Method of Trial and Error
The idea is to keep trying out solutions and improving on them,
by learning through mistakes. It is a kind of brute force method,
which does work, but can be time-consuming.
Method of Abstraction
This method of abstraction is modeling the problem by taking
the core details into consideration, while chiseling away the
unnecessary stuff. Then you solve the problem in an abstract
way, before handling it in reality.
Break and Conquer
The break and conquer method of solving problems works by
cutting the larger problem down, into smaller parts and then
attacking them separately. It is putting the jigsaw puzzle of a
solution together, by solving the problem partially.
Brainstorming
This technique is about synthesizing an optimum solution,
through discussion of a range of solutions that every member of
a team comes up with. Large teams often work this way, by
selecting a part of multiple solutions to make the best one.

6. Reductive Analysis
Reductive analysis is all about transforming an unknown
problem, for which solution doesn't exist, into a known problem
for which a solution exists. If you do not have a solution to a
problem, then you don't change the solution, but transform the
problem and restate it in such a way, that you can have a
solution.
Research Based Methods
Research based solution depends on the pre-existing library of
known solutions. From these known solutions, a new
customized solution can be constructed, which is suited for your
specific problem. You research available solutions and improve
on them.
Attacking the Root Cause
This one solves the problem by attacking the root cause, from
which the problem emanates. It is about solving the problem
deeply and entirely, by studying it thoroughly and identifying
its root causes. Once the root cause is negated, the problem no
longer remains.
Lateral Thinking
This is a technique, which employs unconventional, creative, or

7. 'out of the box' thinking. This is the method that geniuses often
employ, as they harness their unique powers of visualizing a
solution, from a radical perspective.
Personally, I find problem solving very addictive as an exercise.
With each solved problem, in any field of human endeavor, we
learn something new and keep sharpening our skills. Nobody
lands up with the perfect solution as perfection itself is a
limiting goal, as there is nothing in this world that cannot be
improved. A quest for excellence, clear thinking, a never-say-
die attitude, and an ability to learn through your mistakes, is
what will lead you to better solutions.
Read more at Buzzle:
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/techniques-of-problem-
solving.html
D AdachiHU260 Strategies for Decision Makingw5a
Top of Form
Applying the 21 Synectics Steps

8. The need for thinking and problem-solving skills dominates our
lives. Individuals must analyze problems in the workplace, at
school, as a parent, and in many other daily situations. You
have an opportunity to practice your problem-solving skills
through this assignment.
Assignment: Select one problem from the following list or
define your own problem.
1. Design a new textbook for a psychology class, science class,
etc.
2. Invent a new telephone.
3. Design a new suitcase.
4. Design new clothes for soldier/teacher/cook/student/etc.
5. Invent a new style for a video game.
6. Create a short story.
7. Design a new computer.
8. Invent a new way to protect computers from viruses.
9. Create a new type of credit card.
10. Work on solving a problem of your own choosing - a
problem that is related to your major field of study.
Requirements:
· Remember that you don’t need to create anything physically.
You may use images or just descriptions of your ideas.
· What is important for this assignment is your ability to
generate ideas.
· Number your ideas 1 through 21.

9. · Generate 21 ideas about solving it, using the 21 Synectics
steps listed below:
· Response should be at least 500 words
Note: The 21 Synectics steps were developed by
SynecticsWorld, inc.
Invention Labs & Workshops | Synecticsworld. (n.d.).
Synecticsworld. Retrieved May 23, 2012, from
http://synecticsworld.com/invention-labs-workshops/
Dee Adachi
HU260 Strategies for Decision Making
W5 Assignment
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