1 Twin Births in Western Africa A Look into Igbo and Y.docx

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Twin Births in Western Africa: A Look into Igbo and Yoruba
Culture
How does the birth of twins differ in Nigeria based upon
population group? In the
southeast of Nigeria, the Igbo speaking people feared the birth
of twins while the Yoruba
population in southwest Nigeria treat twins as gods. Infanticide
may seem like a foreign concept
to our culture but to others, it is very real. It is said that that the
reason the Yoruba praise twins,
is the same reason why the Igbo feared them. This essay will
analyze the effect twins have on
each population group and explain the outcome of twin births in
West Africa.
The Igbo people of southeast Nigeria have a problematic
history of actively seeking to
abominate and eradicate twin births in their society. Why would
this population be so persistent
on removing twinship? As we know, twins are the product of
one fertilized ovum splitting and

developing into two fetuses or two separate ova are fertilized by
two separate sperm cells. In
Igbo culture, umu ujime (multiple births) are the repercussion
of the devil’s work and should
therefore cease to exist (Bastian, 2001). The indigenous
population believed that umu ujime was
a disgrace to their deity of the earth whom they call Ala or Ani.
Furthermore, families who had
twin births were held accountable for the dishonor they brought
upon the population, especially
mothers (Bastian, 2001). The twins would be put in pots,
suffocated, and discarded in the “bad
bush” known as oojo ofia, which were located outside of Igbo
territory (Bastian, 2001). Mothers
who bore twins were cursed and removed from the society and
even killed along with their
children. If they weren’t killed, they were taken to twin villages
and were grieved by their
families as if she were deceased (Imbua, 2013).
There are several reasons for twin killings in the Igbo culture.
One logic behind the issue
included the idea that only animals can have multiple births.
When animals such as goats or

sheep had multiple births, it was a joyous occasion. More goats
simply meant more food and
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more milk. The litter was not killed, but human multiple births
had an opposing fate. The Igbo
believed that humans shouldn’t express animal-like traits which
included rules on reproduction.
Women should have singular births and animals should have
multiple (Bastian, 2001). This
example was one way to provide further insight for the
reasoning behind eradicating umu ujime.
Does the practice of twin abomination still exist in
southeastern Nigeria? In the earlier
nineteenth century European missionaries had become aware of
twin killings in the southeast of
Nigeria. The practice was against the religion of Christianity
and missionaries saw twin killing as
innocent life being taken (Bastian, 2001). Although this was
appalling to missionaries, they
understood the religious differences and stepped in to persuade
the Igbo otherwise. One
missionary who devoted her life to bringing change to Nigeria

was Mary Slessor. Her work in
Nigeria was influential on the population and the umu ujime
deaths had eventually began to
decrease and eventually disappear along with social disarray
(Proctor, 2000). Slessor was one of
many missionaries who devoted themselves to stop the
infanticide by the Igbo people. On
October 21, 1842, the missionaries pleaded to King Eyo to
prohibit twin killings immediately
and give twins and their families their own safe are to live in
peace. Initially, opposition to the
plea was expressed but the king eventually declared infanticide
as a capital offense and granted
the safe area (Imbua, 2013).
The work of missionaries in Nigeria ultimately lead to the
eradication of twin killing in
Igbo speaking populations. Without the influence and
perseverance of the missionaries it is
plausible that umu ujime killings may have continued much
longer before change had taken its
course. The Igbo have a neighboring population who has their
own cultural norms for twin
births. The Yoruba people of southwestern Nigeria praise twins
and treat them as gods.

The Yoruba people initially had similar views on twin births as
the Igbo population.
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Before the praising of twins, the Yoruba also practiced twin
killings. Their reasons were different
from their neighbor’s motive to abolish twinship. The
announcement of twins was shocking to
the Yoruba because this was a bad omen for the community.
Twins and their mother were
ritually killed or left in the jungle defenseless as prey to
animals. One twin was sometimes
allowed to live while the other was not (Oruene, 1985). Some
communities practiced
banishment, either permanent or temporary. The mother would
have to leave their group with her
children and not return if her community practiced permanent
banishment. In communities
where temporary banishment took place, after a specific period,
the mother could return to her
community with one twin or none because the threat of twins
ceased (Oruene, 1985).

The Yoruba had cultural beliefs about twins that lead to the
poor treatment of women and
their twin offspring. One belief amongst the population included
the perception that women who
had twins meant they have cheated on their husbands. In their
point of view, two children meant
two fathers. They also believed that if it wasn’t another human
man that she cheated with, she
committed infidelity with an evil spirit (Oruene, 1985). An
additional cultural belief the Yoruba
had was like one previously discussed with the Igbo people.
They believed lower valued animals
had multiple births and categorized women with twins as
animals unsuitable to live amongst
humans (Oruene, 1985).
Eventually these traditional norms faded and transformed into
quite the opposite. The
fear of twins became joy. The Yoruba began to associate twins
with divinity and as living
representations of orisa-ibeji, meaning twin gods (Oruene,
1985). The twins were believed to
have supernatural powers since they were divine beings and
became respected by others. Infant
mortality was quite high in twin births and the Yoruba believed

that if one twin died, the living
twin only had half of a soul and could not survive. In order to
keep the living twin thriving, they
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created statues of the deceased twin which was said to hold the
other half of the soul which the
twins shared. The ibeji, a wooden representation of the deceased
twin, was cared for as if it were
alive. The mother would dress the ibeji and rub food against its
lips, as well as bring it with her
where she went. The living twin would be raised with the ibeji
and when old enough, the living
twin would take on the responsibility to care for it (Oruene,
1985).
Twins were also given specific names with special meaning.
The first born would be
named Taiwo and the second was named Kehinde. Traditionally
the second child is considered
the older of the two because Kehinde pushes Taiwo to enter the
world and once that child cries
he tells Kehinde to come out and “Taste the world.” Taiwo
translates to “Go and taste the world”

and Kehinde means “One who comes last” (Renne, 2001). Many
twins are given these names in
Yoruba culture. Seven days after birth, there is a twin naming
ceremony where people in the
community come together to celebrate. Elisha P. Renne states,
offerings are made to the twins
who are dressed identically, and everything is duplicated,
including the food that is served. What
is done for one child must be done for the other because they
share one soul.
Today, the Yoruba experience one of the highest numbers of
twin births per year in the
world. This has become a large part of their identity and can be
seen right away when entering
their town. A large stone sign is present which reads “The
Nation’s Home of Twins” Their
artwork also expresses the value of twins in Yoruba society.
Why does this population
experience prevailing numbers of twin births in comparison to
the rest of the world? A staple in
Yoruba diet are yams and the cassava plant. Though it isn’t
scientifically proven, the hormone
phytoestrogen in the vegetation are said to cause multiple eggs
to be released by the ovaries

ending up in twin pregnancy (Akinboro, 2008). This may be an
environmental factor for the
reason behind the high number of twin births.
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The Igbo and the Yoruba have seemingly similar histories
when comparing the effects of
twin births in their populations. The Igbo and Yoruba alike have
practiced twin killing and
mistreatment of mothers and their offspring for a large portion
of their history. This practice was
normal to them, it was their culture. Now that abomination of
twinship is a thing of the past, the
population groups now celebrate twin births and have made
them an important part of their
history, religion and culture.

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Reference List
Akinboro, A., Azeez, M. A., & Bakare, A. A. (2008). Frequency
of twinning in
southwest Nigeria. Indian journal of human genetics, 14(2), 41-
7.
Bastian, M. (2001). "The Demon Superstition": Abominable
Twins and Mission Culture
in Onitsha History. Ethnology, 40(1), 13-27.
doi:10.2307/3773886
Imbua, D. (2013). Robbing Others to Pay Mary Slessor:
Unearthing the Authentic Heroes
and Heroines of the Abolition of Twin-Killing in Calabar.
African Economic History, 41,
139-158. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org.kbcc.ezproxy.cuny.edu/stable/43863309
Oruene, T. (1985). Magical Powers of Twins in the Socio-
Religious Beliefs of the
Yoruba. Folklore, 96(2), 208-216. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.kbcc.ezproxy.cuny.edu/stable/1259643
Proctor, J. (2000). Serving God and the Empire: Mary Slessor in
South-Eastern Nigeria,
1876-1915. Journal of Religion in Africa,30(1), 45-61.
doi:10.2307/1581622
Renne, E. (2001). Twinship in an Ekiti Yoruba Town.
Ethnology,40(1), 63-78.
doi:10.2307/3773889
Robert Kane argues that free will is required for moral
responsibility and that the idea of free will is incompatible with
the idea of an entirely determined universe. He explains that
free will exists at times when we have ultimate
responsibility for our actions. Furthermore, he writes that this
ultimate responsibility can only arise if there is
some indeterminism has existed in the past.
First, it is important to understand what Kane means by “free
will,” for it has different meanings to different philosophers.
Kane’s idea of free will takes the form of the “alternate
possibilities” perspective (AP), which he illustrates with his
“garden of forking paths” (6). Basically, what AP and the
garden of forking paths delineate is that at certain points in time

when a person makes a choice, it is possible that they could
have chosen or done otherwise. AP is at odds with the idea of
determinism, which argues the exact opposite: that there is no
garden of forking paths; rather, there is one single straight line
of events, all of which are destined to occur as results of the
past and the laws of nature. Kane’s goal is to show that AP is
possible, and therefore, free will (and thus, moral
responsibility) and determinism cannot coexist.
Second, I will clarify the term “ultimate responsibility.”
Ultimate responsibility (UR) means that for a person to be
responsible for something (for one to be held blameworthy or
praiseworthy for something), they must be the ultimate author
of that thing. In other words, a person must be accountable for
an action they perform or for the state of mind, personal
characteristics, or “anything that is a sufficient cause or motive
for the action’s occurring” (14).
Kane points out that that UR does not mean that people have
alternate possibilities (can do otherwise) in all situations, but
that AP exists in certain situations in which “self-forming
actions” (SFAs), or acts that mold personal character are
performed (14). An example of an SFA similar to Kane’s
businesswoman example is as follows: Ben found a wallet on
the ground, and inside there was one hundred dollars and the
driver’s license of the person it belongs to. Ben underwent an
internal struggle between his conscience, which told him he
should return the wallet and its contents to its owner, and his
greed, which told him he should keep the hundred dollars. (Note
that this situation is an instance of indeterminism, because the
outcome of the event is uncertain.) Ben wanted two different
things: to return the wallet and to keep it. There was a forking
path before him, and he had to “make an effort of will,” as Kane
would say (26), to overcome the temptation to keep the wallet.
If he did not overcome his greed, it was because he “did not
allow [his] effort to succeed” since while he willed to rise

above his greed, he also willed to fail to do so. When Ben
decided to return the wallet, he made a determinate choice out
of indeterminate efforts; that is, Kane’s words, he “[made] one
set of competing reasons or motives prevail over the others then
and there by deciding” (27).
In the above instance, the indeterminism that arises from Ben’s
conflicting wills serves as an obstacle that he must conquer in
order to make a choice. But whichever choice he made (whether
he decided to return the wallet or keep it) was made
purposefully, and not randomly or accidentally because his
decision was willed either way—it was made for reasons, and
he endorsed those reasons at the time (29). No matter which
choice he made, he would make the choice of his own free will
and would be ultimately responsible for it, as he would be the
author of his action, as opposed so some other agent or
mechanism.
It may be true that Ben could not control the past or the laws of
nature at the time he made his choice, but just because he could
not control what happened beforehand does not mean that he
couldn’t control what happened when it happened. When SFAs
like Ben’s decision about the wallet occur (when choices are
made for reasons that are endorsed), agents gain some control of
the future “then and there by deciding” (30). As a result, Ben
had what Kane calls “plural voluntary control,” meaning that he
could have caused either of the two options that he willed at the
time; thus, he could have done otherwise (AP) on purpose and
without being coerced (30).
Ultimate responsibility is present in self-forming actions like
Ben’s, which are character-building choices that allow people to
be held accountable for their acts and to be held responsible for
why they, as people, are the way they are. During a self-forming
action, an agent has plural voluntary control, and thus, alternate
possibilities exist. In cases in which alternate possibilities exist,

indeterminism also exists, for “‘indeterminism’ is a technical
term that merely rules out deterministic causation, though not
causation altogether” (31). Ultimate responsibility is required in
order for a person to have free will in addition to alternate
possibilities (that a person can do otherwise), or indeterminism.
In indeterministic cases in which people can do otherwise, they
perform actions of their own free will, and so are ultimately
responsible for those actions.
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What do we learn by applying Archeology: The Pompeii Case
Archeology is closely connected to culture and history.
According to Philips, the goal of
archeology is to establish “an image of life within the limits of
the residue that is available from
the past” (Philips & Willey, 616), and to reconstruct cultural
forms and relationships. This
science is providing both research community and broad public
with important data on the past,
which is widely used in the contemporary time. The cultural
heritage provides education of the
new generations of people, becoming a substrate for further
humankind development. Why is

archeology so important? What does it allow to learn about
human culture, way of life, family
and personal values? In this essay we will study what
information and how does archeology
provide, and why is it so important to explore the past. To do
that, we shall refer to the case of
the city of Pompeii, and find out what can be learnt about its
political, social, religious and other
issues from the excavations of the remnants of material culture.
POMPEII LIFESTYLE RESTORED VIA EXCAVATIONS
According to Hales and Paul, the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD
had contradictory
effects on the humankind development: it has destroyed the
relatively insignificant town of
Pompeii, in the same time having preserved it as an
archeological value for the further
generations. After having been discovered and examined in the
eighteenth century, the remains
of Pompeii have turned into opportunity for people, even those
far from historical studies, to get
deeper into the ancient past of Europe. These findings offered
an understanding of everyday life
in that period to the mass audience, which comprises not only

on such visible aspects, as material
culture, information on health, diseases, aging and even diet,
but broader social implications
(Hales & Paul; Beard 2010).
Our analysis on archeological opportunities will start with the
political system: what does
the material culture of Pompeii tell about organization of
political life? Paul Zanker notes that
archeological findings allow to us consider that by the time of
the eruption, Pompeii was an old
city, inhabited by many generations of people in the structured
society. According to him, the
uniqueness of the situation is that Pompeii has been conserved
on the merger of two periods: last
years of Republican Rome, with the uniform type of urban
development and growing, and the
beginning of Empire, when new values were introduced within
the townscape (eg, the remains of
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city forum allow to conclude on the existing cult of the
Emperor). While for democratic societies

the forum was very important, in the Empire period it has
turned into a symbolic place to
worship the Emperor, which is visible from its architecture. At
the same time, the public
communication and interaction has moved to other rapidly
developing places, such as large
baths, clubhouses and even public latrines, where free rich
people were spending their leisure
time and communicating. Another proof of the important
Emperor’s role is the structure of the
arena and the circus, where Emperor or other power
representatives had separate boxes – visible
by everyone, yet not accessible, as it was practiced in the
Roman Empire. The local arena and the
circus, along with above mentioned infrastructure facilities,
were also used as communication
hubs (Zanker, 9).
The Pompeian housing system also provides hints to the social
organization. Unlike
prevailing modern view at the house as a very private place, in
Pompeii it was “a center of social
communication and pointed demonstration of the occupants'
standing” (Zanker, 10). The space
and the furniture were used to declare the position of owner in

the society. The rooms were
normally multi-functional: eg, the same room could be a place
for children to play or slaves
given the instruction in daytime, and reception room for guests
in the evening. A lack of privacy,
large number of rooms and multi-functionality turned a family
house into the area of intense
social activity.
Considering that social and political life was so active, we
should also get knowledge on
how stratified the society was, what were the main features of
social life, and to what extent were
the citizens of Pompeii equal in terms of political and social
rights? Mary Beard notes that
“Pompeii may have been an intensely political culture” (Beard
2009, 192), in which the
benefaction at all levels played an important and honorable role.
The town elites contributed
much to the development of culture and infrastructure, as shown
via renovated and large theaters
and water facilities (Zanker). The governing class in the city
was aristocratic; there were several
important and rich families, which have kept their memories
attentively, preserving the

inscriptions about career and beneficent deeds. This family
pride also was reflected in the
portraits of family members, which were found in the large
houses. Though the new community
members could be co-opted to the aristocratic families, the city
had a powerful old native
aristocracy, which preserved its standing structure and lifestyle
(Ordo, 169). The society was
patriarchal, and women could not take official positions in the
authority (Cooley & Cooley).
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Although the Pompeii was the city of slavers and slaves, the
freedmen were a numerous social
group, which could even enter the higher society upon
partnering with the city elite (Ordo, 182).
In economic terms, the community of free people was more or
less equal. The analysis of the
skeletons proves that even people far from being rich enjoyed
the same diet as the city elite,
including sea food, meat, nuts and figs (Beard 2010), and the
ration of different groups of

citizens was similar. To sum up, Pompeii had a sociable
community with both conservative and
democratic features, yet with relatively high level of economic
equality (Ordo, 182).
The material remnants also provide important findings about the
economic situation. Pompeii
was situated perfectly to serve as a market and financial hub
(Cooley & Cooley). Geographically,
in was a port to the river gallery. The imported goods came
from various regions – Italy,
Mediterranean, Africa – which allows to conclude on the
developed commercial network.
According to Laurence, the major export product was pottery,
though it was not produced
especially for export or for a mass market. Another branches of
the city economy included
bakery, textile manufacturing, metal working and culinary –
speaking of the latter, Pompeii was
famous for its high quality fish sauce called garrum (Laurence,
73). The findings prove that
notwithstanding developed industries, the key driving force of
the economy was negotiating and
trade (Laurence).
An important role in the Pompeian society was played not only

by social and economic
activities, but by religion. It drew upon different international
sources, from Greece to Egypt, yet
with dominating impact of the Roman Pantheon. The religious
festivals and ceremonies were
important for citizens, and were widely celebrated. Upon the
start of Empire period, the Emperor
cult started to prevail over the others (Cooley & Cooley). There
is evidence that the cults of Isis
and of Dionysus were widespread in the city (Matthiesen).
Still, one of the most worshiped gods in Pompeii was Venus,
praised by poets and
ordinary inhabitants, and in connection with that a high
eroticism of local society should be
noted. The important role of sex symbolism is represented in
numerous phallic symbols and
erotic frescoes found in the remnants, which in the religious
discourse has even led to the
attribution of Pompeii's destruction to the divine punishment for
the immorality (Hales & Paul).
To pay tribute to the conservative religious point of view, it is
worth mentioning that such
devotion to love and sex in Pompeii was not exclusively
connected with Venus cult. Beard

stresses that prostitution, along with gambling and crime, was
present in Pompeii. Moreover, for
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the elite men sexual partner could have been of either sex, there
was no particular difference.
This is supported by the remnants of brothels and pornographic
inscriptions and drawings (Beard
2009).
Despite the spread of promiscuity in sexual life, the family ties
in Pompeian society were
strong. The remains of children with heavy and dangerous
diseases, who needed a lot of care,
prove that society involved support networks for the disabled
and devoted time and efforts to
looking after them (Beard 2010). The carbonized remains of
people allow one to conclude that a
majority of them were trying to save their families from certain
death.
LESSONS OF ARCHEOLOGY
Summing up the above, we may conclude that the remnants of

Pompeii are the unique
historical monument, which provides complex view towards the
culture, social and political life
of that epoch, having remained intact to the environment for
centuries. It gives the reasoning,
why it is so important to explore the past, and how can
archeology benefit humankind.
Firstly, archeology is beneficial for more comprehensive
knowledge of history and learning the
historical lessons. It allows to reflect about the maintenance of
life, dynamics and relationships in
the societies, adding to the historical books and other sources
(Allison, 16), and sometimes even
providing new view towards them. For instance, McAllen writes
that according to the ancient
historical documents, the citizens of Pompeii were portrayed as
fleeing in terror, fighting to
preserve their own lives and material values. The archeological
studies have uncovered evidence
that among the citizens were a number of those who met the
cataclysm with bravery, and did
their best to protect their families, otherwise remaining with
those who couldn’t escape
(McAllen). Reconstruction of past societies is important to

provide understanding, how the social
forces were developing, and to fill the gaps in cultural, social
and economic theories (Allison,
16).
Secondly, as emphasized by Goran Blix, archaeology not only
allows us to learn about
culture, it has significant impact on its development. Having
been discovered, Pompeii and its
neighboring city, Herculaneum, have attracted numerous
travelling artists. The decorative art
represented in these cities has set “a long-term trend in
decoration, inspiring, for example, the
Pompeian ornamental scheme of Napoleon's castle” (Blix, 10).
Subsequently, it has led to the
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spread of intense romantic drama of the doomed cities,
proceeding with the Hollywood movies.
Thus archeology exploration of culture has given a new life to
the seemingly lost values.
CONCLUSION

Following the results of the study of Pompeii we may conclude
that archeological
research provides an exclusive opportunity to understand the
ancient past. The exploration of the
past makes the material and non-material culture of the
dispelled civilizations beneficial for the
descendants, provides them with insights to new knowledge. It
offers a broad understanding of
how people lived, what values did they appreciate, how their
society was developed and
changing. It makes the study of cultural heritage of the past an
important component of education
and personal development.
Analysis Essay
• Analysis Essay: There will be a 4-6 page analysis essay
where students will be asked to explore a topic that is covered
in class. The goal is to analyze and answer a particular set of
questions about said topic. This is not a book report, but an
exploration paper. A topic proposal will be due from each
student at least two weeks before the essay is due. The
proposal will let me know what your interests are and how you

are planning to explore the topic, as well as allow time for
revision if necessary. A minimum of 4-5 academic sources
(articles, written publications, etc.) should be used but
students are encouraged to use more. Electronic submission of
the essay to Blackboard’s SafeAssign section is due on the last
day of class. The analysis essay and proposal will count for
15%
of your class grade. Half of a letter grade will be deducted from
the essay for each day that it is late.
• Analysis: to separate into individual parts in order
understand their influence through examination
• The goal of the assignment is to pick a specific topic
and to break it down to see how one aspect
influences/or is influenced by the rest of the system.
• Everything is connected and analyzing the impact of
one trait/trend/attribute becomes easier.
• Analysis can be easier when asking the right questions
• Plagiarism: All class projects will be sent to
“SafeAssign”, the anti-plagiarism software. Any
student with a score 11% or higher (and up to
39%) will have to re-write the copied sections of

the project. Any student with a score of 40% or
higher will have to pick a completely different
topic and write a brand new project. All
assignments must be the original work and ideas
of the student. Any assignment or part of an
assignment that is copied from another source
will be grounds for failing the course. This
includes information from the internet or another
student. The professor will turn all plagiarized
work into the Dean’s office.
Criteria
• 15% of your grade (5% proposal and 10%
essay)
• Topic proposal
• Essay (remember the focus is on analysis)
• 4-6 pages (1000 word minimum)
• 12 pt. font Times New Roman
• 1 inch margins only
• Format: MLA, in-text citations, a works cited
page, grammatically correct.
• Purdue Owl MLA

• Follow the general format
• Remember to proofread your work
• Include title page, heading, number your pages
• No need for footnotes
• Remember to do a Works Cited Page ( Reference
List)
Breakdown of grading
• Organization
• Heading
• Introduction (talk about your topic, brief back ground, discuss
your thesis
and analysis questions)
• Body (the majority of your essay should be analyzing your
potential

questions/thesis with the help of sources)
• Use academic evidence to support conclusions/argument
• Discussion/Conclusion
• Works Cited Page
• Content
Do not plagiarize (using ideas of others without citation)
Clarity of argument-objectivity is important
I should be able to understand what you are saying.
Common rules of grammar should be followed
Proofread
Check the credibility of your sources
Due Date: Last day of class
• Online submission: upload the essay as a word
document to SafeAssign on Blackboard

• For every day that the essay is late it will lose
half of a letter grade
• Do not plagiarize
Directions for your extra-credit assignments
• 1. Pick a topic in anthropology that is not your essay
topic.
• 2. Find two academic sources (the easiest sources to
use are articles found in the KCC databases) about that
topic and read them.
• 3. In 1 ½ - 2 pages (double spaced) analyze the topic in
your own words using the sources as evidence.
• 4. Include a works cited component at the end
• You can do a maximum of 3 extra-credit assignments.
When done correctly, each assignment can earn up to
10 points. You can use the 10 points to add them
towards any of your test grades.
• If you decide to do all three, you will have to use three
different topics and a total of six academic sources (2
for each assignment).

• I do not need a topic proposal for these assignments. If the
submitted assignments have nothing to do with anthropology,
they will simply not get any credit.
• I will make a safeassign link on Blackboard where you will be
able to submit your extra-credit assignments as a single word
document.
• The due date of the extra-credit assignment is the last day of
class. Please note, extra-credit assignments will not be
accepted after the last day of class (this is non-negotiable).
Ethnicity and Race
What is Race?
• Race and the study of race has a complex history
behind it
• Early academia
• Darwin and Natural selection
• Social Darwinism: idea of social evolution where non-

industrial societies were technologically, mentally, and
biologically inferior.
• By 1800’s, early understanding of race was linked with
the concept of “survival of the fittest” and carried
very powerful social meanings.
• Science links biology to behavior, mental capacity, and
race.
• Is race biological?
• A particular race should represent the genetic
material that is shared and passed down from
common ancestors
• Race-Population of species that differ genetically or
geographically
•Early scholars focused
on a several of very many
phenotypical traits to
determine race
•Scientists emphasized
skin color as a main
indicator of race

Natural Selection
• Larger portions and concentration of melanin results
in darker skin color
• Melanin has a very important function: protection
against ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun
• Protection against skin cancer and sun burns
• It is not possible to categorize race from a
purely biological point of view
• Cultural constructions of race are a possibility
Franz Boas
Society/culture is a
complex of meaning.
•Cultural relativity: idea
that each
culture/society must be
understood on its own

terms.
• Genetic evidence and “race”.
• Race: A flawed system of classification, with no
biological basis, that uses certain physical
characteristics to divide the human population into
discrete groups.
Similar problems are
solved in different
ways.
For Boas, this could
be explained by
differences in culture
not differences in
biology.
Ethnicity
• Members of an ethnic group share beliefs, values,
habits, customs, and norms because of some common
background
• Ethnicity: identification with a group based on set of
values and exclusion from other groups based on
differences in those values

• Minority groups and majority groups
• In many societies, ethnic, racial, and caste status corresponds
to a
position in social-political hierarchy.
• American popular discourse often does not draw a clear line
between
ethnicity and race.
• Probably more clear in most cases to use term “ethnic group”
rather
than “race” – e.g. Asian American, European American, etc..
Social Construction of Race
• Race is a symbol
• Inequality and hypodescent – placing the child of a union
between
members of different groups in the minority group
• Susie Guillory Phipps and Louisiana's 1/32 rule
• The Bell Curve 1994
Diversity and Tolerance
• Assimilation into society – culture, language, beliefs, norms,

rules of
minority group change as another culture dominates
• Multiculturalism – opposite of assimilation model that views
diversity
as a positive (U.S.)
Conflict
• Prejudice: devaluing a group because of its assumed
behavior, values, capabilities, or attributes
• Discrimination: Policies and specific practices that aim
to harm a group and its members
• De facto: treatment that is not legal but occurs anyway
(Unfair treatment by legal system and police force, Stop
and Frisk)
• De jure: legal policies enabling public discrimination
(Jim Crow Laws)
1992 Los Angeles Riots

Genocide, Ethnocide, Cultural Colonialism
• Genocide: most extreme form of discrimination
• Ethnocide: cultures of particular ethnic groups are
eradicated
• Cultural colonialism: internal domination by one
group over others in terms of culture, language, etc
Analysis Essay
• Analysis Essay: There will be a 4-6 page analysis essay
where students will be asked to explore a topic that is covered
in class. The goal is to analyze and answer a particular set of
questions about said topic. This is not a book report, but an
exploration paper. A topic proposal will be due from each
student at least two weeks before the essay is due. The
proposal will let me know what your interests are and how you
are planning to explore the topic, as well as allow time for
revision if necessary. A minimum of 4-5 academic sources

(articles, written publications, etc.) should be used but
students are encouraged to use more. Electronic submission of
the essay to Blackboard’s SafeAssign section is due on the last
day of class. The analysis essay and proposal will count for
15%
of your class grade. Half of a letter grade will be deducted from
the essay for each day that it is late.
• Analysis: to separate into individual parts in order
understand their influence through examination
• The goal of the assignment is to pick a specific topic
and to break it down to see how one aspect
influences/or is influenced by the rest of the system.
• Everything is connected and analyzing the impact of
one trait/trend/attribute becomes easier.
• Analysis can be easier when asking the right questions
• Plagiarism: All class projects will be sent to
“SafeAssign”, the anti-plagiarism software. Any
student with a score 11% or higher (and up to
39%) will have to re-write the copied sections of
the project. Any student with a score of 40% or
higher will have to pick a completely different

topic and write a brand new project. All
assignments must be the original work and ideas
of the student. Any assignment or part of an
assignment that is copied from another source
will be grounds for failing the course. This
includes information from the internet or another
student. The professor will turn all plagiarized
work into the Dean’s office.
Criteria
• 15% of your grade (5% proposal and 10%
essay)
• Topic proposal
• Essay (remember the focus is on analysis)
• 4-6 pages (1000 word minimum)
• 12 pt. font Times New Roman
• 1 inch margins only
• Format: MLA, in-text citations, a works cited
page, grammatically correct.
• Purdue Owl MLA
• Follow the general format

• Remember to proofread your work
• Include title page, heading, number your pages
• No need for footnotes
• Remember to do a Works Cited Page ( Reference
List)
Breakdown of grading
• Organization
• Heading
• Introduction (talk about your topic, brief back ground, discuss
your thesis
and analysis questions)
• Body (the majority of your essay should be analyzing your
potential
questions/thesis with the help of sources)

• Use academic evidence to support conclusions/argument
• Discussion/Conclusion
• Works Cited Page
• Content
Do not plagiarize (using ideas of others without citation)
Clarity of argument-objectivity is important
I should be able to understand what you are saying.
Common rules of grammar should be followed
Proofread
Check the credibility of your sources
Due Date: Last day of class
• Online submission: upload the essay as a word
document to SafeAssign on Blackboard

• For every day that the essay is late it will lose
half of a letter grade
• Do not plagiarize
Directions for your extra-credit assignments
• 1. Pick a topic in anthropology that is not your essay
topic.
• 2. Find two academic sources (the easiest sources to
use are articles found in the KCC databases) about that
topic and read them.
• 3. In 1 ½ - 2 pages (double spaced) analyze the topic in
your own words using the sources as evidence.
• 4. Include a works cited component at the end
• You can do a maximum of 3 extra-credit assignments.
When done correctly, each assignment can earn up to
10 points. You can use the 10 points to add them
towards any of your test grades.
• If you decide to do all three, you will have to use three
different topics and a total of six academic sources (2
for each assignment).
• I do not need a topic proposal for these assignments. If the

submitted assignments have nothing to do with anthropology,
they will simply not get any credit.
• I will make a safeassign link on Blackboard where you will be
able to submit your extra-credit assignments as a single word
document.
• The due date of the extra-credit assignment is the last day of
class. Please note, extra-credit assignments will not be
accepted after the last day of class (this is non-negotiable).

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