The National Institutes Of Health Consensus Statement (NIH)

The National Institutes Of Health Consensus Statement (NIH)
The National Institutes of Health Consensus Statement (NIH, 1993) previously discussed the
importance of implementing the two–stage, evoked otoacoustic emissions (EOAE) and auditory
brainstem response (ABR) universal newborn hearing screening (UNHS) protocol. Bess and
Paradise (1994) stated their objections towards the NIH study by presenting limitations, which
included the practicability, effectiveness, cost, and harm–benefit ratio. Although there was an
agreement between NIH and Bess and Paradise that early identification is important, Bess and
Paradise are cautious in supporting NIH launching the UNHS protocol. The first notable limitation
on the practicability of the NIH study takes into account hospital nurseries discharging within 24
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A Brief Note On The Deaf Culture And Hearing People
When a child or an adult who is deaf, there are many options one can take to fix their hearing if they
want to. They have the options of hearing aid, cochlear implants, an auditory brainstem implant, an
auditory midbrain implant, or use ASL. The cochlear implant is a very controversial topic between
the Deaf culture and hearing people. Deciding whether or not to receive the implant and be involved
in the Deaf culture is a very hard decision for someone to make because of the benefits but also the
complications that could happen after the surgery. My original opinion about the implant was neutral
because if I got asked what I would do if my child was born deaf, I would not know what to do
because I did not have enough information about the cochlear implant. However now, I feel that I
have learned more about the implant and think that an implant and still be exposed to Deaf culture is
the best way to go. So my original opinions I felt wishy washy about the topic. I understood both
sides of the argument, but I did not know what I would do. Getting the implant provides many
opportunities for the person, but then their deaf identity is not really in their life anymore because
the person needs to focus on speaking to learn English. So I did not know what I would do if I was
put in that situation. Throughout this class, I have gained more knowledge about the two sides and it
has helped me get a better understanding of what I would do if I had a child born profoundly deaf or
I

Neonatal Auditory System
Auditory development starts from 23 to 24 weeks of gestational age. At this time fetal auditory
threshold is approximately 65dB.Auditory system development continues during intrauterine life,
and the threshold is gradually diminished to that of an adult level(1). Some parts of neonatal
auditory system develop after birth shortly . persistence of appropriate sensory stimulants is
important for normal growth and development (2). Preterm newborns are susceptible to negative
effects of environmental stimuli due to immature central nervous system, and decreased autonomic
and self–regularity abilities of dealing with stress. They are unable to coordinate autonomic
responses to environmental and tactile stimulation until 32 to 34 weeks' postmenstrual age (PMA).
because of excessive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Excessive sound may affect the neuroendocrine system and may have indirect effect on
immunity(5). Stress from noise causing activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and
causes growth–inhibition through the action of corticosteroids possibly(8). Neonatologist should
monitor the sound in the NICU, and in incubators. A noise level 45 dB is recommended by the US
Environmental Protection Agency(9). NICU personnel should do simple instruction to reduce noise
in the nicu (no tapping no writing on the incubators tops and hoods, closing the incubator doors
carefully, wearing soft shoes).lowering sound level can be done also by earmuffs or earplugs. These
earmuffs, which are laid on infants' external ears, diminish the sound intensity to at least 7 dB and
the sound pressure level by over 50%, so that they do not block infants' necessary hearing
stimulation for nervous system development(4). If this simple strategies fail to reduce noise levels,
more technical strategies should be considered (incubator covers, use of equipment causing less

Pediatric Hearing Testing
Hearing Tests, Pediatric
WHAT IS A HEARING TEST?
A hearing test is a test to check for hearing loss in one or both ears. A hearing screening is a quick
and simple hearing test to see whether more in–depth tests are needed. If your child passes the
screening, this means he or she does not have hearing loss. If the results of the screening show that
there could be a problem, your child may need to see a hearing specialist (pediatric audiologist) for
more detailed testing and evaluation.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF HEARING TESTS?
There are several types of hearing tests. Hearing is measured in decibels (dB). Infants and babies
often screened with:
Otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) testing. This test uses an earphone to measure OAEs, which ... Show
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Many hearing tests are done in a room with special equipment. Some tests, such as speech testing,
are done in a noisy environment to see if your child can block out background noise.
For additional testing, your child may need to see a pediatric audiologist. The audiologist will:
Ask questions about your child's symptoms and medical history.
Check inside your child's ears with a lighted instrument (otoscope).
WHAT CAN AFFECT THE RESULTS OF THE TEST?
The results of a hearing test can be affected by:
A cold or an ear infection.
Earwax buildup.
Recent injury (trauma).
Recent noise exposure, such as listening to loud music with headphones.
Medical symptoms such as headache, memory problems, or fatigue.
Physical abnormalities (defects) in the ear.
Trouble cooperating or understanding the test instructions.
Noise in the testing environment.
Misreported test answers.
Faulty equipment.
Level of training of the test giver.
WHAT ARE SOME QUESTIONS TO ASK MY CHILD'S HEALTH CARE PROVIDER?

How will my child's testing be done?
What are the risks of the

Superior Temporal Gyrus Research Paper
It's hard to understand how people can say dance is easy when it's so complex to be thinking about
every single part of your body at the same time making sure it's in perfect position from one
movement to the next throughout a whole routine and even before that during the hour–long
practices for months. The body endures too much with bumps and bruises, stretching and soreness,
and pops and cracks but that's only the physical aspect of what a dancer has to go through. The mind
is worked and conditioned along the journey to improve what you see externally. The brain
undergoes critical thinking of the song playing, beats, timing, when and how to move certain body
parts until the end of every performance.
The Superior temporal Gyrus is responsible for processing sounds with the primary auditory cortex.
Some areas of the superior temporal gyrus are specialized for processing combination of frequencies
while other areas are specialized for processing changes in amplitude or frequency. This contributes
to hearing rhythm with steady beats and fluctuations in music which is just vibrating air molecules
connecting with the eardrum with different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thalamus tells whether the signals been received are any signs of danger by communicating with
the hippocampus. The hippocampus stores historical sound/danger associations while the thalamus
links to the amygdala to initiate an emotional response. The amygdala is an important part of the
limbic system. The limbic system in involved without emotions, feelings of pleasure, and memories
while the amygdala is specifically for the processing of emotions, memories, and motivation. For a
dancer to truly perform, they give off emotion based on the music. Whether the music is sad they
show it in their facial expressions and play out a character that is perceived by the

Response To Music
Goal: Help people cope with mental challenges via music and pianos
Total word count in this document:
Title:
Our emotional response to music is very individual. Not all 'happy' songs are universally perceived
as being uplifting or are guaranteed to put you in a good mood all the time. Neuroscientists have
found that music enters our nervous system through the auditory brainstem and also causes the
cerebellum to 'light up' on a brain scan. Music and mood are inherently linked. Scientists continue to
uncover how these influences occur at a neural level. Studies prove that the music we listen to
engages a wide range of neurobiological systems that affect our psychology.
Music and the nerve system
Music creates vibration in the body and this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The research strongly suggests that the neural connections made during musical training also prime
the brain for other aspects of human communication. An active engagement with musical sounds not
only enhances neuroplasticity, but also enables the nervous system to provide the stable scaffolding
of meaningful patterns so important to learning.
How it works
Music appears to be processed in the right hemisphere of the brain. The way we experience music
also affects our nervous system. There are different neurons that respond according to what kind of
music is playing. Music can effect hormones, encourage the production of cortisol, testosterone, and
oxytocin. Music can even trigger a release of endorphins. Beyond the biology and the actual
responses of your body, there are definite responses of the mind as well. There are different
components to music that can have an effect. Pitch, harmony, frequency, melody, and rhythm all
affect the brain in different ways. We know that some of the brain locations are involved in helping
to heal and soothe the body as well. The brain can be taught and stimulated to perform better – and it
seems that music is the perfect vehicle to do

Hearing Screenings
Without hearing screenings average diagnosis of permanent hearing loss is greater than 2 years old.
Late diagnosis of hearing loss has been one of the contributing factors of reduced language skills in
children (Durieux–Smith, Fitzpatrick, & Whittingham, 2008). Since the early 1980s, the Joint
Committee on Infant Hearing has published recommendations and multiple position statements
which support the use of newborn hearing screenings, to decrease the age of diagnosis of children
with permanent hearing loss. By 2000, there was a federal law to support universal newborn hearing
screenings (UNHS). The law also promoted early intervention for children with hearing loss, in
hopes to improve speech/language abilities for children with hearing loss ... Show more content on
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The study included children who received a diagnosis of a congenital or early–onset (before 6
months) permanent hearing loss that was not medically treatable (Durieux–Smith et al., 2008). Data
was collected from the groups of children who were identified with permanent hearing loss through
a targeted high–risk screening program, a universal newborn hearing–screening program, or through
a medical referral either with risk factors or without factors. Data on the onset of permanent hearing
loss, route to referral, etiology, age at diagnosis, and amplification fitting were all obtained from
their medical charts to determine the primary outcomes of language abilities with early
identification. Results from the study showed children screened at infancy were diagnosed earlier
than those referred with risk factors (Durieux–Smith et al., 2008). Children with risk factors, in turn,
were diagnosed earlier than referred without risk factors. Although, the age of diagnosis of referred
children was seen to improve over time, it remained significantly higher than children receiving
screenings. However, this trend of earlier diagnosis may reflect greater awareness of hearing loss.
Results from this study indicate UNHS leads therefore earlier diagnosis and to earlier amplification,
which then leads to earlier auditory stimulation (Durieux–Smith et al.,

Selective Attention Paper
Cherry, a British physiologist, has suggested the cocktail party effect for the first time about 60
years ago. It means that a person can attend to one speaker while ignoring others at the same time,
and that is happened just by selective attention[2]. In many studies, it has been showed that during
auditory selective attention, amplitude of some of the components of ERPs increase which causes
new waves such as Nd and N2 with longer latency. These findings represent the role of higher
processing in selecting the auditory stream. Hilyard in 1973 introduced an EEG–based auditory
selective attention protocol to investigate the brain`s electrophysiological activity during the
auditory attention. It has been demonstrated that N1 amplitude of the ... Show more content on
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FFR was used in a study to investigate the effects of selective attention on humans` primary auditory
cortex area and thalamus. Increased response was observed at the fundamental frequency in
comparison to that of the ignored vowel[5]. Few researchers study the effect of selective attention
on the brainstems responses. In 1993 Ario and .et al has investigated the effects of selective attention
on the click–ABR. He showed that selective attention modulates the response at the brainstem level
less than that of the cortical level[6]. For the first time, in 2008 it has been stated that auditory
selective attention causes activity in the inferior colliculus, which is in the brainstem. Auditory
selective attention intensely activates neural activity in human`s auditory cortex. On the contrary,
the role of the attention in subcortical auditory processing was not that much interesting. In this
study, fMRI was used to investigate the activity of the inferior colliculus (IC) during the auditory
selective attention procedure. Inferior colliculus lies in the auditory pathway with various internal
and external

Locked In Syndrome
Introduction: Locked–in syndrome (LIS) presents in a patient as someone who is conscious but
cannot move or communicate verbally. This is caused by the complete paralysis of almost all
voluntary muscles in the body except for the eyes. Total locked–in syndrome is similar to locked–in
syndrome except the eyes are paralyzed in addition to all other voluntary muscles. Although locked–
in syndrome is associated with quadriplegia and aphasia, some individuals who are afflicted are able
to communicate through a systematic movement of their eyes which are often unaffected by the
paralysis. With current advancements in medical technology as well as the patient's ability to
communicate oftentimes there is no loss of cognitive function in individuals who have this
syndrome.
Causes: Locked–in syndrome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Tests that may be performed to rule out other conditions include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
which can show potential damage to the pons as well as magnetic resonance angiography, which can
show whether or not there are blood clots in the arteries of the brainstem. In addition, these tests can
be used to determine if there is damage in other parts of the brain as well. Other tests that can be
used to diagnose this disease are: electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures the electrical
activity of the brain revealing the brain activity and sleep–wake cycles of patients and evoked
potentials, tests that measure the EEG signal in response to stimulation usually pain, auditory or
visual this gives physicians a look at the responses of the brainstem as well as the responses of the
brain. Additionally, electromyography, a test which records electrical activity in the voluntary
muscles and nerve conduction, a test which determines the ability of nerves to relay impulses to the
muscles are both tests which are used in the process of diagnosing this

Comparison Of ITD And ILD For Binaural Processing
(Grothe, Pecka & Mcalpine, 2010). The comparisons of ITD and ILD for binaural processing in the
auditory system begin at the superior olivary complex (SOC) where bushy cells in the CN target the
nuclei of the SOC (Stotler, 1953; Lindsey, 1975). The processing of monaural cues originate from
specialized cells in the AVCN and DCN to the lateral lemniscus, or directly to the inferior colliculus
(IC) on the contralateral side (Schwartz, 1992). The IC receives almost all ascending fibres as a
synaptic station and exhibits more complex response characteristics than the lower brainstem nuclei.
It appears that binaural processing and hence localization is completed at the level of the IC
although information on binaural processing mechanisms at ... Show more content on
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The results of the study suggested that the buildup of precedence effect relates to N1 refractoriness,
event related potential 'lead domination' and mismatch negativity differences.
Neuronal processing of spectral cues
The various types of DCN neurons appear specialized for processing spectral cues. Responses of
type IV neurons seem to be determined by neural circuits within the DCN (Oertel & Young, 2004)
and show small "islands" (lateral inhibition) at high–intensity stimulation. This inhibitory network
of type IV neurons may be a provision for the tuning of neural inputs from primary auditory nerve
fibers. Therefore, the neural network and inhibition in the DCN render these specialized neurons
sensitive to notches in the acoustic spectrum generated by the interaction of sound with the various
structures of the torso (Imig, Bibikov, Poirier, Samson, 2000; Young, Spirous, Rice, Voigt, 1992).
The main target of type IV neurons in the DCN is type O neurons in the IC. Type O neurons in the
IC exhibit an inhibitory receptive field with a small area of excitation at low stimulus intensities. IC
neurons show response to the frequency of a spectral notch with opposite characteristics to type IV
neurons in the DCN, showing considerable excitatory responses for a single notch frequency,
particularly at higher sound intensities, flanked by inhibitory regions

Primary Functions Of The Brain
The brain is an astonishing organ used in an everyday life, but do you know what each function of
the brain does? The myth about humans using only 10 percent of our brain has been around for
decades, but what the people don't know is that there is "no scientific evidence to suggest" that
theory (Chudler). We all know that the brain isn't just a simple organ. Billions and trillions of
connections or also known as synapses create those neurons that our brain consists of. The weight of
each and every brain weighs about "3 pounds" (Lewis). It consists of "two percent body weight"
(Lewis), and is larger in relation to body size than any other brain. Our brains are the "same
structure as mammal brains", and are both the "command center for the ... Show more content on
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It controls the behavior such as hunger, thirst, sleep and sexual response. It also "regulates body
temperature, blood pressure, emotions, and secretion of hormones" (Hines).
What lies beneath the cerebrum is called the cerebellum, which has an important function in motor
control. It has a role with coordination and balance. "The left brain involves speech and language as
the right brain involves visual and auditory" (Lewis). Everyone uses both halves of the brain at the
same time. "Both right and left brain are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that
delivers messages from one side to another" (Hines). "Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of
the body. Such as the left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about 92% of
people." (Hines).
Did you ever wonder where we get the intelligence, creativity, emotion and memory? Well it is all
governed by the brain. Our brain receives information through our five senses, and they are sight,
smell, touch, taste, and hearing. Another thing is that our brain controls everything. It controls
thoughts, memory, and speech, movement in the arms and legs, and the working functions of many

Central Auditory Processing Disorder
Except for outwardly appearances, speech may be the one of the most defining elements of a
person's identity, "psychologists generally consider language a prime manifestation of underlying
cognitive processes" (Solso, MacLin, & MacLin, 2008, p. 468). Just by listening over the phone, I
can tell whether a family member is feeling positive, in ill health, or worried about events in their
lives. Should vocal language be the only measure of underlying cognitive processes?
As a small child, it was frustrating to not be able to make the adults in my life understand me. Many
years later after development of the brainstem auditory evoked response test (BAER), a doctor who
it seemed was always on the cutting edge of his science and working with neurologists at the old
Lovelace Medical Center, tested my hearing using the BAER . For me, the results of this test were
life changing because for the first time in 28 years my not being able to understand much of the
conversation around me and consequently, my ability to communicate had a name–a diagnosis–
central auditory processing disorder–I heard at two different speeds and both were at a slower rate
than that of the general population.
The BAER measures latency in milliseconds or in layman terms, the BAER measures the length of
time it takes for sound to travel from the ear to the brain stem (Ness, 2009). An important benefit of
the BAER is that it can be easily used for diagnosis of auditory processes in infants and young

The Human Brain : The Nervous System Of The Human Body
There are eleven systems in the human body which one of them is known as the nervous system.
Like most systems in the human body, the nervous system is composed of organs such as the brain,
spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. The nervous system has been known to be the bodys primary
communication and control system.
The brain which is principally the main organ of the nervous system, is the center of all mental
activity. These activities include thought, learning, and memory. It is also the most complex and
delicate organ within the body. Within the brain are four major regions which are the brainstem,
cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum.
In an article about Human Brain: Facts, Functions and Anatomy it quotes that "The largest part of
the human brain is the cerebrum, which is divided into two hemispheres. Underneath lies the
brainstem, and behind that sits the cerebellum. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral
cortex, which consists of four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the
occipital lobe." It's been known that the cerebrum is the most developed part of the human brain.
The cerebrum, also known as the telencephalon, has several functions such as thinking, reasoning,
planning/organization, motor function, understanding language, and so on. The cerebrum obtains
this information and later sends it to a particular part of the cerebrum. This means that the cerebrum
interprets the information and decides what is the next

Activation-Synthesis Model Of Dreaming: Video Analysis
Starting off the video I found it quite fascinating that when Alan was asked to blink slowly 5 times
to test the equipment we could clearly see 5 large spikes in the second line of the graph. This seems
like quite the trivial matter considering it was just meant to test the connections from Alan to the
equipment; but it was cool to see such a strong response from the equipment for such a simple
movement. The video suggests that the most accurate theory for the explanation of where dreams
comes from is the theory proposed by J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley known as the
activation–synthesis model of dreaming. The video has a very simple and easy to understand
explanation of this theory. It states that "normal signals from our brains

Biology Reflection
Spinal Cord: one part of the central nervous system that allows the brain to communicate with the
rest of the body using neural fibers to connect to the peripheral nervous system (Myers 89).
Medulla: regulates the basic life–sustaining functions of the organism, like breathing and heartbeat,
and is located at the bottom of the brainstem (Myers 97). I chose the yoga symbol because
sometimes I like to do yoga to relax and just focus on my breathing.
Pons: sitting atop the medulla, this structure regulates the organism's mobility (Myers 97). I like to
hike and go on walks, which require my body to move.
Cerebellum: this structure converts sensory information into a physical response, aids in learning
new information and memorizing information without verbal information, and keeps the body stable
physically (Myers 98). All types of books provide me with new information that I can learn through
reading.
Reticular formation: a system of nerves that is vital in managing alertness and sleep and wake cycles
in the area between the thalamus and brainstem (Myers 98). I like to use alarms to remind myself
about assignments or tasks I have to do and when I have to wake up.
Thalamus: at the tip of the brainstem, this structure sends sensory information to its respective area
in the cortex of the brain and sends the cerebellum and medulla the response (Myers 97). When I
taste cheese, the sensory information is sent to the thalamus, and then since cheese is so good, my
body wants more.

Dr. Ruth Litovsky Cocktail Party Effect Summary
Dr. Ruth Litovsky conducts research in the Communication Sciences and Disorder department. Her
expertise is in binaural hearing and cochlear implants. It is amazing how our brains are able to focus
our auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out the "noise," a phenomenon known
as the cocktail party effect. When Dr. Litovsky gave statistics on hearing loss, I was shocked to learn
that 360 million people, or approximately 5.3% of the world population, suffer from disabling hear
loss. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that males experience hearing loss more commonly than
females, give the statistics.
The pinna is the outermost part of the ear, helping to collect sound and direct the sound waves to the
inner structures

Brainstem Essay
It is a far–field response that reflects stimulus–locked, synchronous neural firing from nuclei along
the brainstem.(45) The conventional click generated ABR is a robust response, producing five vertex
recorded positive peaks (Waves I–V) usually within 6 to 7 milliseconds after very brief duration (0.1
milliseconds), moderately high intensity click stimulation, at rates of roughly 8 to 24/sec. These
waves are the result of abrupt activation of auditory neurons from the cochlea to the inferior
colliculus. About 2,000 to 4,000 repetitions are averaged from each ear within a 10 to 15
milliseconds recording window representing one trial, and generally two superimposed trials are
necessary from each ear. Only Wave V is seen after less intense ... Show more content on
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(47) Generally click ABR is used for threshold estimation and assessment of neural intergrity. The
appearance of Wave V generally follows by about 10 to 20 dB the threshold to hear the respective
click. (47) The click evoked brainstem auditory evoked potential (BAEP)/brainstem auditory evoked
response (BAER)/auditory brainstem response (ABR) has well–established utility in neurology,
neurologic surgery, and otology since its introduction to clinical medicine in the 1970s.(51) Routine
click ABR interpretation consists of Waves I, III, and V absolute and interpeak interval (IPI)
determinations, and comparison with normative data. In neurologic practice, the cornerstone of click
ABR interpretation has been the IPIs representing central or brainstem conduction times, often
obviating confounding middle ear conductive delay or hearing problems which usually cause a
delayed Wave I. It's elicited by click stimuli delivered to each ear separately, thus it's sensitive to
brainstem lesions from tumors, trauma, hemorrhage, ischemia, demyelination, or metabolic insult.
(46) Waveform amplitudes perhaps more dependant on neuronal generators, are more variable
between individuals, susceptible to background noise and less reliable than latency conductions,
although absence of waves after Wave I or II has

Relationship Between Vasopressin And Taste Processing
Vasopressin and visual processing The association between Arginine vasopressin and visual
processing is one of the least studied regions when it comes to AVP and sensory integration links
although many visual inputs enter brain regions which are comprised of vasopressin receptors. One
of the few studies that research this link includes an exploration of visual opsin sequences in diverse
vertebrate animals. The researchers claimed that the visual opsins and AVP receptors are located
together in the same genomic region(130). For instance, in chickens, it was claimed that a visual
opsin was sharing a genomic region with AVT in the neurons. Nonetheless, even though the other
functions of opsins besides the visual ones are still unknown, a study performed in Japan
hypothesize that the pigments are permitting the neurons to react to light and contribute with
coordination of behavior (Bester et al. 2015). Vasopressin and Taste processing ... Show more
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There has been cases where AVP and gustatory responses were correlated. A study conducted in
japan illustrated that AVP modulate gustatory responses by controlling the activity of epithelial
sodium ion channels (ENaCs)(119). These are channels that are found in the organs of the
respiratory, urinary systems and that modulate salty and sour tastes. According to research done on
hamsters, AVP in the blood could increase sensitivity to salty or sour tastes as AVP increases sodium
ion currents in the epithelium channels which suggests that the threshold for stimulation of taste
cells is being

An Evaluation Of An Auditory Brainstem Response
An auditory brainstem response is an electrical potential generated from the changes in neural
activity when an acoustic stimulus is presented into the ear. Stimuli in the form of clicks, tonebursts
or chirps are transmitted through a transducer and measured using surface electrodes positioned on
the scalp. The elicited waveform response consists of 7 waves that occur within a period of 10ms
after the presented stimuli. Each waveform peak is labeled from I–VII where each wave corresponds
to a neural generator within the auditory pathway. Just like other auditory evoked potentials such as
the middle–latency response, the response depends relatively on the pathological factors, non–
pathological factors, acquisition parameters, stimulus parameters as well as the noise and
interference. Consequently, this has meant that a great deal of research has been conducted into
investigating these potential effects on the ABR, especially as it is commonly used in clinical
practice such as for evaluating retrocochlear pathology, detecting permanent childhood hearing loss
in newborn hearing screens and intraoperative monitoring during surgery. These findings usually
influence the test conditions used in protocols and guidance for clinical practice. Whilst previous
literature focus their experiments in order to find a significant difference in the ABR waveform, very
few studies explore what these parameters and factors have on the quality aspect of the recording.
This study will primarily

Deafness : What It Is?
What is deafness?
Deafness is very different to people's general perception of what it actually is. The most common
view is that it is a complete loss of hearing however deafness is defined as the lack or loss of the
ability to hear. You can either be born deaf or gradually lose the ability to hear later on in life
(Presbycusis). Pre natal or congenital causes of deafness may be due to a specific X chromosome
being passed on through generations of families even though there may be no previous history of
deafness in the family. Deafness at birth can also be caused by illness during pregnancy such as
herpes, rubella or even toxoplasmosis.
Causes of deafness include the birth of premature babies. This ... Show more content on
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Mixed hearing loss– This is when there is a combination of SNHL and conductive hearing loss so
the damage may occur in the outer/inner ear or the auditory nerve. As the source of the problem is
unknown, this is known as mixed hearing loss.
Facts about Deafness
With approximately ten million people who suffer from hearing loss, it makes up the second largest
disability in the UK. The majority being of retirement age or above.
Out of the 10 million people (approx.) only around two million people use hearing aids.
There are many different types of sign language for example, American Sign Language (ASL),
British Sign Language (BSL), International Sign (IS) and many more. All have subtle differences in
them.
Approximately 840 children are born deaf in both ears each year. 90% of deaf children are born to
hearing parents with little or no experience of deafness or knowledge of how to communicate with a
deaf person.
Most of the time tinnitus (the constant ringing sound in people heads) will accompany hearing loss
which makes the effect of deafness even more frustrating. The tinnitus can be mild or severe
depending on each person and their age.
By 2031, it is estimated that there will be 14.5 million people with hearing loss in the UK.
Approximately 360 million people

The Body 's Central Nervous System Essay
Research:
The Brain The brain is known as a spongy organ made up of nerve and supportive tissues. It is
located on top of the head and protected by the skull. Beneath, the brain is linked/connected to the
spinal cord whereby they're considered to be the major control network for the body's functions and
abilities to do work. Both the brain and spinal cord comprises the body's Central Nervous System
(CNS) and empowers conscious communication with the body and also helps perform vital
operations such as breathing, releasing hormones, and maintaining blood pressure. The Central
Nervous System (CNS) works along with the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). According to the
Canadian Cancer Society, "PNS is made up of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord to relay
messages from the brain to different parts of the body." In summary, both CNS and PNS enable a
person to talk, walk, and do lots of creative/physical activities. The brain collects and interprets
nerve signals from the entire body and also responds based on information being collected from the
person itself. There are so many complexity in which many parts of the brain controls how we
feel/emotional needs, our speech, movement, body temperature, self–awareness, and many more. In
depth, the brain is divided into several sections/groups. Sections include the Cerebrum, Cerebellum,
brainstem, and the diencephalon.
The cerebrum is considered to be the largest part of the brain. Split in two parts called the left and

Neural Prosthetics And Its Effects
The full function of our bodies is taken for granted by so many people in this day and age, and
arguably in every age. Only people still in the innocence of youth are often, the only ones who are
truly able to access the full intended function. As we get older we begin to lose a plethora of our
abilities; through old age, an injury, or whatever the case may be, we all slowly deteriorate. With
modern science we are now able to regain some of what we had lost or have never hard, through
neural prosthetics. In this essay, I will be dissecting and explaining what exactly neural prosthetics
are while delving into its past, its current present applications while making comparisons to other
similar technologies, and its future and potential ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only very recently have we been able to believe that it could be possible, let alone make any real
advancement in this field, long before type of research became a real academic field. The first neural
prosthesis developed was in 1957. That very first prosthesis was the cochlear implant; which is now
widely used today with hundreds of thousands of people currently fitted with it. This development
was the first of its kind and has since lead the way for other creations such as the internal pacemaker
in 1958, the first motor prosthesis in 1961, the first auditory brainstem implant in 1977, and the
peripheral nerve bridge implanted into the spinal cord of a rat in 1981.All of these are only a few of
the incredible advances made in quite a close amount of time. All of these advancements are
relatively new compared to the field of medicine, which has been practiced for centuries. These
breakthroughs lead to much more effort going into neural prosthetics, propelling even more progress
in this field to bleed out and help other disciplines such as brain computer interface and vice versa.
This has lead some patients that are paraplegics, being able to walk once again with the aid, and in
1988 an implant in the lumbar anterior root was developed to help promote standing in them. All
this has accumulated in FDA approving many more applications for aids now not only

A Study On Diabetes Mellitus
An Electrophysiological Study on Brainstem in Type–2 DM Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is a
generalized, chronic metabolic disorder manifesting itself, in its fully developed form, by
hyperglycemia, glycosuria, increased protein breakdown, ketosis and acidosis. If the disease is
prolonged, it is usually complicated by degenerative disease of the blood vessels, the retina, the
kidneys and the nervous system1. T2DM is the predominant form of diabetes worldwide,
accounting for 90% cases globally. Globally, the number of people with diabetes is expected to rise
from the current estimate of 285 million in 2010 to 438 million in 2030, both figures substantially
higher than even recent estimates.T2DM has become one of ... Show more content on
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Nonenzymatic glycisilation is the process by which glucose attaches to proteins without the action
of any enzymes. The initial products that form over hours to days is a Schiff base or an Amadori
product, during which the process is reversible4. Intracellular hyperglycemia activates the enzyme
aldose reductase. This increases the formation of sorbitol in cells, which in turn reduces cellular Na,
K ATPase. In addition, intracellular glucose can be converted to so – called Amadori products, and
these in turn can form advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs), which cross– link matrix
proteins. This damages blood vessels. The AGEs also interfere with leukocyte responses to
infection5. A minor hemoglobin derivative called HbA1C is produced by glycation, the covalent
binding of glucose to hemoglobin6. Glycosilated hemoglobin testing provides an index of average
blood glucose levels over the prior two to three months. It has been established that improved
glycemic control is associated with preventing or delaying the progression of micro vascular
complications in diabetes7.long– term blood glucose regulation can be followed by measurement of
glycosilated hemoglobin8. Glycated hemoglobin provides an accurate and objective measure of
glycemic control over a period of weeks to months. The rate of formation of HbA1C is directly
proportional to the ambient blood glucose concentration; a rise of 1% in HbA1c corresponds to an
approximate

A Child's Brain Is Critical To Brain Development
Studies have shown that the first three years of an individual's life is critical to brain development.
These three years are the most important. The brain shapes the basis for what is to come later on in
an individual's life. The child's brain is very fascinating. It is fabricated of diverse parts that control
feelings, judgement, language, memory, behavior, and motor skills. The brain has different areas that
are intersected circuits. This bases the mind to develop stronger or weaker depending on the
experiences of a child.
To start off with a child's brain, you have to know all the parts to it. Starting with the brainstem,
located at the top of the spinal cord near the neck, is the most significant part of the brain to
cultivate at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cerebellum is very important because it is the reason for learning whether it is a language or a
skill.
It gets its name from its location, the temporal lobe, controls hearing, smell, and verbal
understanding. This is where learning, memorizing, and demonstrative reactions take place. Out of
all five senses, hearing is the first to completely cultivate in a baby. This is why a baby cries when
born because of everything going on around him or her. Smell also develops early in your infant 's
life. Newborns react to smells on their first day also. Shockingly, a lot of a baby's progress occurs
long before he or she is even born.
The occipital lobe, also located near the back of the head controls vision and gives the capability to
comprehend what an individual is seeing. This may come as a surprise, but a baby's vision is the
least developed out of the five senses. They can only see up to fifteen inches away. Everything is
kind of one big blur to them. The most they can make up is movements of shapes. This is because
the neural pathways that communicate graphic material to the brain aren't fully developed yet.
Thankfully the occipital lobe makes it possible for pathways to develop, making the baby see a
assortment of objects. This is where practice makes perfect comes in. With the baby being around
new things by 8 months it will be able to see as well as

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons. This
system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all parts of the body.
The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the
external environment. This system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. Let 's take a look at the central nervous system.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the nervous system. It receives
information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous system. The two main organs of
the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and in front of theoccipital lobes. They
process sensory information such as temperature, pain,taste, and touch. In addition, the processing
includes information about numbers, attentiveness to the position of one 's body parts, the space
around one 's body, and one 's relationship to this space.
The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain. They process memory and auditory
(hearing) information and speech and language functions.
The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They receive and process visual information.
The cortex, also called gray matter, is the most external layer of the brain and predominantly
contains neuronal bodies (the part of the neurons where the DNA–containing cell nucleus is
located). The gray matter participates actively in the storage and processing of information. An
isolated clump of nerve cell bodies in the gray matter is termed a nucleus (to be differentiated from a
cell nucleus). The cells in the gray matter extend their projections, called axons, to other areas of the
brain.
Fibers that leave the cortex to conduct impulses toward other areas are termedefferent fibers, and
fibers that approach the cortex from other areas of the nervous system are termed afferent (nerves or
pathways). Fibers that go from the motor cortex to the brainstem (for example, the pons) or the
spinal

Neuroanatomy Assignment 3 Assignment
Rebecca Luther 12/10/14 Professor Datta Neuroanatomy Assignment #3 Part A The brain is a
complex organ, involving multiple processes and pathways. Laila is able to first guess, and then
confirm, that her friends have ordered pizza through a few different processes. The human nervous
system plays an essential part in receiving and interpreting all outside stimuli. It integrates
information from the outside world with information from inside the body. It initiates appropriate
responses to the environment, and includes all movements and behavioral actions. In the first part of
the story, Laila is walking over to her dorm. The beginning of the processes starts at the level of
neurons. A series of Laila's sensory nerves receive external stimuli ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The Extrapyramidal tract consists of tracts that descend directly into the spinal chord, and are
important for motor movement. This system is responsible for refining and regulating the motor
commands. This makes the processes of Laila's speech and walking more controlled and smooth. On
a side note from Laila's speech, there are subsystems within the Extrapyramidal tract. The first is the
Tectospinal tract, which is responsible for orienting the head/eye movements to sudden stimuli. This
allows Laila to turn her eyes and walk to her friends in response to the outside stimuli.
Vestibulospinal tract is located in the pons and medulla to the brainstem. It helps to control Laila's
balance in order to walk. The Reticulospinal tract plays an important part in controlling autonomic
functions. Rubrospinal tract is responsible for skeletal muscle control and is important in regulating
muscle tone for posture. The Pyramidal Tract is the second major pathway for motor planning and
execution for Laila's speech. This tract comes from pyramidal cells of the primary motor cortex and
controls voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles. Meaning, this system controls gross motor
movement instead of fine motor movement. This also has three subsystems within. The
corticonuclear tract contains fibers of the pyramidal tract that synapse with cranial nerves (III,

Conductive Hearing Loss In The US
Introduction In the United States, about 48 million people or 20 percent of the population is affected
by hearing loss (Hearing Loss Association of America). According to Cole and Flexer (2008),
"Hearing loss is the most common birth defect" (p. xi). Approximately 16,000 to 18,000 infants and
young children are diagnosed with hearing loss every year. (Cole & Flexer, 2008).
Hearing loss can be classified in three ways based on type: conductive, sensorineural, and mixed.
Conductive hearing loss is when sound is not transmitted from the outer ear to the middle ear in an
effective manner. Examples of a conductive hearing loss include: otitis media, perforation of the
tympanic membrane, impacted cerumen, benign growths, foreign objects, or a maldeveloped or
absent outer ear or middle ear structure. Most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It can be described as unilateral meaning only one ear is affected or bilateral meaning both ears are
affected. Hearing loss can also be classified as symmetrical or asymmetrical. Symmetrical means
that both ears are affected equally while asymmetrical means that the ears are unequal in their level
of hearing loss. Hearing loss can also be broken down into sudden and progressive onset. Hearing
loss can occur over a short period or it can worsen over time. Fluctuating hearing loss changes over
time, and stable hearing loss remains constant. Hearing loss is characterized by degree of severity
based on decibel loss (American Speech Hearing Association). Normal hearing has a decibel loss of
–10 to 15. Slight hearing loss has a decibel loss of 16 to 25. Mild hearing loss has a decibel loss of
26 to 40. Moderate hearing loss has a decibel loss of 41 to 55. Moderately severe hearing loss has a
decibel loss of 56 to 70. Severe hearing loss has a decibel loss of 71 to 90. Profound hearing loss has
a decibel loss of 90 or greater (Clark,

Anatomy Test with Answers
Page 429 #'s 1–7 1. List the three major parts of the brain and describe their locations. A. cerebrum–
constitutes about 83% of its volume and consists of a pair of half–globes called the cerebral
hemispheres. B. cerebellum– lies inferior to the cerebrum and occupies the posterior cranial fossa.
C. brainstem– that which remains of the brain if the cerebrum and cerebellum are removed. 2.
Gyrus– a wrinkle or fold in the cortex of the cerebrum or cerebellum.
Sulcus– a groove in the surface of an organ; as in the cerebrum, the heart, or a bone. 3. Name the
parts of the brainstem from caudal to rostral. Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, diencephalon 4.
Name the three meninges from superficial to deep. Dura mater, arachnoid mater, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Less efficient signal conduction and synaptic transmission
28. Describe the neuroanatomical and behavioral changes seen in Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases.
Alzheimer disease involves memory deficits, personality derangement, and loss of motor and
cognitive skills. At the structurl level, it shows neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in the
cerebral tissue, a loss of cholinergic neurons, and a low level of acetycholine in affected areas of the
brain. Parkinson disease results from degeneration of dopamine–releasing neurons of the midbrain
substantia nigra and is characterized by involuntary muscle contractions and progressive difficulty
in motor tasks such as walking and speech.
Page 477 #'s 5 and 6
5. Explain why the sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division even though its
paravertebral ganglia extend all the way from the cervical to the sacral region. The sympathetic
chain extends for the entire length of the vertebral column, from cervical to coccygeal, but it is
directly attached to the spinal cord only at levels T1 through L2.
6. Describe or diagram the structural relationships among the following; preganglionic fiber,
postganglionic fiber, ventral ramus, gray ramus, white ramus, and paravertebral ganglion.
Page 482 #'s 17 and 18
17. How do the pre– and postganglionic neurons of the ANS differ in embryonic origin?
Preganglionic neurons of the ANS develop from the neural

Auditory Processing Disorder Analysis
the temporal lobe for memory storage (White, n.d.). The temporal lobe then stores the information
until it is used again at a later time. In–fact the temporal lobe is a very important part of selective
auditory attention; it is the processing center for short–term and long–term memory (Paramapoonya,
n.d.). This part of the brain is a very important part of thought processing, which can ultimately help
us distinguish what to take in and what should be ignored (White, n.d.). During this process the
brain begins to understand how to sort out the relevant information, which is an amazing process.
There is a substantial amount of work that goes on in our minds and it is all done so in hopes of
keeping us on the right track. Now that we know how ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although, this disease affects most children, it can stay with this child through adulthood (Auditory
Processing Disorder, 2012). This disorder is characterized by the way it attacks the central nervous
system and lowers its ability to efficiently and effectively use auditory information (Paul, 2008).
Living with APD can be very hard; especially for children because they lack the ability to stay on
track with what their peers are saying, often causing ridicule. For someone fighting this disease
there maybe a difficulty when it comes to understanding what is being said, ultimately affecting the
person's short–term memory. Some of the symptoms of APD include difficulty concentrating,
difficulty understanding abstract information and trouble understanding jokes, riddles, or idioms
(Auditory Processing Disorder, 2012). The symptoms may make it a little easier to uncover if your
family member is suffering from this disease, but there are specialized test that can give definite
answers. Understanding how the test works and what goes on during the test can help those with
limited knowledge understand how their family member is affected by the disease. During the test
the person under review is given a series of sounds, each having a small difference like location,
timing, as well as order and pattern (Auditory Processing Disorder, 2012). They are asked to focus
on sound and

Essay On Marlee Matlin
Actress Marlee Matlin has been a long time advocate for deaf rights and deaf culture. At 18 months
old an illness permanently destroyed all her hearing in the right ear and 80% of the hearing in her
left, making her legally deaf. However, Marlee did not let this impairment stop her from pursuing a
professional acting career. In 1987, she received the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in
Children of a Lesser God, becoming the youngest winner of a lead acting award and the first deaf
individual to receive the honor. Since then, she has starred in several films and television shows, the
most recent being the television series Switched at Birth which features several deaf cast members
and a storyline that endorses deaf culture. She has also written two books that, "tell the world what it
was like being deaf" bringing more awareness to the impairment (Bio.com). Now, Marlee Matlin
serves as the celebrity spokesperson for the National Association of the Deaf (National Association
of the Deaf).
The patient's symptoms suggest a bilateral, symmetrical, severe degree of sensorineural hearing loss.
The initial sign of this hearing loss was the two ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because the loss is severe to profound and sensorineural, the child does qualify for a cochlear
implant or hearing (behind the ear or body aid). If the parents choose the implant, surgery should
happen immediately to begin the development of speaking and listening skills (312). Another option
for the parents is to raise the child in their current condition. Both parents have a family history of
deafness and communicate using sign language. Neither parent has an implant and may have an
aversion to it and could therefore communicate with the child using sign

Sensory Processing Disorders And The Central Nervous System
Auditory Processing Disorders, also known as Central Processing Disorders, are difficulties in the
processing of auditory information in the central nervous system. The definition for an Auditory
Processing Disorder is frequently changing and evolving. According to ASHA standards in 2005, a
"central processing disorder refers to difficulties in the perceptual processing of auditory
information in the central nervous system and the neurobiological activity that underlies the
processing and gives rise to the electrophysiological auditory potentials (ASHA 2005)." Recent
evidence has declared auditory processing disorders to be a legitimate clinical disorder resulting
from confirmation of the link between well–defined lesions of the central nervous system and
deficits on behavioral and electrophysiological central auditory measures (Musiek, F. Journal of
American Academy of Audiology). An individual is likely to perform normally in tests including
clicks and tones, rather than speech. There is a significant difference between the receptors for
audition and speech processing. It is imperative that these disorders are diagnosed and treated early
in a child's development to eliminate developmental negative consequences.
The physiology of hearing starts with a vibration that occurs in the air which sends an acoustic
signal to the ear drum. The signal is transduced into a mechanical signal that transmits through the
inner ear and the cochlear nerve. Finally, the signal is

Congenital Hypothyroidism
Congenital Hypothyroidism
Congenital hypothyroidism is caused due to the lack of adequate thyroid hormone at birth and can
lead to multiple flaws in bodily development including cochlear morphology. Synthesis of thyroid
hormone is mediated by many biological processes and as such there are many points of failure.
Proper development of the Cochlear function and morphology is dependant on the normal secretion
and reception of thyroid hormone through G–protein coupled receptors (Park and Chatterjee, 2005)
which are bound extracellularly and produce a second messenger to elicit gene activation (Lluka,
2015). Richter, C. et al. and Johnson, K.R. et al. experiment with the synthesis and activation of
thyroid hormone in animal models to accurately ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
et al. used two different thyroid hormone receptor knock–in mutations, TRβΔ337T/Δ337T and
TRβE457A/E457A, to test how triiodothyronine regulates cochlear development. They introduced
the mutations in the same way for both trial groups and followed the same procedure for mice
maintenance, surgery and cochlea tuning as well as using the same sound system of testing. Data
was collected for auditory brainstem responses by subtracting the value measured from an electrode
placed on the mastoid process from the ipsilateral electrode in the vertex, relative to the ground
electrode placed in the neck and measuring, through direct instructions, the morphology of the
cochlea. The researchers also measured compound action potential threshold in the cochlear by
using a modified tracking system and threshold was defined as the level needed for a 20–µV N1/P1
amplitude at each frequency. Results show that TRβΔ337T/Δ337T mutants had significant increases
in auditory brainstem responses, more than 60dB, and that TRβ E457A/E457A mutants had
moderate elevations of approximately 20dB. Also, TRβE457A/E457A mutants show an increase in
sound pressure required to raise compound action potential amplitude to the defined level and that
gross morphology was normal in both groups. The results suggest that disrupted triiodothyronine
leads to improper tectorial membrane development which allows for increased thresholds and
decreased action potentials of inner hair cell potassium channels.

Clarity Hearing Assessments: A Case Study
Queensland's Audiological and Hearing Aid Experts
From basic hearing loss treatment to implant technology and more, Clarity Hearing Solutions offer
comprehensive audiological services throughout Queensland.
Our services include:
Full diagnostic paediatric Audiological assessments (3 years and below)
Otoscopy, cerumen removal if present, full immittance measures including Acoustic Reflex testing
and Tympanometry, Otoacoustic emissions (OAE), Visual Reinforcement Observation Audiometry
(VROA), Auditory Brainstem Response audiometry (ABR) (if required)
Full audiometric diagnostic paediatric Audiological assessments (3 years and above)
Otoscopy, cerumen removal if present, air and bone conduction audiometry, speech audiometry, full
immittance ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Full comprehensive rehabilitative and hearing aid assessments
Including QuickSIN adult auditory processing tests (hearing ability in background noise test)
Semi–Permanent 24/7 Implantable hearing aids (Lyric)
Advanced, high–quality, invisible, digital, Bluetooth hearing aids from all manufacturers to suit each
individual's hearing needs and budget
Additional services and options
Free high quality advanced invisible digital hearing aids to eligible pensioners and DVA recipients
Including free Ultra–small BTEs, RICs, CICs, MCs, ITC with directional microphones and
Bluetooth compatible hearing aids (through the government Office of Hearing Services program)
Private Health Insurance rebates including high quality $0 No Gap range
ClarityFlex purchase free hearing treatment subscription plans
Unbundled (pay per consultation) and bundled (unlimited consultations over 1 year, 3 years or life)
payment options
Interest free repayment schemes
60 day money back satisfaction guarantee with every purchase
No obligation hearing aid trials
On the spot fittings for certain hearing aids
Remote access hearing aid adjustments done over the Internet
Foreign hearing aid adjustments
We are happy to adjust or fit any hearing aids whether they are ours or from another

Contralateral Theory
bushy cells in the CN converge onto single neurons in the medial superior olive (Kitzes, Kageyama,
Semple, & Kil, 1995; Lindsey, 1975; Osen, (1969); Smith, Joris & Yin, 1969). The convergence of
excitatory neural action potential from the ipsilateral CN and inhibitory inputs from the contralateral
CN simulates a simple subtraction mechanism, which produces the ILD of lateral superior olive
neurons (Boudreau & Tsuchitani, 1968; Caird & Klinke, 1983; Guinan, Guinan, Norris, 1972).
Specifically, this organization works in such a way that neurons ipsilateral to an intense sound
source are highly excited while the contralateral neurons to the same sound source are highly
inhibited (Yin, 2002). Also, increasing evidence suggests low–frequency ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Also, Grothe et al. (2010) purported that ITD sensitivity in the neurons is not generated by a pure
time delay mechanism but that additionally, a form of phase delay is present, which is not explained
with simple, "EE" and "EI" inputs as suggested by Jeffress model. Localization Models Sound
localization models simulate the human auditory system to estimate the processing of spatial
information. For example, the Jeffress model uses delay lines and coincidence cells to mimic the
processing of ITDs in the brainstem. According to this model, two separate delay lines exist for each
ear that run parallel (axonal delay paths). The signals travelling along both delay lines meet at a
coincidence cell, which then sends a signal to the next stage. If a sound signal is impinging from a
sideways direction, the signal arrives ﬁrst at the ipsilateral side due to path–length differences from
the sound source to each of the two ears. The signal at the ipsilateral side enters the delay line ﬁrst
and has more time to travel before it meets the signal from the contralateral ear. Consequently, both
signals will evoke a laterally displaced coincidence cell. A number of studies have demonstrated
characteristic delay in medial superior olive neurons

Differences Between SCM-And Control Trials
Our meta–analysis revealed that premotor reaction times are indeed faster in SCM+ than in SCM–
trials. The estimated magnitude of this effect across the studies may be long enough to entertain the
possibility that motor programs are triggered via a pathway that bypasses some cortical areas of the
brain [1, 23], but not fast enough to completely rule out cortical involvement [11]. Although, the
meta–analysis showed that the effect associated with SCM activity is robust across studies, the
heterogeneity test approached significance and depended on the correlation coefficient chosen for
the studies for which data was not available: an increase in the correlation coefficient from 0.5 to
0.56 resulted in a statistically significant ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[25, 26]). In contrast, although premotor RTs in response to loud acoustic stimuli (>114 dBa) are
somewhat heterogeneous, differences in premotor RT as a function of foreperiod variability are
clearly mitigated, showing similar average estimates and overlapping confidence intervals for the
subgroups (see Figure 4). Why are responses initiated earlier when SCM activity is detected?
Maslovat et al. [10] proposed that the detection of SCM activity indicates that a more direct neural
circuit, common with the startle reflex, was responsible for involuntarily triggering the prepared
response. Thus, when responses occur without SCM activity (SCM–), the longer typical neural
circuit – involving the auditory cortex – would trigger the motor response. This model would
explain why responses are faster when SCM activity is observed. Interestingly, the StartReact effect
can still be observed when the startle reflex is abolished due to the presentation of a less intense
stimulus before the go–signal (pre–pulse inhibition or PPI)[16]. This is counterintuitive because it
suggests that the more direct neural circuit is still activated when the transient activation of the
midbrain nuclei by PPI stimulus exerts long–lasting inhibition of the giant neurons of the caudal
pontine reticular nucleus [34]. Alternatively, we have suggested that the apparent correlation
between SCM activity and premotor RT could be a result of variations in the build–up of

Skeletal Muscle Movement Case Study
Part l – Rise and shine?
1) What components of the nervous system are involved in physical sensation? How does sensory
impulse move throughout the body?
Pertaining to the peripheral nervous system, it is found the sensory division of it. The neurons that
form this division, also called afferent neuron, transmit electrical impulses from several receptors
located throughout the body to the central nervous system in order to further analyze and process the
stimuli.
2) What components of the nervous system are involved in skeletal muscle movement? How does
motor impulse move throughout the body? What is a motor unit?
The other division of the peripheral nervous system, the motor or efferent, is involved in skeletal
muscle movement. In particular, the somatic motor ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Part ll – Diagnosis and treatment.
7) What is myelin and how does it affect the transmission of nerve impulses? Identify the cells
responsible for formation of myelin.
Myelin is an isolating covering consisting in repeating layer around the axon. It is high in lipids and
low in proteins, thus its white color and isolating power. Because many axons are myelinated,
electric impulse is able to undergo salutatory movement which accelerates its transmission.
Myelination is completed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and neurolemmocytes in the PNS.
8) What are the scleroses in Multiple Sclerosis and where do they occur? How does this influence
nerve transmission?
Scleroses are scarring at myelinated sites caused by multiple inflammatory events as a consequence
of one's immune system cells attacking oligodendrocytes. If this fate continues long enough, loss of
function can occur due to disruption of electric impulse through axons.
9) How do an MRI and spinal tap help confirm the diagnosis of Multiple

Temporal Processing Paper
Temporal processing relates to the incorporation and integration of diverse acoustic signals over
time. The auditory system works to address the spectral and temporal modulations of speech,
identification of sound location, speech in noise, and other environmental and auditory stimuli.
Temporal processing consists of the ability to sequence, discriminate, integrate, and mask incoming
auditory signals (Shinn, 2003). The auditory system recognizes the location and discrimination of
sounds through communication of neurons in the central ascending auditory pathway. Phase–locking
with varying frequency cutoffs based on test subjects affects this coding of signal (Paolini,
FitzGerald, Burkitt, & Clark, 2001). Neurons must fire fast and precise in order to detect the brief
time differences between stimuli. With the help of potassium channels at both presynaptic and
postsynaptic action potential (AP) locations, these neurons remain constantly ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
With the activation of the Kv3.1 potassium channel, these neurons phase–locked precisely to
acoustic stimuli presented up to 2000 to 4000 Hz (Song and Kaczmarek, 2006). Regulation of
certain potassium channels, both increasing and decreasing the influx of potassium, relied on the
process of sound–activated phosphorylation and sound–activated dephosphorylation after the onset
of loud noises (Steinert et al., 2008). Stimulation of Kv3.1a and Kv3.1b channels expressed in the
globular bushy cells of the AVCN and principle neurons of MNTB strongly depended on the process
of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Research focused on the process of activation with the
Kv3.1b channel in adult cells, as the shorter Kv3.1a expressed greater quantities in embryonic cells
(Kaczmarek et al., 2005). Through this process, the influx of potassium affected the activation of
neurons in the ascending auditory

Ssd Case Studies
Iliadou et al. (2015) analyzed three cases of Pediatric Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) to determine if
a hearing loss or auditory processing deficit played a part in the delayed progress that was being
made in speech therapy. Each child completed an otoscopy, pure–tone air conduction evaluation,
tympanometry, otoacoustic emissions (OAEs), auditory brainstem responses (ABR), and a variety of
word recognition assessments (e.g. dichotic listening, sequencing, other central auditory processing
disorder assessments). Case one was an 8–year–old boy who had a diagnosis of SSD and presented
little to no progress in therapy (Iliadou et al., 2015). The mother of the child had no concerns
regarding her child's hearing, although several scenarios began ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
After a complete audiologic evaluation, the child was diagnosed with auditory neuropathy spectrum
disorder (ANSD) and central auditory processing disorder (CAPD; Iliadou et al., 2015). Case two
was an 8–year, 10–month–old girl who was diagnosed with SSD after receiving speech therapy for
two consecutive months and obtaining slow progress (despite what the mother felt). After
completing a diagnostic hearing evaluation, the girl presented with a slight–to–mild hearing loss
bilaterally, impaired cochlear involvement, and CAPD (Iliadou et al., 2015). The final case analyzed
was a 4–year, 5–month–old girl who was receiving speech therapy for SSD and was not making the
expected gains after four months of therapy. The parents reported their daughter did not speak in
sentences until she was 3–years–old, but had an otherwise unremarkable medical history. The
audiologic evaluation determined she had CAPD (although the actual diagnosis is not given to
children until after the age of 7 years), cochlear dysfunction, and middle ear dysfunction (even after
bilateral pressure equalizing [PE] tubes were inserted; Iliadou et al., 2015). While the definition of
SSD describes the absence of acquired disorders (such as hearing losses, CAPD,

Auditory Dysfunction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) comprises a continuum of neurodevelopmental disorders clinically
characterized by social difficulties, impaired communication skills and repetitive behavioral
patterns. Despite the prevalence of ASD, the neurobiology of this disorder is poorly understood.
However, abnormalities in neuronal morphology, cell number and connectivity have been described
throughout the autistic brain. Further, there is ample evidence that auditory dysfunction is a common
feature of ASD.(1) The majority of individuals with ASD demonstrate some degree of auditory
dysfunction. The level and expression of this dysfunction ranges from deafness and increased
thresholds to hyperacusis and difficulty listening with background noise and impairments ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the real–world listening situations, auditory information is processed by two ears, often in the
presence of background noise.(4) Binaural interaction is reflected in electrophysiological activity of
neurons activated by binaural stimulation central to the cochlear nucleus. Binaural interaction is
known to occur at three levels of the brainstem: superior olivary complex (SOC), lateral lemniscus
and inferior colliculus (IC).(5) Binaural interaction component (BIC) manifests binaural interaction
and is valid and proven response which reflects ongoing binaural processing. A BIC in ABR is
defined as the difference between the binaurally evoked ABR waveform and a predicted binaural
waveform created by algebraically summing the left and right monaurally evoked ABRs at
amplitude of waves IV–V.(6, 7) There is a significant correlation between the amplitude of the BIC
and the ability to lateralize a sound image as a function of interaural time differences (ITDs) and
interaural level differences (ILDs). In addition to the dependence of BIC amplitude on stimulus
lateralization, BIC presence is also an indicator of binaural stimulus fusion. Together, this suggests
that the BIC reflects the spatial processing of sound in the horizontal plane in the

The National Institutes Of Health Consensus Statement (NIH)

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The National Institutes Of Health Consensus Statement (NIH)