The history of argumentation, from Sophists to Cicero

1. Historical Argumentation:
Greek Beginnings
BY JARROD GILBREATH
COMM 104, FALL 2015

2. The Sophists
 Greece, being the first democratic society, developed the
first system of argumentation for their courts of law
 Those that specialized in argumentation were called
Sophists, and they taught students and lectured their craft
 It is debatable whether the Sophists held truth to be
important in their teachings or only valued success in
argument, but they all regarded skepticism as a superior
philosophy

3. The Dialectic Approach
 Plato studied under the Sophists, but his philosophy evolved into what became
known as the Dialectic Approach
 Plato’s style emphasized a discussion, or dialogue, that encouraged contradiction
and counter-arguments
 The ultimate goal of the dialogue was to reach a synthesis, which could be thesis,
antithesis, or a new position

4. Rhetorical Approach
 One of Plato’s students, Aristotle, developed his own argumentative philosophy
 This Rhetorical Approach was a process for discovering all of the available means
of “artistic” persuasion on any subject.
 This approach was comprised of the following aspects:
 1. Truth and justice may be guarded against falsehood and wrong
 2. Debate may be conducted on subjects in the absence of truth
 3. Both sides of a claim may be presented
 4. Proof to establish the probability of a position may be developed

5. Rhetorical Model of
Persuasion
Aristotle’s persuasion involved the use of three
elements of proof: Logos, Pathos, Ethos
These elements were considered critical to
successful artistic proof in an argument

6. Logos
• Logic and use of
reasoning to
support a subject
• Evokes a rational
response
Pathos
• Emotional
reasoning and
impact
• Appeals to
wishes, desires,
needs of the
audience
Ethos
• The character of
the arguer
• Gauges audience
trust of the
arguer, and how
the message will
be perceived

7. Cicero’s Contribution
 Cicero was an ancient Roman rhetorician who built upon earlier Greek methods
 He was very influential, and his work was used as the basis for all rhetoric training
for over a millennium after the fall of the Roman Empire
 Cicero’s primary contribution was the De Inventione, which established his five
Canons of Rhetoric

8. Cicero’s Five
Canons of Rhetoric
Invention
The attempt of an arguer to
determine what should be
said to an audience
Arrangement
The way an argument is
ordered and presented
Expression
Specific word choice and
tailoring of the message
Memory
Depth of knowledge of the
subject matter
Delivery
The way in which the arguer
conducts himself (tone,
gestures, etc.)