Pavlovian ApplicationsChapter 4FearTh.docx

Pavlovian Applications
Chapter 4
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Fear
The first person to study human emotions systematically was
John B. Watson:
Fear as faulty reasoning or instinctual reaction
Fear and other emotions elicited by few stimuli
Conditioned emotional responses and Pavlovian conditioning
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Because classical conditioning involves simple reflexive
behavior, people dismiss it as unimportant or as historical
interest. However, Pavlovian research has contributed
immensely to the understanding of many human problems. This
chapter will introduce the class to the application of classical
conditioning in “reality.”
Fear – The first person to study human emotions systematically
was John B. Watson. Before Watson, if was assumed that fear
was caused by faulty reasoning or an instinctual reaction, such
as being innately afraid of fire. Watson found that few stimuli
aroused fear or other strong emotional reactions.

However, when objects were paired with emotionally arousing
situations, emotional responses were easily invoked. This
suggests that emotional responses are learned through Pavlovian
conditioning. Watson called these emotional responses
conditioned emotional responses. We now know that emotional
reactions are learned using Pavlovian conditioning. Watson
discovered this and his work has vastly improved our
understanding and treatment of emotional disorders, particularly
phobias.
Phobias
A phobia is a persistent, irrational, and disruptive fears of a
specific object, activity, or situation. It is neither justified nor
based in reality.
One of the most common behavior problem is phobia.
Out of 1000 people surveyed, 198 were afraid of the dentist and
390 were afraid of snakes.
People who experience phobia are aware that the fear is
irrational and want to overcome the problem.
Rats, fear, and conditioned suppression.
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Conditioned Suppression – Reduction of the rate of an ongoing
behavior due to exposure to an aversive CS. This is a
convenient way to measure fear: the greater the reduction in a
CR, the more there is evidence of fear. This is a way to define
and measure fear objectively and systematically. For example,
if a rat presses a lever at a steady rate for food and then a light
is conditioned to signal oncoming shock, the mere presence of
the light reduces lever pressing. The faster the reduction, likely
the higher the fear in the rat.

Conditioned Fear and Albert
Watson and Rayner (1920) began studying fear by testing infant
reactions to specific stimuli thought to be innately fear
provoking:
Potentially innately fearful stimuli did not elicit fear.
Loud noises were an effective US for fear responses.
Watson and Rayner (1920) decided to use Pavlovian
conditioning to establish fear in 11 month-old Albert.
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Stimuli included cats, dogs, fire, etc.
This suggests that, to survive, fear reactions must be learned,
and likely are not genetically encoded. A good, unable to be
answered, question is if fear is not genetic and is learned, are
parents genetically programmed to classically condition fear in
their offspring? The chicken or the egg?
Conditioned Fear and Albert
Albert was a well-adjusted baby who rarely cried and was not
fearful of anything in particular.
When a steel bar was struck by a hammer behind Albert, he
would jump (US-UR).
Albert was shown a white lab rat followed by the loud noise.
This led to a fear response (Neutral-US-UR).
Albert was classically conditioned to fear the rat and cried when
the rat was presented (CS-CR).
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Albert learned through Pavlovian conditioning to fear white

rats.
Other examples of classically conditioned fear include the
following:
Ohman (1976) had college students look at pictures of snakes
until evidence using GSR suggested no emotional reaction to
the pictures. When the same pictures were paired with a shock
to the hand, a fear reaction was then invoked. Finally when the
pictures were represented, emotional reactions were elicited,
suggesting that fear can be conditioned.
Because dentist visits can be painful, the sound of the drill
alone can be a CS for fear, even though the sound of a drill
might not otherwise invoke a fear response.
Peter and Pavlovian Treatment
Mary Cover Jones (1924) was the first to show that Pavlovian
conditioning procedures can be used to treat fears as well as
acquire them.
A a 3 year-old named Peter was fearful of rabbits. The fear was
not laboratory based.
Jones (1924) used counterconditioning to eliminate Peter’s fear.
Virtual reality technology has been used for
counterconditioning a variety of fears.
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Laboratory-based means that the fear was instilled not in a lab
but at the child’s home or general home surrounding.
Jones (1924) used used counterconditioning to eliminate Peter’s
fear of rabbits by brining the rabbit into Peter’s distant view

while he ate snacks. The CS for fear, the rabbit, was paired with
a positive US, snacks. Jones brought the rabbit closer and closer
over time until Peter could have the rabbit on his lap and pat it
while he ate his snacks.
Systematic Desensitization – Another form of
counterconditioning. Wople (1973) presented subjects with the
least threatening form of their phobia., such as by asking
subjects to imagine the frightening stimulus. He progressed
through stages of stimulus presentation until subjects could
confront the stimulus directly.
Virtual Reality and Fears – Rothbaum (1995) conducted the first
experiment using virtual reality to treat a behavioral disorder.
People with a fear of heights wore a helmet that presented
computer-simulated scenes including balconies and elevators at
heights. Heights were increased gradually until there was a
marked physiological reduction in of fear. This same procedure
has been applied to flying fears, but was found to be no more
effective than traditional treatments for fear of flying. Other
fears treated using virtual reality include fear of spiders, public
speaking, etc.
Overall, virtual reality techniques are no different from other
forms of treatment of fears, with the exception of the use of
technology.
Prejudice
To be prejudiced is to judge without knowing relevant facts and
often is used to refer to negative views of a person or group.
Prejudice is hate, a conditioned emotional response identified
by Watson.
According to Staats and Staats (1958), hate and fear both are
learned behaviors.

It is reasonable to assume that prejudice directed toward ethnic,
religious, and racial groups is learned through conditioning
(Staats & Staats, 1958).
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Staats and Staats (1958) – Neutral words were paired with
words that were a CS for a positive or negative conditioned
emotional response. In one study, ethnic words including
German, Italian, and French were flashed on a screen.
Simultaneously, subjects repeated words spoken by the
experimenter. Words were either unemotional, such as chair, or
emotional, such as sacred/happy or bitter/ugly. In one study, the
word Dutch was paired with positive, whereas Swedish with
negative words for one group and the reverse for another group.
Subjects provided ratings of the words associated with
nationality. Ratings were congruent with the nature of the
emotional words associated with the nationality.
Following the 911 event, the word Arab became associated with
negative words such as terrorist, coward, etc., and assaults
against Arabs increased following 911.
These studies suggests that prejudices may be a product of
conditioning.
Prejudice
If people feel hatred due to lack of facts, would presenting the
facts eliminate prejudice?
If prejudice is due to classical conditioning rather than
ignorance, can prejudice be destroyed through simple
presentation of facts?
Can simple pairing using conditioning eliminate hate if it is
based on a lifetime of conditioning?

Can we counter train hate with love training?
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Love Training – Rather than have words like terrorism be
associated with Arabs, pair words such as religious, peace-
loving, charitable, etc. with Arabs. This strategy is similar to
counterconditioning.
How long would love training have to span to kill hatred?
This question is difficult to answer.
Advertising
Advertisers are extremely interested in how objects elicit
positive emotional responses.
Advertisements consistently pair products with stimuli that will
elicit positive emotions (i.e. Budweiser and beautiful party
animals).
Furthermore, ads consistently pair competing products with
negative stimuli.
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Discussion Points for Class:
Why would this be the case?
Describe the beer commercials. Also describe the alternative to
a wicked time (alcoholism, rape, etc.).
An example of a negative pairing would be showing that unlike
other bags, Glad bags to dot break.
Advertising
Based on the millions of dollars spent on advertising, do they

lead us to like certain products and dislike competing products?
Is music from GREASE better than Indian music? Gorn (1982)
Should Colgate amalgamate with Brand L? (Stuart et al.,
1987)
Ads are so effective that companies will spend tons of money to
avoid their product being paired with stimuli that elicit negative
emotions.
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Pen experiment by Gorn (1982) – College students listened to a
song from the movie GREASE or a classical Indian song with
which they were unfamiliar. While listening to the music, they
were presented a picture of a beige or blue pen. At the end of
the experiment, students were allowed to keep a pen. Those who
listened to the familiar music were more likely to select the pen
given to them during the presentation of the music. The
unfamiliar music group picked the pen color opposite to the one
given to them while they were presented the unfamiliar music.
Describe the Stuart et al. (1987) – Students were shown pictures
of fictitious products such as candy and toothpaste as well as
slides that were neutral (license plate or radar dish) and slides
that aroused positive feelings (waterfall). In the conditioning
group, Brand L toothpaste was repeatedly paired with positive
feeling slides, but no special pairings were made for the control
group. Students in the treatment group rated the toothpaste
increasingly more favorably than the control group as the
number of positive pairings between the slides and the
toothpaste increased.
TV ads followed by negative images, such as torture on the
news, have been pulled because of negative associations
between the ad and what preceded the ad on the news.
Pairing products with positive stimuli occurred long before even

Pavlov. LISTERINE, medicine for Gonorrhea, was named as
such to associate it with a famous doctor at the time named
Joseph Lister.
The Paraphilias
Freud suggested that we are “polymorphous perverse,” whereby
we can achieve sexual pleasure in a variety of ways.
Voyeurism, exhibitionism, fetishism, transvestitism, sadism,
pedophilia, rape, and masochism.
The paraphilias are more common than expected, and are
unlikely to affect women.
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Paraphilias
To achieve sexual pleasure in ways that are considered perverse
or unnatural. What is considered perverse depends on society’s
definition of perverse at the time. What are considered perverse
are known as the paraphilias. Below are common paraphillias:
Voyeurism – Viewing a person who is nude, partially clothed,
or engaging in sexual activity without their knowledge
Exhibitionism – Displaying one’s genitals to another without
that person’s consent
Fetishism – Attraction to certain objects or body parts
Transvestitism – Wearing clothes of the opposite sex (cross-
dressing)
Sadism – Inflicting pain on a sexual partner
Masochism – Being humiliated or hurt by a sexual partner

Pedophilia – Sexual activity with a prepubescent child
Rape – Intercourse without consent
Paraphilias are more common than expected, and are unlikely to
affect women. Studies have found that 1/5 of college students
have expressed sexual attraction toward minors. In another
study, 5% of undergraduate males reported that they forced
someone to engage in sexual intercourse. Throw out some
numbers regarding the commonality of the paraphilias.
The Paraphilias
Various theories have been proposed to explain the occurrence
of paraphilias.
Explanations of Masochism:
Freudian
Pavlovian
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Freudian Explanation – Paraphillias are due to mysterious,
unconscious forces. A masochist is said to be driven by a death
wish or need to suffer pain as a way of doing penance for
oedipal urges. No scientific evidence exists to confirm the
theory.
Pavlovian Explanation – A masochist initially paired an
aversive stimulus (pain) with a pleasurable US (sexual activity)
leading to the pleasurable conditioned response (CR). Pavlov
demonstrated this concept by pairing food with an electric
shock, which resulted in salivation upon later exposure to the
shock. The animals also did not seem to have a fear response to
the shock, suggesting that the shock was not experienced as

being unpleasant to them.
The Paraphilias
Aversion therapy uses Pavlovian principles to eliminate
paraphilias.
Men dressing in women’s clothes (Lavin et al., 1961)
Exhibitionism (Malrtzky, 1980)
Aversion therapy is not consistently effective on paraphilias,
especially pedophilia and rape.
Why is aversion therapy potentially dangerous?
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Aversion Therapy
An unwanted CS is paired with the US that elicits an unpleasant
UR. After several pairings, the unwanted CS will elicit the now
unpleasant CR. Lavin treated a man who wanted to stop wearing
his wife’s clothes.
Lavin first took photos of the man in women’s clothes
(unwanted CS). Then he gave the man a drug (US) which led to
the UR of nausea. After several pairings of the pictures with the
drug that caused nausea, the man was no longer aroused by the
pictures. Rather, the pictures made him feel ill. Follow-up years
later found no recurrence of cross-dressing.
Maletzky had exhibitionists imagine exposing themselves,
which was immediately followed by a rancid smell. This elicited
a disgust response upon several pairings. Over time, a decrease
in exhibitionistic behavior was noted by police and in field
observations.
Explain that, often, aversion therapy is used as a last chance
effort, but is usually voluntary, except in the case of rapists and

pedophiles.
There are potential ethical concerns with regard to use of
aversion therapy for bringing people “into line.”
Paraphillias are resistant to treatment. Relapse is common,
particularly for pedophilia and rape. In these cases, booster
sessions are often necessary.
Taste Aversions
It would be advantageous to have an innate tendency to avoid
the consumption of dangerous substances.
Conditioned taste aversion in rats (Garcia, 1955).
There are two differences between Pavlov’s and Garcia’s work:
Garcia used a single pairing and the interval between CS-US
was long.
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Why? Because we must eat to survive. We constantly eat, so we
potentially are constantly in danger. However, this avoidance
behavior is not innate, it is learned.
Garcia (1955) – Rats were given a choice between regular and
sweetened water. Most rats preferred the sweet water. Some rats
were exposed to radiation during the sweetened water ingestion.
The radiation caused nausea, but it was the sweet water that the
rats later avoided. The greater the amount of radiation exposure,
the more avoidant the rats were to the sweet water. This
experiment outlines conditioned taste aversion. There are two
differences between Pavlov’s and Garcia’s work: Garcia used a
single pairing and the interval between CS-US was long.

Taste Aversions
Foods that cause illness or death possibly would have led to
human extinction if we were unable to learn aversions in a
single delayed trial.
Taste aversion in Blue Jays (Brower, 1971).
Latent inhibition (Logue, 1983).
Taste aversion and chemotherapy (Bernstein, 1978).
Coyotes and the Gustavson (1976) plan.
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Taste Aversion in Blue Jays (Brower, 1971) – Blue Jays feed on
all sorts of insects, including butterflies, but avoids the
monarch butterfly because it is sometimes poisonous depending
on what it has eaten When the Blue Jay is deprived of food,
however, it will take the chance and eat the butterfly.
Nonetheless, as soon as it gets sick from a poisonous one, it
immediately remembers the aversion and avoids the butterfly. It
even gets sick at the sight of them, once reminded.
Latent Inhibition (Logue, 1983) – This assumes that we can
only develop aversions to novel, not familiar, foods. Logue
(1983) found that many taste aversions are due to illnesses that
occur following eating and the foods involved tend to be novel.
People do not tend to associate an illness to a familiar food
previously eaten.
Taste Aversion and Chemotherapy (Bernstein, 1978) – The drug
is the US and nausea caused by the drug is the UR. The food
you eat previous to the chemotherapy is the CS that elicits
nausea.
Coyotes and the Gustavson (1976) Plan – Coyotes love lamb
and will kill lamb on farms, which farmers want to avoid.
Coyotes are not to be killed because they control the rodent

population. To stop coyotes from killing lamb, they were put in
a pen with lamb, which they attacked. Following the attack,
they were fed tainted lamb meet that made them sick. Upon re-
exposure to lamb, coyotes vomited when the smelled the living
lamb and snapped at them but did not attack them, as if to
demonstrate that they learned to fear the lamb because the
tainted lamb meet made them sick.
Immune Function
Recent research suggests that functioning of the immune system
is susceptible to influence by Pavlovian conditioning.
Based on MacKinzie’s work, Russell (1984) tested reactions of
Guinea pigs to BSA.
Conditioned allergic reactions are as “powerful” as “real”
allergic reactions.
Bovbjerg (1990) and conditioned reactions to chemotherapy.
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Allergic Reaction – Immune system releases histamines that
attack allergens.
MacKinzie found someone demonstrate an allergic reaction to
an artificial rose, suggesting that allergies may be conditioned.
Based on MacKinzie’s work, Russell (1984) tested reactions of
Guinea pigs to BSA (an allergen) by pairing BSA to smells.
Eventually, the smells led to allergic reactions. Conditioned
allergic reactions are as “powerful” as “real” allergic reactions.
Russell further noted that histamine levels in all of the Guinea
pigs were roughly the same.
Chemotherapy reduces your immune system and any stimuli
associated with chemotherapy may also weaken the immune
system. Bovbjerg (1990) demonstrated conditioned reactions to

chemotherapy, where women receiving chemotherapy showed
decreased immune system functioning before receiving their
chemotherapy, often at the site of the hospital itself.
Pavlovian Conditioning
Chapter 3
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Introduction
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose major goal was
to understand how the body breaks food down. During his
studies, he noticed that
Psychic reflexes appeared to possess intelligence
How can experience alter the functioning of a gland?
Can a physiologist study matters of the mind?
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Ivan Pavlov was a Russian Physiologist whose major goal was
to understand how the body breaks-down food so that nutrients
could be absorbed into the blood. He developed a surgical
procedure to collect digestive fluids outside of the body, where
incisions were made and a tube was directly connected to the
secreting gland/organ. He primarily used dogs as his subjects.

He noticed that glands were highly adaptable. For example, dry
food led to a large excretion of saliva, but wet food led to
minimal secretions. As well, the amount of saliva secreted
depended on the ease of expelling objects from the mouth (large
amount for sand and a small amount for a marble). However, the
“intelligence” of the glands did not stop there. Pavlov noticed
that the dog began salivating before being given the food (even
the sight of the food bowl or the person who fed the animal
elicited saliva), which was called the “psychic reflex.” The
question was “how can experience alter the functioning of a
gland?”
Can a physiologist be interested in, and devote considerable
time to the study of the psychic reflex? He was afraid that he
would be ostracized for studying something so far from his
educational/experiential roots, but it was too compelling to
resist.
Basic Procedures
Based on observations of external stimuli, Pavlov concluded
that there are two distinct reflexes:
Unconditional reflexes - These are inborn and permanent
Conditional reflexes - These are acquired through experience
and are not consistent
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Pavlov began his study by observing “external stimuli falling on
the animal at the time its reflex reaction was manifested.” At
first, the animal only salivated when the food was placed in its
mouth. However, after several trials of presenting food to the
dog, he noticed that the animal began to salivate to other

stimuli, such as the sight of the person who fed the dog. Pavlov
concluded that there are 2 types of reflexes: unconditional
reflexes (inborn/permanent, expressed without variability within
the species, and are expressed by every member of the species;
patellar reflex, salivation reflex, etc.), and conditional reflexes
(the psychic reflex; acquired through experience, and therefore,
are not consistent across people; conditioned response to
salivate because of the presence of the experimenter).
Unconditioned/Conditioned Reflexes
The unconditional reflex consists of an unconditional stimulus
(US) and and an unconditional response (UR):
US UR
Food Salivation
The conditional reflex consists of a conditional stimulus (CS)
and a conditional response (CR):
CS CR
Plate Salivation
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Pavlov was interested in how a neutral stimulus (stimulus that
does not elicit any reliable response) becomes a CS. He noticed
that things associated directly with the US (in the case of dog
food, the bowl, the feeder, and even hearing the feeder coming
toward the animal) tended to become a CS. The question was
how? Direct pairing of a neutral stimulus with a US, through
successive trials, allowed the neutral stimulus to elicit the UR
without the presence of the US. Therefore, repeated pairings of
a neutral stimulus with a US transformed the neutral stimulus
into a CS, which elicits the UR. However, because the UR is

occurring without the presence of the US the UR is now a CR
elicited by a CS. This pairing method is known as
Pavlovian/classical/ conditioning. Pavlov began to pair the
ticking of a metronome with food, which reliably elicited the
salivation response (CR). He found that virtually anything could
be paired with food to elicit the response.
Examples of Classical Conditioning
Below is a typical procedure for classical conditioning:
US UR
Food Salivate
Neutral US UR
Clap Food Salivate
CS CR
Clap Salivate
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The most important point here is that “successive” trials are
necessary for a neutral stimulus to become a CS.
Get class to provide examples.
Basic Procedures Conclusion
Three Pavlovian conditioning concepts must be kept in mind:
Presentation of stimuli are independent of an animal’s behavior.
Classical conditioning involves reflex behaviors.
Classical conditioning is necessary for species survival.

*The presentation of the CS and US is independent of what the
organism does.
Classical conditioning involves reflex behaviors and not
voluntary behaviors.
A deer is more likely to survive if it reacts with fear to the sight
or smell of a Tiger rather than the feel of the Tiger’s teeth.
During mating, Male rats respond to odorous chemicals of
sexually receptive female rats, known as pheromones. These
pheromones can be paired with smells (put Male rat in
wintergreen scented cage with receptive Female), such as
wintergreen, which will lead to a elevated levels of sex hormone
in a Male rat when presented the smell. The more associations
made between the pheromones and stimuli, the more likely
mating will be quicker, and therefore, less likely to be
interrupted and killed by a predator.
Higher Order Conditioning
Higher order conditioning involves eliciting a CR using a
neutral stimulus that never has been paired with the US. The
neutral stimulus is paired with a CS to elicit the CR.
CS1 CR
Clap Salivate
CS2 CS1 CR
Stomp Clap Salivate
CS2 CR
Stomp Salivate
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Classical conditioning can occur without the necessity for
pairing a US with a neutral stimulus, which is known as higher-
order conditioning. A neutral stimulus can be paired with a well

established CS, and the neutral stimulus will acquire the ability
to elicit the CR. Frolov first paired food with the ticking of a
metronome to elicit salivation. Then, once the behavior was
well established, he paired a black square with the metronome.
At first the dog only salivated to the metronome. Through
several pairings, the black square alone elicited the salivation
response.
Higher order conditioning greatly increases the importance of
Pavlovian conditioning. Why? Survival! For example, a rat that
responds to a stimulus associated with pheromones is more
likely to successfully mate compared to one that only responds
to the pheromones directly.
Higher order conditioning seems to play an important role in the
emotional meaning of words. Staats and Staats (1957) paired
nonsense syllables (YOF – CS2) with positive and negative
words (CS1). After this, students rated the nonsense syllables
based on their pleasantness. Those associated with pleasant and
unpleasant words were viewed as pleasant and unpleasant (CR),
respectively. Notice that no US was ever presented in order to
invoke the CR of pleasantness.
Measuring Pavlovian Learning
In many cases, US and CS are presented extremely close
together. How do we measure learning?
Response latency between CS and US
Test trials using the CS alone
Response intensity regarding the CR
Pseudoconditioning and sensitization to strong stimuli
*
Response Latency – Determining how long before the CR was

elicited after the CS was presented (obviously the CR has to
occur before the presentation of the CS in order to establish that
conditioning occurred). The faster the response, the more
learning has occurred. This is sometimes it is not the best
method of measuring learning. In some experiments, the interval
of time between onset of the CS and the appearance of the US is
too short to measure latency. In this situation, we tend to use
test trials.
Test Trials – Periodically present the CS without presenting the
US to see if the response occurs.
Response Intensity – We can measure the intensity of the CR,
such as measuring the amount of saliva secreted by a dog.
Pseudoconditioning – A major problem with measuring classical
conditioning is the possibility of pseudoconditioning. For
example, a nurse coughs immediately before giving you a
painful injection. During the injection, you tense up because of
the discomfort of the process. Following the injection, the
nurse coughs again and the sound of the coughing elicits the
same tense response that you experienced during the injection.
This seems like a conditioned response, but may also be
explained by sensitization. Specifically, any noise in near
temporal proximity to the injection may elicit the same response
simply because the process of receiving the injection makes you
feel more sensitive to environmental cues in general.
Variables Affecting Pavlovian Conditioning
Characteristics of pairing the CS with the US determines
learning:
Trace Pairing
Delayed Pairing
Simultaneous Pairing

Backward Pairing
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Trace Pairing – The CS begins and ends before the US is
presented. For example, using a tone to get a dog to salivate,
the tone begins and ends and then the dog salivates before food
is presented, if conditioning was successful. During a lightening
and thunder storm, the lightening begins and ends and then
elicits the fear response before the thunder presents itself, if
conditioning has occurred.
Delayed Pairing – This occurs when the CS and US overlap. For
example, using a tone to get a dog to salivate, the tone begins
and food is then presented before the tone ends. During a
lightening and thunder storm, the lightening begins and thunder
then begins before the lightening ends. There may be short and
long delay procedures, which refers to the amount of time the
SC is presented alone before introducing the US. During long
delay procedures, the CR latency progressively increases
following repeated trails, eventually to the point where subjects
respond just immediately before the presentation of the US.
This suggests that not only the stimulus is being conditioned,
also the delay time between the pairing of the CS and US.
The above two methods are the most commonly used during
learning studies.
Simultaneous Pairing – This occurs when the CS and US are
presented together. For example, using a tone to get a dog to
salivate, the tone and food are presented together. During a
lightening and thunder storm, the lightening and thunder co-
occur. This is a poor procedure because it is not likely to occur
in reality. With animals, they tend to be distracted by food and
pairings are rarely made with objects used for CS purposes.

Backward Pairing – The US begins and ends before the C is
presented. For example, using a tone to get a dog to salivate,
food is presented first and then taken away before presenting
the tone. This method does not work in laboratory settings with
animals.
Several other characteristics, besides timing of pairing,
determines learning:
CS-US Contingency – Degree of predictability of stimulus
pairing determines learning
CS-US Contiguity – Amount of time between the presentation
of the CS and the US
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A contingency is an “if, then” statement. If X, then Y. No X,
then no Y. Many suggest that the effectiveness of conditioning
is dependent on the contingency between a CS and US. Rescorla
(1968) paired a tone with a shock but on some trials the shock
appeared alone. Describe, in detail, CS-US contingency. In
particular, describe potential differences between reality and the
laboratory with regard to the concept (the US appeared alone
10%, 20%, and 40% of the time). Learning was the best when
the US always followed the CS. The more contingent the tone
was to the shock, the more learning occurred. Learning occurred
least in the 40% condition.
In a lab, it is easy to arrange conditions where there is a one-to-
one or 100% contingency between a CS and US. However, this
is not the case in reality. For example, the same person (CS) can
make you happy (CR) and angry (CR) depending on the

situation (positive conversation as a positive US; negative
conversation as a negative US).
CS-US contiguity refers to the time interval between the
presentation of the CS and US. In general, the more contiguous
the CS and US, the more quickly the CR will appear. However,
we know that simultaneous procedures do not work, but there is
an optimal interval of time, which depends on several things,
including response to be learned (e.g. causing eye blinking
using air puffs versus developing a taste aversion) and
conditioning procedure used (e.g. short intervals are better for
trace versus delayed conditioning).
Stimulus features – Physical characteristics affect speed of
learning
Prior experience with the CS/US
Number of CS-US pairings
Inter-trial interval
Other factors, such as age, traits, stress
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Stimulus Features – Physical characteristics of the CS and US
that affect conditioning. Some are better for conditioning than
others.
Compound Stimulus – When a CS consists of two or more
stimuli (such as a light and a to tone) presented simultaneously.
During studies, conditioning is first established using the
compound stimulus. Once the conditioning occurs, each
component of the compound stimulus is presented separately to
establish which component was most responsible for the
conditioning.
Overshadowing – When one stimulus within a compound

stimulus becomes more responsible for the conditioned
response. One of the first compound stimulus studies in
Pavlov’s lab used tactile stimulation and cold air followed by
drops of acid in the mouth (US for salivation). The compound
and tactile stimuli were effectively conditioned but the cold air
alone was not. Most important is INTENSITY, whereby
strong/intense conditioned stimuli overshadow weak
conditioned stimuli. The intensity of the US also is important,
whereby, like CS intensity, the stronger the better. For example,
the stronger a shock, the faster learning will occur. However,
there are limits to intensity. Stimuli that are too intense can
result in inadvertent conditioned responses. If you are using
light as a conditioned stimulus, it cannot be so intense that it
causes blinking in the first place (a UR) when you are trying to
establish with the light a CR. The best pairing between CS and
US depends on their similarity concerning internal and external
receptors. Specifically, if the CS is to do with something
internal such as taste, then the US should have to do with
something internal as well, such as a stomach ache caused by
injecting treated water. If the CS is external, such as a tone,
then the US should be external as well, such as a shock on the
leg.
Latent Inhibition – The more novel a stimulus, the easier it is to
use the stimulus for conditioning a response. For example, it is
difficult to condition a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell that
the dog has heard numerously before it was ever paired with
food. To condition the dog, a more novel sounding bell would
work better.
Blocking – If you create a compound stimulus by pairing a well
established CS with a novel, neutral stimulus, will the novel,
neutral stimulus elicit the CR? NO, due to blocking. Blocking is
similar to overshadowing, but has nothing to do with intensity.
Rather, is has to do with prior knowledge and experience with
the previously conditioned CS.
Sensory Preconditioning – Present a compound stimulus
repeatedly without any US. Then present only one component of

the compound stimulus repeatedly with the US to elicit the CR.
Then present the other component of the compound stimulus. It
will elicit the CR as well because of its association with the
first stimulus.
Number of CS-US Pairings – The greater the number of parings,
the better the learning, but it is a curvilinear relationship
(Figure 3-7), whereby the first several pairings are more
important than later ones, which makes sense evolutionarily.
The sooner that an animal learns how to escape its predators,
the more likely it will survive.
Inter-trial Interval – If each CS-US pairing is seen as one trial,
this refers to the amount of time between, where longer
intervals are better than shorter intervals (opposite of the effect
for the time interval between CS and US).
Other Variables – Age (younger people/animals are easier to
condition), Excitability (more excitable people/animals are
easier to condition), and Stress (higher stress leads to better
conditioning)
Extinction of a Conditional Response
Extinction – Repeated presentation of the CS without the US
Difference between extinction and forgetting
Extinction curve and spontaneous recovery
Has the CR been abolished completely when extinction
procedures are used?
*
Extinction – The CR will reliably occur in the presence of the
CS as long as the US is sometimes paired with the CS.
Extinction occurs due to a failure to pair the CS and US. Pavlov
was the first to demonstrate this in the lab.
Forgetting – This involves the deterioration of performance due

to lack of practice, which is different from extinction. In
extinction, learning is still occurring. What is being learned is
to not respond in the absence of the US.
Spontaneous Recovery – This occurs when a response that was
thought to be extinct reappears, which suggests that
extinguishing CR requires at least two occasions of exposure to
the CS without the US.
An extinguished CR is much easier to relearn than a new
stimulus-response pairing (and is learned much faster than it
was originally), which suggests that the effects of conditioning
cannot be undone and that it is not forgetting that is occurring.
Theories of Conditioning
There is no single unified theory to explain classical
conditioning type learning:
Stimulus substitution theory suggests that the US and CS
stimulate the same area of the brain leading to the UR/CR.
Are the UR and CR the same always?
What if the UR and CR are opposite?
*
Pavlov believed that the path of the inborn reflex is present at
birth (US-UR), but the conditional path must be learned (CS-
CR). Therefore, conditioning is not the acquisition of new
behavior, it is the tendency to behave in “old ways” to new
stimuli. Pavlov believed that there was a certain area in the
brain for each UR, which is elicited by a given US. Because the
CR elicited by the CS is the same as the UR, he assumed that
the CR and UR are the same thing in the same area of the brain.

However, there are differences between the CR and UR. The CR
is usually weaker, less reliable, and appears more slowly than
the UR, although this weakness may be relative to the same
weakness found between CS and US. Nonetheless, others note
qualitative differences between the CS and US. A dog responds
differently to the mere sight of food compared to a tone
signaling the presentation of food (they may dance around with
more anticipation).
Another problem with this model is that the CR and UR are
sometimes opposites. For example, electric shock (US) results
in increased heart rate (UR), but a tone that represents electric
shock (CS) results in reduced heart rate (CR). This finding led
to the development of the Preparatory Response Theory.
Theories of Conditioning
Observing differences between the UR and CR led to the
Preparatory Response Theory:
What the organism learns is a response that prepares it for the
presentation of the US.
The theory helps to explain various behaviors, such as drug
tolerance, overdose, and death from drug use.
*
What is learned during Pavlovian conditioning is a response that
prepares the organism for the appearance of the US. Sometimes
this response (CR) can be the same as or different from the UR,
which is not what is important. What is important is that the
process of Pavlovian conditioning prepares for the presentation
of the US – a sort of “heads up” that the US is on its way.
With drug addictions, the CR prepares the person for the US by

compensating for the effects of the US. The UR for the US of
morphine is pain removal. The CR for the CS of morphine is the
pain increase. This pain increase is what we mean by preparing
the person for the drug (US).
With general use, the person becomes habituated to the
environment in which the drug use takes place. Many of the
stimuli in the environment are CSs for the drug, which prepare
the user for the high (which also explains tolerance). When a
user engages in the same behavior in an unfamiliar environment,
overdose may be more likely because the CSs present in the
familiar environment are absent in the unfamiliar environment,
so the preparatory mechanisms are not activated, and the user
overdoses with the same dose. This finding has been
demonstrated using rats.
The Study of Learning and Behavior
Chapter 2
*
Introduction
Learning has been assessed scientifically for only one hundred
years using a natural science approach.
Behavior is anything measurable and/or observable that an
organism does.

Experience is exposure to events that potentially can affect
behavior, which is referred to as a stimulus.
Learning is a change in behavior due to experience.
Change or acquisition of behavior? Behavior or nervous system
change?
*
The natural science approach uses a variety of techniques to
measure phenomena.
Explanations of behavior based on thoughts and feelings tend to
be circular. A circular explanation – the evidence for the
explanation is the very thing being explained (i.e. why did he
slam the door? Because he was angry. How do we know he was
angry? Because he slammed the door.
A stimulus is a physical event, such as tactile pressure, light
waves, sound waves, etc.
Does behavior change or do we acquire behavior? Acquisition
refers to the addition of new behavior, which is an incomplete
explanation of learning. Remember, learning involves the the
removal of behavior and the modification of behavior, as well
as the acquisition of new behavior.
It is argued that learning is a nervous system change rather than
a behavior change, whereby behavior simply is a symptom of
the changed nervous system. There are two problems with this
approach: nervous system changes cannot be pinpointed and
measured precisely, and the explanation denies the importance
of behavior, whereby unique insights into learning can be
gained using both methods.

Measuring Learning
Methods for measuring learning:
Error reduction
Change in Topography
Change in Intensity
Change in Speed
Change in Latency
Change in Frequency (widely used)
Change in Fluency
*
There are many methods for measuring learning:
Topography
The mirror drawing task, where drawing a shape using the
reflection of the shape in a mirror improves.
Intensity
Teaching a dog to bark softly.
Latency
Time that passes before a behavior occurs.
Fluency
Combination of frequency and error reduction.
Research Designs
Anecdotal Evidence:
First or secondhand reports of personal experience.
Case Study:

Detailed examination of an individual.
Descriptive Study:
Description of a group using data from group members.
*
Anecdotal evidence is not based on scientific measurement,
whereby covariance cannot be measured or accounted for.
However, they are useful leads and humorous.
Case study method is an improvement over using anecdotal
evidence due to systematic data collection, and often is used in
medicine.
Problems with conducting case studies: they take a large amount
of time to conduct study generalizations are based on small
sample the sample may not be representative of the defined
population they do not answer cause-and-effect questions data
are not obtained directly and often is based on secondhand
accounts
Descriptive studies use surveys, questionnaires, and interviews
to collect data and statistics to describe the group. This
technique guards against the use of non-representative samples
to answer questions. This method is a vast improvement over
the previous two but does have limitations, including that cause
and effect cannot be established with this method.
Experimental Studies
An experiment is the manipulation of at least one variable to
measure the effect of the manipulation on another variable.
Independent Variable – the manipulated variable

(working out – a ‘yes’ and a ‘no’ group).
Dependent Variable – the variable being affected or the
outcome of manipulating the independent variable (weight loss
in 3 months – did the two groups differ?).
*
Experimental Studies
Between-subjects Designs
Experimental Group
Control Group
Random Assignment and Matched Sampling
Within-subjects Designs
Baseline and Simple AB Design
ABA Reversal Design
Limitations of Experimental Research
Laboratory and Field Experiments
*
Between-subject designs
Begin with two or more groups. The IV is varied across groups.
For example, a pool of smokers is divided into two groups. One
group receives a behavior therapy to reduce smoking and the
other group does not. Treatment is the IV because it was
manipulated by creating treatment and no treatment groups. The
first group is the experimental group and the second group is
the control group. Rate of smoking behavior is the DV. We are
testing to see if treatment made a significant difference in

smoking reduction compared to no treatment. What is necessary
for making cause and effect statements regarding smoking
behavior? What if the two groups were different before
treatment based on age, race, sex, etc.? If groups were different
before treatment, then can you say that the treatment was the
only reason for smoking behavior reduction? How can we
equate groups before treatment?
Random assignment involves randomly assigning participants to
experimental conditions, which equally distributes subject
differences across conditions. However, small group sizes
negatively affect the merit of random assignment, so each group
should consist of at least 10 people. Matched sampling equates
experimental groups because participants are selected based on
similarity and are matched across groups based on relevant
characteristics, such as age, race, etc. This makes the two
groups similar before treatment.
Within-subjects designs
Participant behavior is measured before treatment, during, and
after treatment. The measure before treatment is the baseline
period, labeled A, and is used to compare with later behavior to
check for changes. The treatment period is labeled B. If
behavior is significantly different between A and B, then we can
say that the treatment could have been responsible for the
change. However, is it possible that behavior change is due to
an extraneous variable instead of the treatment. This is why you
should use ABA designs, which involves going back to the A
period (removing treatment). It is expected that without
treatment the behavior will return to baseline levels, suggesting
treatment caused the behavior change.
Between-subject versus Within-subject Designs
Within designs use drastically fewer participants and data
analysis techniques compared to between designs.
To control for extraneous variables, between designs use

matching and random assignment and the IV differs across
participants. Within designs use the same participant and the IV
differs within participants. But, control comes with a price!
Experimental methods are sometimes thought of as artificial and
contrived, where the IV, DV, and environment are too simple.
However, the more realistic we make an environment, the more
control over extraneous variables is lost. The way around this is
to do both laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory
experiments are contrived and have been discussed previously.
Field experiments are conducted in real-world settings and are
used to test the validity of experimental results.
Reasons for Animal Research
The goal of most learning researchers is to understand human
behavior; animals are used to reach this goal.
1. Control over heredity
2. Control over learning history
3. Ethical treatment of humans
*
Why not use humans?
Genetic differences exist in humans and is a major source of
unintended variability. Lab animals are purchased from
companies, so their genetic histories are well known. This limits
genetic differences as a source of unwanted variability. This is
similar to using twins in human research.
Animals live in more sterile and less variable environments,
which rules out learning experiences as a source of variability.

It is unethical to conduct certain experiments on humans, yet
the information obtained from such an experiment is invaluable.
Therefore, animals are used for this research instead (such as
inducing depression to determine if certain experiences cause
depression).
Objections to Animal Research
Major differences between/among species.
Is animal research practical?
Is animal research intrinsically unethical?
Can virtual labs replace traditional methods?
*
Animal research tells us nothing about humans. The idea is that
if the effect is found in animals it is likely to occur in humans,
because humans are animals. You must be cautious when
generalizing from one species to the next. Therefore, providing
additional evidence using descriptive and experimental studies
strengthens animal research results.
The facts generated using animal participants generally are
aimed at answering basic theoretical questions. Some would say
that this does not answer complicated questions of practical
nature. Others would say that many diseases have been
cured/controlled/understood in humans due to animal research,
which is quite practical.
This is the “animal rights” movement. Why is it ethical to
experiment on every animal except humans? Research animals

are rarely stimulated and live in confined quarters. APA has
established guidelines for the ethical treatment of animals,
whereby strict standards must be met regarding care and
handling.
Is animal research unnecessary when computers can be used to
create virtual animals for testing? This may be so, but
information about animal behavior must be available before a
complicated computer program can be written, which
necessitates the use of animals in research.
Introduction:
Learning to Change
Chapter 1
*
Survival depends on the ability to cope with change.
Natural Selection: Features that contribute to survival are
selected by the environment.
Evolution in the Lab and Field: Mating ritual of fruit flies and
the peppered moth
Mutations are abrupt changes in genes
Natural Selection
*

Natural Selection - Survival depends on the ability to cope with
change. Charles Darwin (1859) On the Origin of Species
suggested that there are tremendous variations within and
among species. Some variations are well suited for current
conditions and some are not, which determines the likelihood of
reproduction and survival. Therefore, features that contribute to
survival are selected by the environment (Natural Selection).
Evolution is a product of natural selection. He noticed that,
using farm animals, selective breeding with a specific variation
resulted in offspring with that characteristic. He suggested that
this process may occur for all species. A thick coat of fur can be
an asset or a liability depending on climatic conditions.
Evolution in the Lab – Fruit flies were raised in total darkness
to disrupt there normal mating ritual (a dance that requires
sight). After 14 generations, a new mating ritual was formed
directly due to the change in the environment.
Evolution in the Field – The Peppered moth primarily use to be
a single light color (the color of the tree bark to protect them
from birds). A rare species of black moths began to be noticed
(which would be detrimental because they would be easy prey).
However, due to pollution, the bark of trees in certain areas
began to change color (became more black). It now is not
uncommon, regarding polluted areas, to only see the black type
of the moth.
Human beings are different colors depending on the
environment in which they live/ancestry (close to the equator
leads to darker skin due to more melanin content to protect the
skin from the sun).
Mutations – Natural selection accounts for much of the
variations among/within species, but abrupt changes in genes
also contribute to change/adaptation. These changes are caused
by exposure to certain chemicals, radiation, and possibly viral
infections.Mutations can occur in any cell, but when it occurs in

reproductive cells, the mutation is passed on to the next
generation (the characteristic may or may not be overt in future
offspring). Most mutations are of no consequence (eye color
variation). Some mutations are harmful and selected out (2
headed snake). However, some mutations are adaptive, such as
resistance to disease.
Behavior also is subject to natural selection. As the
environment changes, adaptive behaviors are selected and
maladaptive behaviors are eliminated.
This is a a relationship between a specific event and a simple
response to that event.
Reflexes are necessary for survival, but we do not notice them
until they fail.
Sensitization and Habituation
Spontaneous Recovery is the awakening of a habituated
response
Reflexes
*
A Reflex is a relationship between a specific event and a simple
response to that event. They appear at birth or arise during
predictable stages of development. They are necessary for
adaptation and survival. Many reflexes protect the organism
from injury, such as automatically and immediately dropping a
hot pan, sneezing to expel irritants, and the vomit reflex.
Salivation immediately begins when food is placed in the
mouth, which is the first step of digestion. The presence of food
combined with saliva triggers swallowing, and swallowing
triggers peristalsis, or the rhythmic motion of the esophagus to
carry food to the stomach. The simple act of eating is a chain of
reflexes.

We do not notice reflexes until they fail (allergic reaction,
disease, and injury). This occurs when excessive amounts of
drugs have been ingested (depress the CNS). Death from alcohol
can occur when it interferes with the respiratory reflex
(inhale/exhale).
Reflexes are stereotypic, whereby they are invariant regarding
form frequency, strength, and time of appearance during
development.
Sensitization the elicitation of a reflex response that leads to an
increase in intensity/probability of subsequent elicitations. For
example, if loud sounding thunder startled you, you will be
more likely to be startled by subsequent sounds (even if the
sounds are less intense, such as dropping a plastic mug on a
ceramic floor).
Habituation Repeatedly eliciting a reflex response results in the
decrease in intensity/probability of the response. This is why,
during a horror movie, repeatedly trying to startle a friend
eventually does not arouse the startle response.
Spontaneous Recovery: Sometimes, a response that has been
habituated will spontaneously appear in full intensity of
probability.
Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs)
FAPs are an inherited series of interrelated acts
They are reliably elicited by specific events known as releasers.
Do they apply to humans?

*
Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs) – (use to be referred to as
instincts) an inherited series of interrelated acts. They are
similar to reflexes whereby they have a genetic basis, little
variability from person to person, and can be reliably elicited by
a specific event. However, FAPs are more complex (long series
of reflex like acts), are more variable, and involve the entire
organism rather than a few muscles or glands. Some FAPs help
to protect against a predator, such as when a cat is confronted
with a dog it often engages in a series of behaviors, such as
arching the back, flicking the tail, growling and hissing (this
makes the cat seem bigger and more formidable to the attacker).
FAPs are reliably elicited (species engages in the behavior
automatically) by specific events known as releasers. The Male
Stickleback fish will be aggressive toward or attack other Male
Stickleback fish, whereby they will engage in a series of
behaviors similar to the cat example. The releasing stimulus is a
red coloration of the abdomen of the male fish, and the
aggressive response can be elicited by anything of this color.
Are there FAPs in Humans? It is hard to say! Darwin (1874)
suggested social, self preservation, vengeance, and lust
instincts. Other instincts suggested were the maternal instinct,
territorial instinct, etc (actually, at one time, almost every
behavior was considered instinctual). Currently, it is believed
that humans do not engage in FAPs. There is too much
complexity and variability in human behavior for it to be
considered an FAP. For example, the maternal instinct was
considered universal. However, the expression of this “so
called” instinct is variable, whereby some mothers “hover” and
other mothers “ignore.” If this was an instinct, the expression
would be stereotypic. As well, in western societies are choosing
to have children later in life, which would not occur if this
behavior was governed by an FAP (automatic).

General Behavior Traits
These are strongly influenced by genes and include aggression,
hoarding, anxiety, introversion, etc.
Behavior traits can be elicited by a wide variety of
situations/stimuli.
Behavior traits show great variability regarding their
expression.
*
The role of genes in general behavior traits – Traits that are
strongly influenced by genes include aggression, hoarding,
anxiety, introversion, sexual activity etc. Behavior traits occur
in a wide variety of situations, and therefore, do not have a
specific releasing stimulus. For example, aggressive behavior
can be elicited by a variety of stimuli. Behavior traits are more
variable than FAPs ( a spider spinning a web does it the same
way every single time and it’s web is almost identical to other
webs of the same species. Aggressive behavior, for example,
tends to differ in expression across humans, and differs in
expression from situation to situation within the same human.
If a behavior is selected by the environment over several
generations, it can profoundly change the species.Trut (1999)
began the study 40+ years ago, whereby foxes were selectively
bred based on general behavior characteristics. They selected
the “dog” general behavior trait (least fearful and aggressive
toward humans). They became more like dogs than foxes
whereby they liked humans and approached them. As well,
physical characteristics of the foxes became dog-like – floppy
ears, various fur color patterns, and an upright tail. Therefore,
behavior traits must be genetically linked to physical
characteristics (the environment selects one feature and
produces another). Identical twins reared apart share the same

career interests, art/music/hobby interests, etc, which suggests
the role of heredity in general behavior traits. The probability
of of expressing many forms of illness associated with
maladaptive behavior traits are proportional to how close in
relation one is to a family member afflicted by the illness
(depression, anxiety, reading disorders, and even criminality). It
may first seem puzzling as to why this behavior has not been
selected-out. Can you think of a time/situation when/where
aggressive behavior may be adaptive? (war) When would
agoraphobia be adaptive (fear of open spaces)? (prehistoric
times).
The point – whether a behavior is adaptive or not depends on
the environment, which means that the same behavior can be
adaptive and maladaptive depending on the environment.
Limits of Natural Selection
There are two major problems with Natural Selection:
Natural selection is slow and
Evolved change that was useful in the past can become a
hindrance in the future
*
The problem with natural selection is that it is slow - it is of
limited value for coping with abrupt changes. For example, the
Ebola virus only recently threatens the western world because
of tourism, but it is unlikely that the environment will select
immunity before severe consequences ensue.
Another problem is that an evolved change that was helpful can
become a hindrance in the future.
For example, salty and sweet foods are necessary for survival,
and during human development, humans that gravitated toward

this food survived. However, this type of food is abundant now
and the tendency to gravitate toward them, which endangers
health. Sexual appetites follow the same route, where children
use to die extremely early so it was necessary to copulate
frequently (now, we are overpopulated and are manifesting
diseases due to sexual activity).
Learning: Evolved Modifiability
Learning is a change in behavior due to experience.
The last line of defense for survival is learning.
Learning has directly shaped the physical environment.
*
Learning is a change in behavior due to experience. It is an
evolved mechanism for coping with a changing environment.
Learning does not give a person the tendency to behave in a
specific way in a specific environment; it gives the individual
the tendency to modify behavior to suit the situation (evolved
modifiability). When reflexes, FAPs, and general behavior traits
are inadequate for coping with change, the last line of defense
is learning. For example, avoiding poisonous foods is partly
innate and partly based on what one has learned in life (some
foods, although not toxic to most, are avoided because of a
learning situation that occurred in the past).
Learning not only is necessary for survival, it also is necessary
for achieving the “high-life.” Learning has directly shaped the
physical environment (we create our own safe environments,
whereby learning is solely responsible for this achievement).
Is behavior inherited or learned?

The debate wrongly implies that the answer must be one or the
other.
The ability to learn is a product of both learning and heredity.
Nature and Nurture
*
This is the biggest argument with regard to behavior (is
behavior inherited or learned?). The debate wrongly implies that
the answer must be one or the other. However, heredity and
learning are intimately linked. Deviant behaviors can be
selectively bred in animals, but healthy animals can become
deviant after exposure to deviance.
The Semai of Malaya are passive and don’t have a word for
murder. However, when they were recruited for war by the
British in the 1950’s, they became unusually fierce warriors.
However, not all Semai became fierce warriors. This suggests
that aggressiveness is learned and inherited. Whether cats were
reared to either see their mothers kill rats or not determined
whether the offspring would kill rats (86% vs. 45%; Kuo, 1930).
Again, not all cats reared without exposure to rat killing refused
to kill a rat.
The ability to learn is a product of both learning and heredity.
For example, animals reared in complex/enriched environments
develop bigger brains and learn faster. Humans tend to be
similar to their parents with regard to IQ (genetic), but this
changes with development/learning.
A
.
DISCUSSION POSTS (10LECTURES @1%EACH =%)
To access the discussion board, click the Assessments link at

the top of the course website and select Discussions from the
drop-down menu. Once there, you will see a separate discussion
folder for each lecture.
For each, either your may write your own comment about
something you found interesting about the lecture or you may
respond to a comment written by one of your peers. Either way,
I expect the posting to be at least 150 words (i.e.,
at least about the size of this paragraph). Specifically, after
reading your
posts, readers should be able to understand your position and
why you feel the way you do. For each lecture, you must post at
least once to earn your credit for the given lecture; however,
you are welcomed and encouraged to post as frequently as you
wish. See the Tentative Schedule below for due dates.

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