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Alexander ch08 lecture
1.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Advanced EMT A Clinical-Reasoning Approach, 2nd Edition Chapter 8 Human Body Systems
2.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Integrates complex knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the airway, respiratory, and circulatory systems to the practice of EMS. Advanced EMT Education Standard
3.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 1. Define key terms introduced in this chapter. 2. Explain the concepts of metabolism and homeostasis. 3. Describe each of the levels of organization of the human body. 4. Describe the anatomy and physiology of a typical body cell. 5. Explain the physiology and distribution of fluids and electrolytes in the body. 6. Describe the regulation of acid–base balance and blood gases. Objectives (1 of 3)
4.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 7. Identify the anatomy and explain the basic physiology of the following body systems: – Gastrointestinal – Genitourinary – Integumentary – Male and female reproductive – Musculoskeletal Objectives (2 of 3)
5.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 8. Identify the anatomy and explain the functions, including mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis, of the following systems: – Cardiovascular, with particular attention to cardiac electrophysiology, cardiac output, hemodynamics, and perfusion – Endocrine, with particular emphasis on the regulation of glucose – Nervous, with particular focus on the autonomic nervous system and its sympathetic and parasympathetic receptors and neurotransmitters – Respiratory, with particular attention to the mechanics of ventilation, and external and internal respiration Objectives (3 of 3)
6.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • To recognize what is abnormal you must have understanding of what is normal. • Structures of body designed precisely to carry out their functions. – Anatomy – Physiology Introduction (1 of 3)
7.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Body consists of several layers of organization. – Chemical – Cell – Tissue – Organ – System – Organism Introduction (2 of 3)
8.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Cell—basic building block of life – Cytoplasm – organelles • Groups of cells form tissues, which form organs and body systems. – Homeostasis Introduction (3 of 3)
9.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • What organs do you suspect may have been injured by each of the gunshot wounds? • How can the patient’s injuries explain the weak, rapid pulse and difficulty breathing? • What mechanisms is the patient’s body using to try to compensate for the effects of the injuries? • How could the patient’s injuries lead to death? Think About It
10.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Cells – composed of chemicals. – surrounded by chemical environment. • Chemistry – study of composition of substances and interactions between various elements and compounds. – Chemistry allows cells to engage in metabolism and maintain homeostasis. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (1 of 21)
11.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Chemical element – A substance that cannot be broken down further • Atom – Simplest unit of an element – Subatomic particles Electrons—negatively charged Protons—positively charged Neutrons—electrically neutral • Electrical charge of subatomic particles allows atoms to bind with atoms of opposite charge. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (2 of 21)
12.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Some atoms capable of either gaining or losing electrons. • Define each of the following terms – Ion – Cation – Anion – Electrolyte General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (3 of 21)
13.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-1 Typical structure of atoms.
14.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-2 Electrolytes are compounds made of a positively charged ion (cation) and a negatively charged ion (anion). When an electrolyte is placed in a solution, it will dissociate into charged ions. (Illustration from Bledsoe, Bryan E.; Martini, Frederic H.; Bartholomew, Edwin F.; Ober, William C.; Garrison, Claire W.; Anatomy & Physiology for Emergency Care, 2nd Edition, © 2008. Reprinted with permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
15.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Table 8-2 Principal Chemical Elements in the Body Element Symbol Percent of Body Weight Significance Oxygen O 65 A component of water and other compounds; oxygen gas is essential for respiration Carbon C 18.6 Found in all organic molecules Hydrogen H 9.7 A component of water and most other compounds in the body Nitrogen N 3.2 Found in proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds Calcium Ca 1.8 Found in bones and teeth; important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and blood clotting Phosphorus P 1.0 Found in bones and teeth, nucleic acids, and high-energy compounds Potassium K 0.4 Important for proper membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction Sodium Na 0.2 Important for membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction Chlorine Cl 0.2 Important for membrane function and water absorption Magnesium Mg 0.06 Required for activation of several enzymes Sulfur S 0.04 Found in many proteins Iron Fe 0.007 Essential for oxygen transport and energy capture Iodine I 0.0002 A component of hormones of the thyroid gland
16.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology (4 of 21) • Four chemical elements that comprise most of the body’s atoms – Hydrogen (H) – Oxygen (O) – Carbon (C) – Nitrogen (N)
17.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Water – Body Composed largely of water (H20) – Intracellular fluid (ICF) Water within cells – Extracellular fluid (ECF) Outside of the cells – Intravascular – Interstitial General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (5 of 21)
18.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Solutes – Formed particles in body fluids electrolytes, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, drugs – Osmosis movement of water across semipermeable membrane along gradient from lower to higher solute concentration – Water and solutes move to make the concentration equal throughout the solution General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (6 of 21)
19.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Solutes (continued) – Osmotic pressure is caused by the difference in concentrations of solutes ability to “pull” water across the cell membrane. Measured in milliosmols (mOsm). – Oncotic pressure is a portion of total osmotic pressure Returns fluid to the bloodstream. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (7 of 21)
20.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Define each of the following terms – Isotonic – Hypertonic – Hypotonic • Osmolarity of body fluids between 280 and 310 mOsm/L General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (8 of 21)
21.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-4 In the presence of a hypotonic environment, water moves into cells. In the presence of a hypertonic environment, water moves out of cells.
22.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Sodium/potassium pump—protein on cell membranes that keeps ions at proper levels inside and outside cell. – Principal intracellular cation is potassium (K+) – Principal extracellular cation is Na+ General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (9 of 21)
23.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Sodium/potassium pump requires energy – To move across the concentration gradient – If not enough energy is produced, Na+ is not removed from cell; water will enter cell in quantities such that cell will burst and die. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (10 of 21)
24.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-5 The sodium/potassium pump on the cell membrane uses energy to move sodium and potassium ions across the membrane. (Illustration from Bledsoe, Bryan E.; Martini, Frederic H.; Bartholomew, Edwin F.; Ober, William C.; Garrison, Claire W.; Anatomy & Physiology for Emergency Care, 2nd Edition, © 2008. Reprinted with permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
25.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Energy – Work of the body requires energy. – Energy production in cells is the chemical process of breaking down glucose. – Cells require constant supply of glucose and oxygen. Glucose from the digestive tract Oxygen from the respiratory tract General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (11 of 21)
26.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Metabolism – Anabolism – Catabolism Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (12 of 21)
27.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Adenosine Triphosphate – First phase—Glycolysis Glucose broken down into pyruvic acid Anaerobic metabolism – Second phase— Aerobic metabolism is the complex process that results in larger amount of ATP releasing heat. – If oxygen levels are not quickly restored, cell death and death of individual will occur. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (13 of 21)
28.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-6 Metabolism is the sum of all chemical and physical changes in the body. (Illustration from Bledsoe, Bryan E.; Martini, Frederic H.; Bartholomew, Edwin F.; Ober, William C.; Garrison, Claire W.; Anatomy & Physiology for Emergency Care, 2nd Edition, © 2008. Reprinted with permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
29.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • pH—potential of hydrogen – Acid is a substance that can donate a H+. – Alkali is a substance that can accept a H+. – Acid-base balance measured using pH scale. – pH scale is inverse logarithm; ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (14 of 21)
30.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Acid–base balance – Acidic Concentration of hydrogen ions high – Alkalotic Concentration of hydrogen ions low – Buffer system is when excess hydrogen ions are converted into substances that prevent acid accumulation, maintaining acid-base balance. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (15 of 21)
31.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Membrane potential – Chemical phenomenon reflected by the difference in concentration of electrically charged ions on the inside and the outside of the cell. – Electrical charge of ions determined by the ability to gain or lose electrons. – Electrical current is movement of ions that have too few or too many electrons. – Ions move from areas of greater abundance to areas of less abundance. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (16 of 21)
32.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Membrane potential (continued) – Sodium/potassium pump maintains negative charge within cell and restores difference in charges in repolarization. • Polarized • Depolarized General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (17 of 21)
33.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-8 The cell is the basic unit of the body, consisting of organelles suspended in cytoplasm, and is separated from its environment by a cell membrane.
34.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Table 8-3 Cellular Components Component Function Cell membrane Serves as the boundary of the cell. Selectively allows substances to move in and out of the cell. Cytoplasm (cytosol) The fluid substance in which the organelles are suspended; allows substances to move within the cell by diffusion. Cytoskeleton (composed of microtubules and microfilaments) Provides support. Centrioles Allow movement of chromosomes during cell division. Ribosomes (free ribosomes within cytoplasm and ribosomes bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum) Synthesize protein. Endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is lined with ribosomes; packages proteins. Golgi apparatus Stores and packages substances that will be secreted from the cell. Lysosomes Contain powerful enzymes to rid the cell of damaged organelles and pathogens. Mitochondria Produce ATP. Nucleus Contains RNA and DNA.
35.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Cell membrane – semipermeable, allowing water and small molecules to move through it. – consists of double layer of molecules called phospholipids. • Channels – allow substances to move through cell at certain times. • Movement of other substances regulated by electrical charge of molecules that comprise it. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (18 of 21)
36.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Cytoplasm – is fluid medium within cell. • Nucleus – contains DNA that comprises chromosomes that create body’s genetic code. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (19 of 21)
37.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • DNA transcribed to ribonucleic acid (RNA). • Transcribed by ribosomes into proteins. • Golgi apparatus – modifies protein prior to secretion. • Mitochondria – produce energy in form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (20 of 21)
38.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Vacuoles – Store and transport proteins within cell. • Centrioles – Provide support and form microtubules and spindle apparatus of cell. • Lysosomes – Destroy waste and toxins within cell and possess powerful enzymes. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life (21 of 21)
39.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Tissues • Tissues are a group of specialized cells surrounded by a matrix. – What are the four general types of tissues in the human body?
40.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Think About It • What role does each play in the body? • Epithelial tissue – Thin linings of body surfaces • Connective tissue – Fibers such as collagen and elastin • Muscle tissue – Cells with proteins that can change in length • Nervous tissue – Specialized nerve cells
41.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-10 The anatomical position, with anatomical planes shown.
42.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Anatomical Terminology and Topographic Anatomy (1 of 3) • Anatomic position – Body is standing upright, looking forward, with feet together and arms at sides with palms facing forward • Planes – Sagittal – Frontal – Transverse
43.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Anatomical Terminology and Topographic Anatomy (2 of 3) • Lines of reference – Midaxillary – Midclavicular – Abdomen divided into nine regions
44.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-13 The body cavities.
45.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Anatomical Terminology and Topographic Anatomy (3 of 3) • Body divided into cavities in which internal organs are contained – Dorsal cavity Cranial and spinal – Ventral cavity Thoracic and abdominopelvic
46.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. • Organs composed of tissues that work together to perform specific function. • Most organs consist of a variety of tissues. • Organs and tissues interact to carry out complex set of functions. General Concepts in Anatomy and Physiology: Chemical Basis of Life
47.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Think About It • Systems are collections of organs and tissues that interact to carry out a complex set of functions. • What system provides structure to the body? • What system perfuses the body?
48.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Skeletal System (1 of 6) • Bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments. • Provides body with – Structure, support, protection. – Reservoir of calcium and bone marrow, where new blood cells created. Skeletal muscles allow movement. • 206 bones classified as long, short, or flat.
49.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Skeletal System (2 of 6) • What is cartilage? • What are tendons? • What are ligaments?
50.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-15 Structure of a typical long bone.
51.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Skeletal System (3 of 6) • Short bones are comprised of wrist and ankle; they are roughly cube shaped. • Flat bones include sternum, ribs, scapula, and pelvis. • Long bones are in extremities – Diaphysis – Epiphys – Metaphysis – Epiphyseal plate
52.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-16 The skeleton consists of 206 bones divided between its axial and appendicular divisions. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, spine, and thorax. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the extremities, including the bones that allow them to attach to the axial skeleton.
53.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Skeletal System (4 of 6) • Axial skeleton is a straight line at the core of the body. – Skull, spine, ribs, sternum • Appendicular skeleton consists of bones in the upper and lower extremities. – Bones of shoulder and pelvis
54.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Muscular System (1 of 2) • Muscle tissue built from cells with unique proteins (actin/myosin) arranged in filaments that contract and relax, allowing movement. • Contraction occurs in response to nervous stimulation – requires complex chemical interaction within the muscle cell.
55.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Muscular System (2 of 2) • Types of muscles – Skeletal muscle (striated) Attaches to bones and allows movement; controlled voluntarily – Smooth muscle Involuntary control; in organs – Cardiac muscle Involuntary control; unique function is allowing heart to pump blood throughout body
56.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Think About It • What is the purpose of smooth muscle in hollow organs? • How does cardiac muscle differ from skeletal and smooth muscle?
57.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-23 The skin consists of an outer protective layer called the epidermis, and an inner layer that contains the glands, nerves, and blood vessels, called the dermis.
58.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Support, Movement, and Protection: Integumentary System • Skin (integument) largest organ in body – Maintains body warmth and protects from external pathogens – Oil and sweat glands maintain fluid balance • Skin layers – Epidermis – Dermis – Subcutaneous layer
59.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Think About It • What are the consequences of substantial damage to the skin, such as from extensive burns, disease, or abrasions?
60.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (1 of 11) • Function is to obtain oxygen for cell metabolism and eliminate carbon dioxide. • Respiration – The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide • Ventilation – Mechanical process of moving air in and out of lungs
61.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-24 Respiration is the exchange of gases between the body and the environment.
62.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-26 Ventilation is the mechanical process that allows air to enter and exit the lungs. It consists of two phases. (A) Inspiration is an active muscular process of enlarging the thoracic cavity to decrease the intrathoracic pressure. (B) Expiration is a passive process by which the muscles of ventilation relax, allowing the thoracic cavity to return to the smaller size of its resting state.
63.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (2 of 11) • Gases – Partial pressure (Pa) Amount of pressure an individual gas contributes to total pressure – Air 79% nitrogen; 21% oxygen; 1% trace gases
64.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (3 of 11) • Gases (continued) – Gases diffuse along gradient from higher to lower pressure – Carbon dioxide carried in three ways form of bicarbonate bound to hemoglobin dissolved in plasma
65.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (4 of 11) • Gases (continued) – Oxygen is used at the cell, blood returns to the heart (deoxygenated) Amount of oxygen in blood that returns to heart is low PaO2 is about 40mmHg – Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the capillaries (oxygenated) Amount of oxygen in the blood increases PaO2 increase to 100mmHg
66.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (5 of 11) • Boyle’s law – The pressure of a fixed gas varies inversely with its volume. – Inhalation—thoracic cavity increase in size Air diffused in – Exhalation—thoracic cavity decreases in size Air diffused out
67.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-27 The upper and lower airways serve as a conduit for gases to reach the alveolar level for gas exchange.
68.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (6 of 11) • Upper airway warms and humidifies air and filters out particulate debris. – Nose – Mouth – Oropharynx – Nasopharynx
69.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (7 of 11) • Lower airway allows air to reach alveolar beds so gas exchange can occur. – Larynx (vocal cords) – Trachea (windpipe) – Left and right mainstem bronchi – Bronchioles – Alveolar ducts – Alveoli
70.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (8 of 11) • Lungs – Respiratory membrane Gas exchange occurs between respiratory and cardiovascular system – Divided into sections called lobes – Covered with thin membrane visceral pleura – Pleural fluid provides lubrication
71.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (9 of 11) • Lungs (continued) – Hilum is the point of entry on each lung for bronchus, bronchial artery and vein, pulmonary artery and vein, lymphatic vessels. – Pulmonary vessels carry blood between heart and alveoli for gas exchange. – Bronchial vessels carry oxygenated blood from aorta to lung and return to vena cava.
72.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (10 of 11) • What are the two phases of ventilation? – Respiratory cycle occurs once every 3 to 5 seconds 12 to 20 breaths per minute. – Primary stimulus to breathe Hypercarbic drive – Secondary stimulus Hypoxic drive
73.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Respiratory System (11 of 11) • Tidal volume (TV) – Volume of air inhaled in a typical breath (500ml) • Minute respiratory volume (MRV) – The volume exchanged over a minute (TV rate) • Vital capacity – Volume of air exchanged in a single maximal inspiration and expiration (4L) • Residual volume – Amount of air that remains in the lungs after exhalation
74.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-29 The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a two-sided pump that pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation and then pumps the returning oxygenated blood to the body. Blood travels through three types of vessels: arteries, capillaries, and veins. Blood is a liquid medium that transports blood cells, proteins, nutrients, drugs, wastes, and other substances throughout the body.
75.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (1 of 18) • Heart, blood, blood vessels • Closed system – Oxygenated blood pumped from left side of heart through arteries to the capillary beds where exchange of substances takes place – Deoxygenated blood pumps through venous system to right side of heart, which pumps blood to lungs to eliminate carbon dioxide and gain oxygen
76.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (2 of 18) • Blood is tissue – Plasma and formed elements • Average five liters of blood in adult • Plasma – serves as transport for proteins, nutrients, elements, gases, chemical messengers, wastes. • Red blood cells – carry iron-containing protein (hemoglobin) to which oxygen is bound for transport throughout the body.
77.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (3 of 18) • Mature RBCs – no nucleus (so hemoglobin can fill the space) – life span 120 days • Hematocrit (Hct) – Percentage by volume of formed elements in blood, majority consists of RBCs
78.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (4 of 18) • Blood type (A, B, AB, or O) – A cells have A antigens – B cells have B antigens – AB cell have both A and B antigens – O cells have neither • Rh factor – Blood type is positive or negative
79.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-33 Hemostasis consists of three phases. First, vasoconstriction decreases the diameter of the blood vessel to decrease blood flow through it. Second, platelets are activated by chemical factors released from the exposed collagen of the damaged vessels. Platelets clump together at the site to form a platelet plug. Third, the clotting cascade results in formation of a stable blood clot.
80.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (5 of 18) • White blood cells (WBCs) – provide protection from invading antigens; support development of inflammation resulting from injury or infection. • Platelets – small cell fragments that arise from the break up of larger cells. – activated by chemical events in response to injury to blood vessels (hemostasis).
81.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-35 Internal anatomy of the heart.
82.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (6 of 18) • Heart is a muscular pump that circulates blood throughout vessels of cardiovascular system. – Roughly size of fist – Located in mediastinum in center of chest between lungs – Surrounded by pericardium – Four chambers function as two side-by-side pumps
83.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (7 of 18) • Right atrium – Deoxygenated blood for vena cavas • Right ventricle – Deoxygenated blood from right atrium through mitral valve • Left atrium – Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein • Left ventricle – Oxygenated blood from the left atrium through the tricuspid valve
84.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-36 The cardiac conduction system.
85.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (8 of 18) • Cardiac conduction system – Heart stimulated to contract by autonomic nervous system Begins with sinoatrial (SA) node. Each impulse travels through atria. From atrioventricular (AV) node impulse spreads down bundle of His. Purkinje fibers. Special properties of myocardium allow it to contract in uniform, rhythmic fashion to pump blood throughout circulatory system.
86.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (9 of 18) • Cardiac cycle – Heart follows regular cycle of events with each beat. – Series of electrical events produces mechanical contraction of the heart muscle. – Electrical activity involves exchange of sodium, potassium, and other ions. – Calcium required for contraction of myocardial cells.
87.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (10 of 18) • Cardiac action potential has two phases – Systole is contraction phase. – Diastole is relaxation phase. • Movement of ions and associated differences in electrical charge across cell membranes. • Heart functions as two hearts in one.
88.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (11 of 18) • Cardiac electrophysiology – Automaticity heart self-depolarizes to initiate its own electrical activity. – Excitability allows myocardial cells to respond to electrical impulse and contract. – Conductivity allows electrical impulse to move quickly from one cell to another.
89.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (12 of 18) • Cardiac output (CO) is the amount of blood ejected from the heart. – CO determined by two factors. Stroke volume (SV) and heart rate (HR). – SV is the amount of blood (milliliters) ejected from the ventricle with each contraction. Average CO 4.9 liters per minute.
90.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (13 of 18) • Stroke volume adjusted by several factors to maintain homeostasis – Preload, contractility of heart, and afterload. What is afterload? What is preload?
91.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-38 Both arteries and veins consist of three tissue layers. Capillaries consist of only one layer of endothelial cells.
92.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (14 of 18) • Vascular refers to blood vessels. • Define each of the following terms – Arteries – Capillaries – Veins
93.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (15 of 18) • Goal of cardiovascular system is perfusion; for perfusion to occur, blood pressure (BP) must be adequate.
94.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (16 of 18) • Arterial blood pressure is the force that blood exerts against walls of arteries as it moves through them; measured in mmHg. – Systolic blood pressure (SBP) is the highest during ventricular systole. – Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is lower pressure exerted against walls of arteries.
95.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (17 of 18) • American Heart Association – Normal adult blood pressure 120 mmHg systolic/80 mmHg diastolic • Mean arterial pressure (MAP) – Pulse pressure
96.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Respiration and Circulation: Cardiovascular System (18 of 18) • Factors that influence blood pressure – Function of heart – Volume of blood – Capacity of vascular system • Volume of blood and function of heart determine cardiac output.
97.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-41 Neurons may take on different shapes, but they have the same basic features in common: dendrites that receive input, a cell body, and an axon that carries information to adjacent cells.
98.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (1 of 9) • Nervous system allows integration of sensory input and coordination of responses to it. • Together with endocrine system, nervous system allows for control and communication.
99.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (2 of 9) • Neurons – are a basic unit of structure and function of the nervous system. – Soma, dendrites, axon • Neurotransmitters – allow communication between neurons, and neurons and target tissues.
100.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-42 Functional divisions of the nervous system.
101.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (3 of 9) • Central nervous system (CNS) – Neurons within brain and spinal cord • Peripheral nervous system – Neurons outside brain and spinal cord • Voluntary functions (somatic) – Responsible for movement • Involuntary functions (autonomic) – Sympathetic and parasympathetic • Functional classifications of neurons – Sensory, motor, interneurons
102.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-44 The cerebrum is the seat of higher brain functions.
103.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (4 of 9) • Brain central integrating organ of nervous system. • Brain within cranium, cushioned by CSF, surrounded by meninges. – Pia mater – Arachnoid layer – Dura mater
104.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (5 of 9) • Cerebrum – Part of forebrain, center of consciousness and higher thought • Thalamus – Coordination center for signals traveling between cerebrum and spinal cord • Hypothalamus – Coordinates hormones of the endocrine system
105.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (6 of 9) • Brainstem • Core bodily functions of heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature controlled • Twelve pairs of cranial nerves • each serves a different function • Reticular activating system (RAS) • Network of neurons in brainstem, thalamus, cerebrum; responsible for consciousness, sleep-wake cycles, attention.
106.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-47 The spinal cord consists of tracts of tissue that ascend toward the brain and tracts of tissue that descend toward the spinal nerves.
107.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (7 of 9) • Spinal cord – a long bundle of nerve bodies that goes from the brainstem to level of L2 vertebra. • Neural tissue – arranged into bundles called tracts. • When spinal cord injury completely severs the spinal cord, all communication ceases.
108.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (8 of 9) • Peripheral nervous system begins where spinal nerves and cranial nerves enter and exit meningeal coverings of spinal cord and brain. • Sensory nerves (afferent) – travel toward the spinal cord. • Motor nerves (efferent) – travel away from the spinal cord.
109.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: The Nervous System (9 of 9) • Voluntary system – Any nerve involved in action that brain must consciously think about to initiate • Autonomic nervous system – Sympathetic Fight-or-flight system – Parasympathetic Rest-and-digest system
110.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-49 The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that secrete hormones, which are carried in the bloodstream to target cells that have specific receptors for the hormone. The hormone acts as a chemical messenger that regulates the function of the cell.
111.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: Endocrine System (1 of 2) • Endocrine system – Ductless glands that secrete chemicals (hormones) into bloodstream – Pituitary Master gland secretes tropic hormones – Hypothalmus Controls and influences the pituitary gland
112.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Control, Communication, and Integration: Endocrine System (2 of 2) • Endocrine system (continued) – Pancreas Dual-function organ (upper abdomen) with both endocrine and exocrine roles – Adrenal Small pyramid-shaped structures on top of each kidney
113.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Think About It • How is blood glucose regulated by pancreatic hormones?
114.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-50 The gastrointestinal system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs of digestion. The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum, and anus. The accessory organs include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
115.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Nutrition and Excretion: Gastrointestinal System (1 of 4) • Gastrointestinal (GI) system receives and digests food, absorbing nutrients into the body, and excretes waste. • Gastrointestinal tract – Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus
116.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Nutrition and Excretion: Gastrointestinal System (2 of 4) • Esophagus – Muscular tube that runs from oropharynx to connect with the stomach • Stomach – Muscular container found in left upper quadrant of abdomen
117.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Nutrition and Excretion: Gastrointestinal System (3 of 4) • Small intestine – Divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum • Large intestine – Absorbs water and forms and stores stool • Accessory organs – Salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas
118.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Nutrition and Excretion: Gastrointestinal System (4 of 4) • The peritoneum – a thin epithelial lining, surrounds most of the abdominal organs. – consists of a visceral layer that is fixed to the organ surfaces and folds over itself to create a parietal layer.
119.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-51 The urinary system consists of the kidneys (renal system) and urinary tract (ureters, bladder, and urethra).
120.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Nutrition and Excretion: Urinary System (1 of 2) • Kidneys – maintain fluid and electrolyte balance, maintain blood pressure, filter waste products from blood. • Urine drains into ureters – which carry urine to bladder for storage; emptied via urethra. • Nephrons – filter blood, manage electrolytes, excrete waste as urine.
121.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-52 Internal anatomy of the kidney.
122.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Nutrition and Excretion: Urinary System (2 of 2) • Ureters – Insert into bladder, a hollow and muscular organ found in lower pelvis. – Upon urination, bladder contracts and urine passes through urethra. • Kidneys affect pH through secretion of bicarbonate.
123.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-54 The male reproductive organs.
124.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 8-55 The female reproductive organs.
125.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction: Reproductive System (1 of 2) • Consists of organs that store human DNA in male and female sex cells – Sperm and egg Each carry a set of 23 chromosomes; combined upon fertilization become a full set of 46. • Male reproductive organs – Testes, prostate gland, penis, and epididymis
126.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction: Reproductive System (2 of 2) • Female reproductive system – Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva • Each month of childbearing years a mature egg (ovum) is ejected from ovary into fallopian tubes. • If fertilization does not occur, tissue sloughs off, resulting in menstrual flow.
127.
Copyright © 2017,
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Chapter Summary • Human body consists of complex structures and functions. • Systems work together, allowing body to maintain homeostasis. • You must distinguish abnormal structure and function from normal; first step in recognizing patient is sick or injured. • Understanding roles of respiratory, nervous, cardiovascular, endocrine systems is critical.
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