This document discusses ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. It begins by defining ethnocentrism as judging other cultures based primarily on the standards of one's own culture. It then defines cultural relativism as understanding and evaluating other cultures based on their own cultural context and standards rather than one's own. The document then discusses the author's own Yoruba culture in Nigeria, providing details on traditions, customs, and practices. It notes how the author has held some ethnocentric views but now believes no culture is superior and cultural differences should be appreciated and understood rather than judged.

1. Running Head: ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURAL
RELATIVISM 1
ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM
7
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Student Name: Oluwakemi Aina
Instructor’s Name: Dr.
La Tonya Scott
01/16/2020
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism is considered as the propensity to look at the
world through the lens of one’s individual culture. This means
that people will judge the beliefs, behaviors, customs, and
attitudes based on their own cultural patterns. Culture includes
ideas, customs, and social behavior of a given group of people
or society. It is the characteristics of a given group of people
that is defined by social habits, language, beliefs, customs,
laws, religion, etc. The aspect of ethnocentrism is considered to
take place mostly because people have the highest information
and understanding of their own culture, which incorrectly makes
them imagine that values, standards, and norms of their own
culture are adopted collectively. The concept of ethnocentrism
is a common incident that happens for several people across
many societies and cultures. According to Brewer (2005), an
individual can simultaneously hold positive attitudes towards
their own group or outgroups even when they may tend to differ
on certain behaviors, attitudes or values. As a result,
ethnocentrism is not essentially associated with racism or ethnic
prejudice; instead, it is considered as the propensity of using
one’s own culture or group as a reference in judging others,
with the judgment coming from the indifferent, positive, or

2. negative evaluation (Schopmeyer & Fisher, 1993).
Cultural relativism is the capacity to understand a culture based
on its own terms and not make a judgment using the standards
of an individual’s own culture. Cultural relativism aims to
enhance the comprehension of cultural practices that are not
characteristically part of one’s own culture. The concept of
cultural relativism leads to the perception that no culture is
superior to another when it is compared to a system of politics,
law, morality, etc. (Brewer, 2005). People from different
cultures may forge relationships that respects, acknowledges, or
starts to understand one another’s different lives. People coming
from various backgrounds can help one another see options that
no one was thinking about because of cultural prohibitions or
limitations modeled by their own traditions. Traditional habits
in particular cultures can constrain opportunities because they
are considered “wrong” from one’s specific culture (Johnson,
2007).
My Cultural Group
I belong to the African Ethnic Group (Yoruba Group). The
Yoruba are one of the biggest ethnic groups in West Africa,
especially in Nigeria. The Yoruba culture has developed and
matured for several years, making it rich in history. Even
though a large proportion of the Yoruba people have moved to
town and cities, the old traditions are not lost. Surprisingly, the
Yoruba people have the highest rate of twins across the globe. It
is believed that the high number of twins is associated with a
chemical within the cassava plant which makes a large
percentage of the Yoruba traditional diet (Ológundúdú, 2008).
As the people of Yoruba, we believe in the traditional marriage
culture. The Yoruba culture that courts the bridge are expected
to prove that he is capable of making a payment to the family
through a bride price (Ológundúdú, 2008). The intricate
wedding ceremony comprises of nine days where the bride must
spend time at her parent’s house and new husband.
Most of the people of Yoruba do not most often wear their
traditional dresses. Even though the traditional dresses are full

3. of color and beautiful, they are not worn so much. A large
number of Yoruba people have adopted a modern style of
dressing that is used in several cities. But in rural areas, there
are still some people who wear traditional clothing. In most
cases, traditional clothing is worn for special events such as a
wedding ceremony or a celebration. The traditions of Yoruba
have a strong foundation on philosophy and folktales. It is
mostly based on mythology and cosmology of creatures living
in both the visible as well as invisible worlds. Several folktales
are told in the Yoruba culture to help people wisely navigate
through life (Ológundúdú, 2008).
It is also important to note that the Yoruba culture has its own
traditional cuisines. The cuisines have had a strong influence on
the foods of Nigeria, especially in hotels and restaurants in the
Southern part of the country. The most popular dishes served
among the Yoruba people include amala, Akara, Moin Moin,
cassava, jollof rice, plantains, and ekuru (Abimbola, 2006). The
Yoruba people put a lot of value to the names given to babies.
They have a belief that people live their life out based on the
names they are given at birth. As a result, when a child is born,
a lot of focus is put on choosing a name they believe would
define the destiny of the newborn. They believe that twins
should have natural birth names and the first of the two twins is
normally names as Taiwo (Abimbola, 2006).
Just like several other cultures across the globe, the Yoruba do
not believe that death is the end of life. We believe that the
current life and even afterlife are connected. When people die,
they will still live though in a different setting. We also believe
in the presence of ancestors who can watch over their
descendants after they die, however, this tradition is slowly
losing its meaning (Ológundúdú, 2008).
Dance and music have always been a key component of the
Yoruba culture, especially those who live in Nigeria and the
diaspora. Yoruba music and dance are used for various
occasions in life including religious festivals, entertainment,
and royal occasions. In most cases, the Yoruba traditional music

4. is centered on Yoruba deities. Songs and drums beatings are the
major components of Yoruba music. Other instruments like
wind instruments and metal bells can sometimes be used. It is
critical to note that Yoruba is a tonal language, as a result, their
words must be pronounced in the right tone and pitch to
understand the correct meaning of the message. The Yoruba
music is normally based on tonal models of the pitch, e.g. Juju
dance.
Perspectives Rooted in Ethnocentric Belief
From an ethnocentric perspective, I sometimes believe that my
culture is the most natural way of living. This has happened in
several instances. Certain cultures may be similar or overlap in
concepts and ideas but in certain cases, I get so much shocked
with extremes when I encounter practices that are very much
different. I have seen a group of people view another culture’s
way of life as wrong. This is not a new phenomenon in a diverse
population. I have always tended to put my own culture as the
center of all other groups. Inside, I have a feeling that my own
culture is superior to other groups. The ingroup favoritism and
denigration of outgroups is a feeling housed by several people
(Tilley, 2007). However, I have since learned to understand and
appreciate the uniqueness of various cultures and their
traditions, beliefs, and norms.
Perspectives Based on Cultural Relativism
I believe that cross-cultural relationship is an important element
in the society, particularly when people from different cultures
relate in a manner that respects, acknowledges and understands
one another’s a unique way of living. When people from
different backgrounds live together in harmony, they can see
other possibilities that they did not think existed before as a
result of cultural limitations. When we brand certain cultures as
“wrong” based on our own, we tend to limit our way of thinking
and learning. I believe in the importance of understanding a
culture on its own terms and not judge other’s culture based on
the standards we set on our own. We need to live in a society

5. that promotes an understanding of different cultural practices.
No culture should be considered superior to another because
they are all unique in a way (Rosado, 2004).
Sometimes back when I first joined high school, I met people of
different races and cultural backgrounds. One of the cases of
ethnocentrism that I met involved an Asian student in a hotel.
According to Asian culture, eating is done using chopsticks for
every meal. As a result, one of the Asian students found it
unnecessary to see me use my hands and spoons to eat. The
Yoruba people can eat using their bare hands, for most of our
traditional foods. Since most of the Asian people use chopsticks
to eat every meal, they may find it foolish and backward for
another culture to use their bare hands or spoons for eating. The
Asian student approached me to enquire why I use my hands
and not chopstick, I took it as my responsibility to let him know
that every culture has different practices and beliefs.
Conclusion
Every culture is unique in a way and none is superior to
another. The concept of cultural relativism is an aspect that we
should encourage in our society to live and coexist together for
a peaceful society. The Yoruba culture, where I come from, has
different cultural practices that make it unique from several
other cultures I have encountered. Even though sometimes, I
have a feeling that my culture is superior to other groups, the
reality is that we are all different and unique in ways based on
our cultural affiliation. We should create a society where people
understand and appreciates our cultural differences and not
judge them on the standards of their own culture.
References
Abimbola, K. (2006). Yoruba culture: A philosophical account.
iroko academic publishers.
Brewer, M. B. (2005). Ethnocentrism and prejudice: A search

6. for universals. In C. S. Crandall & M. Schaller (Eds.), Social
psychology of prejudice: Historical and contemporary issues
(pp. 79-93). Lawrence, KS: Lewinian Press.
Johnson, T. H. (2007). Cultural relativism: interpretations of a
concept. Anthropological Quarterly, 80(3), 791-802.
Ológundúdú, D. (2008). The cradle of Yoruba culture. Center
for Spoken Words.
Rosado, C. (2004). Understanding cultural relativism in a
multicultural world. Rachels, J.(1999) The Elements of Moral
Philosophy. McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA, 15-29.
Schopmeyer, K. D., & Fisher, B. J. (1993). Insiders and
outsiders: Exploring ethnocentrism and cultural relativity in
sociology courses. Teaching Sociology, 148-153.
Tilley, J. J. (2007). Cultural relativism. The Blackwell
Encyclopedia of Sociology, 1-2.
Chapter 11: Motivating for
Improvement
Objectives
• Understand intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
• Recognize content theories and process
theories of motivation
• Be able to apply motivation theory when

7. designing jobs and incentives
Outline
• Theories of Motivation
– Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivators
– Content Theories of Motivation
– Process Theories of Motivation
• Motivating for Improvement
Theories of Motivation
Classified into two main categories
• Content – seeks to identify drivers internal to
individuals.
• Process – focus on activities or forces external
to individuals. Can be altered to induce or
affect more commitment.
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
• Maslow’s hierarchy

8. • Existence, Relatedness,
Growth (ERG) theory
• McClelland’s learned
needs theory
• Herzberg’s hygiene
factors theory
• Job enrichment theory
Process Theories
• Expectancy theory
• Goal setting theory
• Equity theory
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic – sources of motivation that come
from within an individual (examples: honor,
idealism, status).
• Extrinsic – sources of motivation that are
derived from outside an individual (examples:
compensation, recognition, punishment).
Content and Process theories both contain
concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

9. Content Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy
• Universal internal drivers of human behavior,
ordered from most basic:
1. Physiological
2. Safety and security
3. Love and belonging
4. Self-esteem
5. Self-actualization
Maslow’s Hierarchy
• Represents an oversimplification, but has high
face validity (people find it intuitively true)
• Does not capture the fact that needs can
change over time
ERG Theory
There are 3 categories of needs:

10. 1) Existence
2) Relatedness
3) Growth
• Congruent with Maslow’s five categories
• Distinct from Maslow in that ERG recognizes
humans cycle through priority of needs rather
than ascending a fixed hierarchy
McClelland’s Learned Needs
Theory
• Key needs motivating individuals can be learned
and are not necessarily genetic
• These needs are:
1) Achievement
2) Affiliation
3) Power
• Suggests that these needs can be instilled in
employees through coaching, and conversely
unlearned through habit
Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors Theory

11. Rewards that motivate come in two forms:
1) Hygiene factors
• Rewards that encourage sufficient performance.
Do not motivate extra effort or guarantee
improved outcomes (examples: job security,
salary, organizational policies).
2) Satisfiers
• Rewards that encourage improved performance.
Positively associated with effort (examples:
advancement, recognition, personal growth).
Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors Theory
(continued)
• Hygiene factors and satisfiers can be
influenced by an organization and its
managers.
• How these motivators are designed influence
employees’ performances.
• A system design with more satisfiers should
yield higher performance.
Job Enrichment Theory
• Most jobs can be enriched so that they come
closer to meeting the human needs already
expressed by expanding the nature of the

12. tasks an individual performs.
• Job characteristics amenable to enrichment:
1) Skill variety (number of skills used in
performing a task)
2) Task identity (portion of a whole task
performed by an individual)
3) Task significance (importance to an
organization)
4) Autonomy (freedom to choose how a task is
performed)
5) Feedback (information about the quality and
outcomes of a task)
Job Enrichment Theory (continued)
• Can provide increased employee satisfaction due
to expanding responsibility and control over
tasks.
• Some job enrichment strategies include:
1) Combining tasks so that employees can see the
entire process
2) Rotating employees through different
assignments

13. 3) Delegating tasks typically assigned to those
higher in the organizational hierarchy
Process Theories
Expectancy Theory
• Proposes a relationship between (1) efforts of
employees, (2) quality of their performance,
and (3) level of recognition by organization.
• If the employee perceives the level of
recognition (3) is in line with the amount of
effort dispensed (1), than the employee feels
motivated.
Expectancy Theory (continued)
• A manager should seek to understand the
degree to which different employees value
different rewards (recognition).
• Management can positively affect employee
motivation by ensuring: (1) employee time is
well-spent, (2) effort increases performance,
and (3) performance is appropriately
recognized.

14. Goal Setting Theory
• Establishing appropriate goals for employees is
motivating.
• Goals should be: (1) established jointly between
employee and manager and (2) be challenging.
• Goals that are too easy, or impossible, are not
effective.
• Regular feedback on progress is necessary to
stress the goal’s importance and to permit
adjustments.
Equity Theory
• Employees are motivated when their effort is
rewarded in a manner that is equitable with how
others are rewarded.
• Issues of equity and fairness can be raised by:
1) Salary and perks
2) Office space
3) Work assignments
• Managers should have a reasonable and publicly
defensible reason for treating employees
differently.

15. Motivating for Improvment
• Screening of new hires should include a
discussion about commitment to customer
service and continuous improvement – helps
determine level of intrinsic motivation.
• Design and implement policies that encourage
employee engagement and reinforce high
motivation like sharing information widely and
investing in learning opportunities.
• Understand that there is variation in motivating
drivers for individual employees.
Motivating for Improvement
(continued)
• Be creative and take risks/experiment.
• Look for opportunities to praise.
• Draw on the intrinsic motivations inherent in
health work.
Chapter 10:
Developing Self and Others

16. Objectives
• Understand the relationship between workplace
performance and individual physiology,
personality, emotional and social intelligence, and
competencies.
• Identify four ways to pursue self-development.
• Understand the importance of developing other
employees.
• Be able to describe three ways managers can
develop employees.
• Identify characteristic features of organizations
that encourage employee development.
Outline
• Understanding Self
• Developing Self
• Developing Others
• Organizational Strategies for Employee
Development
Understanding Physiological Self
• At a core physiological level, scientists are beginning

17. to learn more about how chemical and neural
responses both reflect and influence behavior.
• Managers who are proficient at reading physiological
responses are better able to resist their own
personal tendencies towards reactive behavior and
convey feelings of psychological safety to others.
• A threat response is activated by feelings such as
uncertainty, reduced autonomy distrust, and
inequity.
Understanding Personality
• At the core of human beings are personality
traits that guide their individual reactions to
everyday events.
• “Big Five” personality dimensions include:
– Neuroticism
– Extraversion
– Openness
– Agreeableness
– Conscientiousness
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
• A commonly-used instrument for both self-

18. understanding and understanding others is the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)®, which summarizes an
individual’s preferences for taking in information and
then making decisions.
• Individuals are classified into one of 16 personality types
based on scores related to the four dimensions.
– Introversion ↔ Extraversion
– Sensing ↔ Intuition
– Thinking ↔ Feeling
– Judging ↔ Perceiving
Emotional and Social Intelligence
• Refers to how people behave in both private
and public situations.
• Composed of two competencies: (1) personal
competence for self-awareness, self-
regulation, and motivation and (2) social
competence for empathy and social skills.
• Self-aware individuals accurately see
themselves.
Competencies
• A competency is an effective application of

19. available knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values
in complex situations.
• Many self-assessments used in the workplace are
based on competencies.
• Competency for collaboration is an area of self-
assessment that is important in health
organization work.
• Diversity management skills are useful to assess
and develop in the health workplace.
Soliciting Feedback
• Understanding one’s self requires soliciting feedback
about one’s strengths and weaknesses as a manager.
• Identifying weaknesses requires commitment,
energy, and focus.
• Identifying weaknesses requires soliciting feedback
about personal behavior and performance.
• Feedback from 360 degrees means gathering
information from the full circle of work relationships
as well as feedback from customers and clients.
Developing Self
• After acquiring an understanding of self, address
gaps in performance of key competencies.

20. • Developing and promoting one’s strengths is
highly recommended.
• Strength is the ability to consistently provide
near-perfect performance.
• Understanding the requirements of one’s
workplace makes it easier to focus on developing
the skills that will be rewarded.
Developing Self Through
Evidence-Based Management
• Personal development includes keeping up with
the growth in the knowledge base of one’s
discipline.
• In the future, managers are more likely to be
required to defend their practices based on
scientific evidence.
• Managers should try not to rely on rationales like,
“That’s the way we’ve always done it here.”
• Join and participate in professional organizations.
Developing Others
• Managers are responsible for helping employees
understand and develop themselves.

21. • One way to do this is to sponsor, role model, and
encourage sharing of self-assessments in
discussion group forums.
• This is particularly useful for employees who
work together closely in interdependent teams,
because it facilitates cross-training and
understanding.
Develop Others Through
Responsibilities
• Give employees successively more challenging
growth experiences on the job.
• This can happen through designing new tasks
or delegating existing tasks.
• Delegation is underused and often avoided.
• A delegated assignment should be clear, and
its importance should be clearly conveyed in a
face-to-face meeting.
Develop Others Through Feedback
• Make an appointment or ask whether the present
is a convenient time to provide such information.
• Deliver feedback in a private place.
• Describe perceptions of the other person’s

22. behavior using specific examples that have been
personally observed.
• After giving feedback, give the recipient time to
respond.
• Develop a joint action plan.
Make Feedback Direct
• Some managers can be too blunt and others can
be too sensitive.
• Both the employee and the organization are
better served by clear and open communication.
• Direct statements are usually appreciated.
• Don’t avoid important issues.
• Helping underperforming employees to improve
or move on to better-fitting positions is an
important organizational responsibility.
Organizational Strategies for Employee
Development
• Employee development is a critically important
organizational activity.
• It is easy to identify organizations that put a
priority on employee development.

23. – Managers are trained in employee development
and are assessed on the development of their
employees.
– Everyone in the organization has an individualized
development plan.
– There are programs focused on leadership.
– Coaching and mentoring are widely used.
Individualized Development Plans
• Performance review systems with individualized
development plans are integral to widespread
employee development.
• Plans typically set goals for 90 days, six months,
or one year.
• Managers set goals jointly with employees.
• Progress is monitored at 30-day or other
appropriate intervals.
• Similar strategies can be used to focus on the
development of a team.
Management and Leadership
Education Programs
• Many large organizations have internal

24. development institutes that offer courses for
employees.
• In organizations committed to employee
development, budgets for training are the last
to be cut.
• Top-level executives should participate in
teaching and taking courses.
Coaching and Mentoring
• Coaching is one-on-one advising from a
professional coach.
• Coaching advises about interpersonal skills and
strategic priorities.
• Mentoring involves a long-term relationship with
a more experienced person.
• Mentors share knowledge and insights.
• Large organizations often have formal programs
for coaching and mentoring.
Week 5 - Written Assignment
Cultural Perspectives Draft
The goal of this assignment is to integrate cultural nuances,
expectations, and perspectives into a draft of your final paper.
You will present a current diversity-related situation or
dilemma; compare and contrast the cultures involved in the
situation; and provide a historical perspective and analyze the

25. contributing factors to the current state of the situation. You
will then interpret the effects of the situation on the cultures
involved, provide evidence in favor of and opposed to each side
of the situation. Finally, you will assess your beliefs and
perspectives regarding the situation or dilemma and identify
strategies for building inclusion by synthesizing the varying
perspectives.
Instructions:
This assignment will build upon your accumulated learning
from the course and your written assignments from Weeks 3 and
4. Based on your identified situation or cultural dilemma (from
your Week 4 written assignment), determine a personal position
regarding the topic. Then write a 2800-3500 word paper that:
· Identifies and presents your own attitudes, beliefs, cultural
norms, stereotypes, or biases that you may have, or had in the
past, regarding the topic.
· Presents at least one argument supporting the perspective of
each cultural group involved with the topic.
· Considers how the situation or dilemma may be addressed
moving forward with a mutually beneficial outcome.
This written assignment will include:
· An identified diversity situation or cultural dilemma prevalent
in today’s society that involves more than one cultural group.
(Week 3 written assignment)
· A comparison of the different cultural groups involved. (Week
4 written assignment)
· Personal position regarding the topic. (Week 5 written
assignment)
This written assignment should be double-spaced, and include a
title page and references page. Additionally, utilize 5 to 7
resources, including resources provided throughout the course,
to support your arguments. Make sure to gather evidence and
present persuasive, well-reasoned arguments regarding your
topic, and consider all perspectives and opinions.
This Week 5 paper should include all the requirements of the
Weeks 3 and 4 papers and also:

26. · Identify and present your own attitudes, beliefs, cultural
norms, stereotypes, or biases that you may have, or had in the
past, regarding the topic.
· Present at least one argument supporting the perspective of
each cultural group involved with the topic.
· Consider how the situation or dilemma may be addressed
moving forward with a mutually beneficial outcome.