Nipah Virus Research Paper

Nipah Virus Research Paper
Abstract
Nipah virus, Arena Virus and Francisella tularensis are bioterrorism agents. They work in various
ways to harm the host. Francisella tularenis is considered a Tier 1 bioterrorism agent and Nipah
virus is an overlap select agent that affects humans and agriculture both. They have been harmful in
the past. Though, Nipah virus is a newer virus than the other two. This review will focus on their
emergence, pathogenicity and symptoms of the diseases they cause.
Introduction
"Infectious Disease is one of the great tragedies of living things – the struggle for existence between
different forms of life. Incessantly the pitiless war goes on, without quarter or armistice – a
nationalism of species against species." Hans Zinsser– Rats, Lice and History (1934) ... Show more
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These biological agents could be viruses, toxins, bacteria, etc. Agents could be used in war or
terrorist attacks. Also, they could be modified to cause extreme diseases and disorders, according to
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention. It makes bioterrorism even more tempting to use as
it is easy and inexpensive to produce, disseminate and can cause a more widespread panic than other
acts of terrorism (1).
The events of September 11, 2001 forced the initiation of new steps to enhance security. This is how
the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 came up. It has
four sections:
1. National Preparedness for Bioterrorism and Other public Health Emergencies
2. Enhancing Controls on Dangerous Biological Agents and
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Impact Of Pesticides On The Parasitoid Coccidoxenoides...
IMPACT OF PESTICIDES ON MEALYBUG PARASITOID COCCIDOXENOIDES
PERMINUTUS (TIMBERLAKE) (HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE)
Akshay Mahesh Bhosale
Department of Agrochemicals and Pest Management, Shivaji University, Kolhapur–416004,
Maharashtra, India.
Email address: drambhosale@gmail.com
Corresponding Address:
Dr. Akshay Mahesh Bhosale
Flat No. 402, Swami Sadan Apartment, Railkar Hospital road,
Sambhaji Nagar, Loni–Kalbhor, Kadam–Wak Wasti,
Pune–412201, Maharashtra, India.
ABSTRACT:
Coccidoxenoides perminutus (Timberlake) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is solitary endoparasitoid
associated with mealybugs. Parasitoid having very good biocontrol potential against Phenacoccus
solenopsis Tinsley and Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The
parasitoid affected by several pesticides sprayed on vineyards for the control of pest species.
Bioassay of nine different pesticides through dry film method was conducted in the laboratory by
using adults and pupae of parasitoid. Among tested pesticides Spirotetramate and Horti–Impact
caused high mortality of adult parasitoid and similarly these pesticides also found toxic towards
adult emergence of parasitoid. Whereas, drenching of Imidacloprid and Clothianidin cause moderate
mortality of parasitoids emerged from cocoons. The emerged parasitoids from treated cocoons were
tested for their longevity. Even 24 hours after treatment (HAT) Agroclean (10.00%), Azadirachtin
5% (16.66%), Spida (20.00%), Brigade (30.00%) and Azadirachtin 1%

The Three Major Types Of Weapons Of Mass Destruction
There are three major types of weapons of mass destruction and those are nuclear weapons,
biological warfare agents, and chemical warfare agents. These weapons share their potential for
large–scale destruction and the indiscriminate nature of their effects, notably against civilians.
WMD's challenges our peace and security here in the United States. There is a strategy for dealing
with weapons of mass destructions, and it is the three pillars, which are counter proliferation,
nonproliferation, and WMD consequence management. The United States has tried to stop other
countries; however, it has gotten to a point that if the United States is attacked with nuclear
weapons, then the U.S. will use WMD as a response to the attack. When it comes to weapons of
mass destruction in the possession of hostile countries and even terrorists, it is one of the greatest
security challenges facing the United States. The first strategy to combat WMD is counter
proliferation to combat WMD use, counter proliferations are fully integrated into the basic doctrines,
in trainings, and even equipping of all forces, since it is important for the U.S military and
appropriate agencies to be prepared to deter and defend against any possible WMD event. With
strengthened nonproliferation to combat WMD proliferation, in order to prevent states from
acquiring WMD and missiles, we must enhance diplomacy, arms control, multilateral agreements,
threat reduction assistance, and export controls. That is to slow and make it more costly to access
sensitive technologies, materials, and expertise. In addition, the laws and treaties that are
consistently violated by Iran for years, are the treaty of the non–profeliration of nuclear weapons,
because they developed a nuclear program that is without the consent of the IAEA. They also has
held into chemical agents and acculturated their chemical stockpile. In the other hand, North Korea
has yet to give up its nuclear weapons, and North Korea has violated the obligations to the IAEA, by
actively developing nuclear weapons. North Korea is likely exchanging nuclear expertise to Iran,
Libya, and Pakistan. It has also sold missiles to Iran. they even have tested their first nuclear
weapon. As we can

Communication and Crisis Essay
RUNNING HEAD: Communication and Crisis paper
Communication and Crisis Paper
University of Phoenix
HCS/320
August 6, 2012
According to this Scenario:
In 1979, the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor malfunctioned, releasing radiation into the
environment. There were no immediate deaths or injuries resulting from the incident; however, the
accident drew much media attention and created concerns in the local area and beyond. The major
forms of communication used to report these events were the three major television networks and
local radio stations. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated the New Orleans area and immersed a
significant part of the city in water. Local citizens and their families were affected. In contrast to the
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is very important that the President is involved and verifies that this is not terrorism, for a
biological agent could cause much harm to the community. The U.S. ARMY can be brought in to
test the water in their medical testing facility.
"Since the 1980s, terrorist organizations have become users of biological agents." "Biological
weapons include any organism or toxin found in nature that can be used to incapacitate, kill, or
otherwise impede an adversary. Biological weapons are characterized by low visibility, high
potency, substantial accessibility, and relatively easy delivery." (Dire &Darling, 2011)
"Emergency response strategies for biological, chemical, nuclear, or radiological terrorist events
should be based on scientifically established exposure limits for all the agents or materials involved.
In the case of a radiological terrorist event, emergency response guidelines have been worked out. In
the case of a terrorist event with the use of chemical warfare agents the situation is not that clear,
though the new guidelines and clean–up values are being generated based on re–evaluation of
toxicological and risk data." ( Sabelnikov, , Zhukov, , & Kempf, 2006). The potential spectrum
of bioterrorism ranges from hoaxes and use of non–mass casualty

Pest Control
Substantial Content
I. Importance of natural method of pest control
The problem with broad range conventional pesticides is that they not only kill the bad bugs, but
they rub out the good bugs, too. A garden without natural predators means a world of insects gone
wild. There's nothing left to keep pest levels in check. In fact, chemicals can mean double trouble
because although you wipe out the first wave of pests, the second wave which is not the usual pest,
but another insect moving into the area can cause even greater losses than the insects you were
trying to get rid of in the first place. Another reason to go natural and use beneficials, is that a
greater number of insects are now showing resistance to chemical pesticides. For ... Show more
Garlic: Mix four quarts water, two tablespoons garlic juice do not use garlic powder, it will burn
plants, 32 grams of diatomaceous earth and one teaspoon or rubbing alcohol.
Effects: spray garlic pesticide on sweet potatoes to repel rabbits
Ground Coffee: Leftover coffee grounds make great ingredients to compost. They work as natural
pesticides and literally "perk up" ailing plants. Place the grounds into the soil surrounding your
plants. The acidity of the coffee is what keeps invaders at bay.
Vegetable oil: If mildew, mold or fungus is a problem, heres a solution you can spray right on the
plant that makes a big difference in a very short time. Combine a gallon of water, a tablespoon of
baking soda and 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil. Put into a spray bottle and mist plants from top to
bottom even in places where there are no signs of a problem.
Dish Washing Liquid: If a fungus has invaded your plants, mix a few drops of dishwashing liquid
and water and wipe it down. You'll be surprised how quickly this will rejuvenate sickly looking
plants!
Egg: To get rid of snails and slugs in your garden, add crushed eggshells to your soil. To them, its
walking on glass, so snails and slugs will tend to avoid the area entirely. If slugs are a continuing
problem, a few pinches of salt will make quick work of them.
C. Physical Method
Time consuming but very natural, this method consists of many things you can physically do to
control bugs and other pests. Picking grubs

Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever Research Paper
In 2014, the United States was in an out–of–control panic due to Ebola haemorrhagic fever. Fear
swept the nation with the news of the deaths of victims of the disease, though there were only four
cases that were diagnosed exclusively in the United States. So what made this disease such a cause
for concern, and should it be a concern today? Certainly there are plenty of conspiracy theories
surrounding the prospect of cultivating Ebolavirus into a biological weapon, and many people are
scared that we are not ready in the case that Ebola makes a comeback. According to my research,
such worries are not completely dismissible.
Ebola haemorrhagic fever, more commonly referred to simply as Ebola, is a disease contracted
through infection with Ebolavirus. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The potential effects can be instantly devastating, as it could potentially affect many people at once.
Against developed countries, this option seems to be the most viable, as it can be used to spread the
virus – and fear, along with it – very quickly. Of course in highly developed countries, easy access
to healthcare could post a problem to any bioterrorist who is looking to cause a great deal of death in
a short amount of time. An obvious, large scale attack would cause victims to seek immediate
medical attention out of worry, so the best potential use of an Ebola–bomb in this particular scenario
would be as a fear or intimidation tactic. In lesser developed areas, an Ebola–bomb could potentially
be highly devastating, if the proper care facilities are not readily available. Without access to proper
quarantine and sterile hospital environments, Ebola can spread rapidly from person to person, and
devastate small areas in the blink of an

Biological Determinism And Why Sociologist Have Mounted...
This assignment is going to look at the concept of biological determinism and why sociologist have
mounted such a powerful attack. Due to time constraints and word count, this essay will focus on
gender and race with reference to biological determinism.
The term biological determinism it is a theory that looks into a person's behaviour and also their
genetic makeup, it does not take into account any other social factors which surrounds the
environment. It argues the fact that the biological factors i.e., genes and genetics are based on the
way an individual behaves over time. Psychologist Charles Darwin, Mendel believed "our bodies
changed to handle the environment". Helen Cronin (2007) states that as human beings we have
evolved but we still have this legacy today – the world has changed but our minds have not. Darwin
uses this theory as natural selection he thought that both men and women minds are predetermined
to do different things in society i.e. women have children and men go out hunting. By this he is
referring to the nature side (genetics) of nature versus nurture (environment) argument.
On the other hand sociologist argued that it is due to our environment how we as human beings
behave. They looked at the culture, upbringing, social patterns and relationship to pan out the way
individuals behave in society.
Matt Ridley wrote a article on the Genetics– The Genes of blame where he states that there are
genes in our bodies that are diseased. He believes that

Biological Warfare Vs Ebola
Biological warfare may wipe out human existence and all signs of life on this earth, but we have no
say. The United States has the strongest military defence force in the world which also makes them
more empower than any other country. The United States is so advanced they have man made
biological weapons ready to send off at the commander's command. ISIS has the power to attack
any country they wanted to with a Biological Weapon causing destruction and panic. Most military
defences have a Biological defence laboratories where they test all their bioweapons. America has
been seen testing biological weapons in public to check if they were effective, this has questioned
many people making them think that biological warfare and biological terrorism ... Show more
Biological Warfare is too dangerous for humans to be playing with even if they are using them as
defence. We as humans don't get a say in what is right and what is wrong if it is to do with the
military because we are seen as weak and ignorant. Biological Warfare could destroy this earth and
all living things on it but as people do not have knowledge about Biological Warfare they
ambiguous to the situation. In my opinion Biological Warfare should be taught and people should be
warned about the consequences and effects that could take place so people can wake up and help
prevent Biological Warfare from

Biological Colonization And Its Effects On Infection...
INTRODUCTION: When humoral/cellular defense of body are surpassed by pathogens,
microorganisms become virulent potential and infection transpires (Chastre and Fagon,2002).
Colonization is a result of host related characteristics, leading to pathogenesis and causing
infections(Crnish, et al.,2005). Normal flora proliferation in patients, mainly immune–compromised
resulting in endogenous colonization. Endogenous colonization occurs mainly in hospitalized
patients and are associated in the use of antibiotics, immunosuppressant 's, surgical procedures,
baseline diseases and use of invasive devices (Safdar , et al.,2005). Surveillance of infection rates
helps in infection control (Gastmeier, et al.,2006).Different infection rates and infection: device
utilization ratios by the National Nosocomial Infection System (NNIS) and National Healthcare
Safety Network (NHSN) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) helps in
controlling infections. Data 's of different hospitals, early follow–up, awareness, and effective
solutions to problems faced by infection control practitioners (cardo, et al.,2004), are provided by
such bodies. Similar standards have been implemented in Europe (Gastmeier,et al., 2006) Infection
rates are higher in ICU patients than those in non–critical care areas (Richards, et al.,2003). The rate
is five to ten times higher than that of general ward patients. (Weinstein, R.A.,1998).there is a
increase in mortality and hospital costs (Nicolas,

Terrorism : Bioterrorism And Terrorism
Professor – Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological
agents. These agents are bacteria, viruses, or toxins and may be in a naturally occurring or a human–
modified form. For the use of this method in warfare, see "biological warfare." I will talk about it
next time. Honestly, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
bioterrorism and bioterrorism attacks are the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or other
harmful agents used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. These agents are typically
found in nature but it is possible that they could be mutated or altered to increase their ability to
cause disease, make them more resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be
spread into the environment. Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or in food.
Terrorists tend to use biological agents because they are extremely difficult to detect and do not
cause illness for several hours or several days. Some bioterrorism agents like the smallpox virus can
be spread from person to person and some like anthrax cannot. Bioterrorism is an attractive weapon
because biological agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to obtain, can be easily disseminated,
and can cause widespread fear and panic beyond the actual physical damage that they can cause.
Military leaders, however, have learned that as a military asset, bioterrorism has some important

Essay on Purple Loosestrife
Purple Loosestrife
The scene is breathtakingly beautiful, a thick brush of purple flowers blankets
Canada's wetlands. This blanket silences the expected sounds of the wetland environment, birds
chirping, ducks splashing, insects buzzing and animals thriving. This unnatural silence is disturbing,
the favourite flowers that used to litter this landscape are no longer visible, the water that used to
ripple continuously is perfectly still. The wetland is dead, except for this overpowering, hardy purple
flower that has choked out all other vegetation and species. Purple loosestrife now controls this
landscape.
Purple loosestrife is an exotic species that was introduced to North America from Europe during the
early 1800's. Europeans sailing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The genus Lythrum consists of thirty – five species, two of which are located in
North America, Lythrum Purish which is native to the continent and the invasive purple loosestrife.
Through cross breeding, purple loosestrife is quickly overtaking Lythrum Purish and causing a
decrease in native species. "The generic name comes from the Greek luthrum, blood, possibly
in reference to the colour of the flowers or to one of it's herbal uses, as an astringent to stop the flow
of blood." (Canadian Wildlife Federation 1993, 38) Purple loosestrife, an aggressive,
competitive, invasive weed often grows to the height of a human and when it is mature can be 1.5
metres in width. The stalk of the plant is square and woody and may grow to 50 centimeters in
diameter. The perennial rootstock can give rise to 50 stems annually which produce smooth edged
leaves on oppositesides of the stalk. Purple loosestrife flowers are long pink and purple spikes which
bloom from June to September (Figure 1). One purple loosestrife plant alone is solid and hardy but
when this plant invades an area it creates a "dense, impermeable stands which
Figure 2 – Purple loosestrife growing in a typical habitat.
(Parker 1993)
are unsuitable as cover, food or resting sites for a wide range of native wetland animals..."
(Michigan Department of Natural

The, The Most Popular Vegetable Of The Whole World
Cauliflower is the most popular vegetable in the whole world.it is a great green vegetable which is
very good for our health.it is a term of cultivated plant.it also belong with the brassica family. Firstly
cauliflower is a Latin word. Which meaning a great flower because, in the beginning it is belong
Italy because Italy produce a large number of cauliflower production on that time.it is very familiar
with the cabbage because it also belong to the brassica family. Therefore, both have a lot of
similarities in their growing conditions. Firstly, same environment habits, same growing habits.
Because both are the winter vegetables so normally mostly both demand cool whether for growing
better growing. Furthermore, cauliflower a good vege for our health. In many countries of the world
specially in the European market it tying for the first–place cauliflower for vegetable consumed
most frequently. Moreover, many countries like china, India, New Zealand, Italy increase their
vegetables production. Because world demand every time green vegetables .consumption of
cauliflower is increasing day by day. Because it great source of the vitamins and proteins also. It is a
deserves a regular rotation in your diet.in today time
Health problems of cauliflower Bacterial soft rot BACTERIUM
Erwinia caratovora
Bacterial delicate decay of cauliflower
Side effects
Water–drenched sores on leaves and blossom heads which extend to shape an expansive decayed
mass; surface of injuries normally

Description Of Biological Signals Control Cells
Cellular proccess that are crucial for health or disease are orchestrated by the expression of multiple
genes in a network of differential complex signaling pathways, consisting of many physical and
functional interactions.
Unlike the stable genome structure, the highly dynamic interactome represents a major challenge for
quantitative mapping of protein–protein interactions (PPIs). In this article, I will discuss the latest
systems science advances by using breakthrough technologies to gain an understanding of the whole
picture of the spatiotemporal signaling network as a response to dynamic individual genome–
lifestyle interactions and translating it to the clinic.
Biological signals control cells'â functions and their organization into ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Each human cell behaves as a small but complex computer, but a precise understanding of the
biological principles underlying its normal or disease properties is still lacking. By receiving
multiple signals from its microenvironment, but also internally, it assembles, assesses and ultimately
decides whether to maintain itself, grow, proliferate, differentiate, divide or kill itself (via apoptosis)
[7] . This extremely dynamic and complex input–output circuit involves an interaction network of
extra– and intra–cellular pathway interactions, with gene expression the ultimate regulatory
mechanism defining the cellular outcome [8] . To understand and predict the genome function in
health and disease in both individual cells and in cell communication and connectivity in organized
tissues, organs and whole humans and improve preventive and therapeutic interventions, a myriad of
challenges lie ahead of us [9] . To acquire deep insight into how signal transduction networks
influence physical and functional regulatory networks at the chromatin and gene–expression levels
and particularly how this knowledge can be translated into the clinic, four certain steps and
corresponding advances are required:
* A catalog of

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Microbial Insecticides
Microbial insecticides
Introduction
Pest management approach, methods and discipline have undergone developments and
advancements with the progress of time to reduce environmental impacts. Microbial insect control
uses pathogenic microorganisms isolated from diseased insects during naturally occurring outbreaks.
Usually, such epidemics only occur when pest population densities are high and usually after
significant damage have been done to crops [1], [2], [3]. Over 400 species of fungi and more than 90
species of bacteria which infect insects have been described including Bacillus thuringiensis ,
varieties of which are manufactured and sold throughout the world essentially for the control of
caterpillar pests and more recently mosquitoes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If necessary, most microbial insecticides can be used in conjunction with synthetic chemical
insecticides because in most cases the microbial product is not deactivated or damaged by residues
of conventional insecticides.(Follow label directions concerning any limitation) Disadvantages of
microbial insecticides :
The limitations or disadvantages listed below do not prevent the successful use of microbial
insecticides. Understanding how these limitations affect specific microorganisms will help users to
choose effective products and take necessary steps to achieve successful results.
Each application may control only a portion of the pests present in a field, garden, or lawn because a
single microbial insecticide is toxic only to a specific species or group of insects. If other types of
pests are present in the treated area, they will survive and may continue to cause damage.
Conventional insecticides are subject to similar limitations because they too are not equally effective
against all pests. The negative aspect of selectivity is often more noticeable for microbials . So there
is limited market for some microbial insecticides, thus these products are not widely available or are
relatively

Bacillus Thuringiensis Bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis is a spore forming bacterium that produces crystals protein which are toxic to
many species of insects. Therefore it is used a natural pesticide. It is naturally occurring throughout
the world and its usage is very common. There are thousands of different Bt strains. The kurstaki
strain being the most common kills only leaf– and needle–feeding caterpillars. In the last ten years,
Bt strains have been mostly used to control the abundance of flies, mosquitoes, black flies, amongst
others. When it comes to Bt strains, the target is very specific. The strains for mosquitoes will only
target them and not affect other insects. Even though Bt is used in aerial spraying programs and
transgenic crops its main usage in organic farming. In 1901 while performing research on Sudden
Collapse Disease on silk worms, Japanese biologist Shigetane Ishiwatari discovered Bacillus
thuringiensis or Bt originally called Bacillus sotto. It was then rediscovered in 1911 by Ernst
Berliner who was researching the cause of death of the moths in Thuringia, Germany, where the
name thuringiensis comes from. Berliner's research overruled Ishiwatari's research and Bacillus
thuringiensis became the bacteria's name. It was not until 1920 where Bt was reportedly used by
farmers who began to spray it in their fields. Later on in 1938, France brought it into the market as a
flour moth killer called "Sporine." Bt products started off struggling because a vast amount of
insects were immune

Anthrax (Bacillus Anthracis) Essay
Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore–forming bacterium.
The most common victims of anthrax are warm–blooded animals, but it can also infect humans.
Anthrax spores can be produced in a powdery form for biological warfare. When inhaled by
humans, these particles cause respiratory failure and death within a week. Because anthrax is
considered to be a potential agent for use in biological warfare, the Department of Defense (DOD),
in 1998, announced it would begin a systematic vaccination of all U.S. military personnel. (DOD,
1998) Anthrax infection occurs in three forms: cutaneous (skin), inhalation, and gastrointestinal. B.
anthracis spores can survive in the soil for many years and handling animal ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Inhalation: Initial symptoms may resemble a common cold. After several days, the symptoms may
progress to severe breathing problems and shock. Inhalation anthrax usually results in death in 1–2
days after onset of the acute symptoms.
Intestinal: The intestinal disease form of anthrax may follow ingestion of contaminated meat and is
characterized by an acute inflammation of the intestinal tract. Nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting and
fever are followed by abdominal pain, vomiting of blood, and severe diarrhea. Intestinal anthrax
results in death in 25% to 60% of cases. The incubation period is usually within seven days. There
are no reports of the disease spreading from human to human. Direct person–to–person spread of
anthrax most likely does not occur. Once a person has been infected with anthrax and survived, a
second bout with this disease is unlikely.
To treat anthrax, doctors can prescribe antibiotics. Usually penicillin based antibiotics such as Cipro
are preferred, but erythromycin, tetracycline, or chloramphenicol can also be used. To be effective,
treatment should be initiated early. The disease could be fatal if left untreated. (Sofaer, et al, 1999)
Anthrax Vaccine
Anthrax vaccine is available for people in high–risk occupations. To prevent anthrax, carefully
handle dead animals suspected of having anthrax; provide

Options for Biological Terrorism Attacks and...
Bioterrorism is not a distant threat that may concern us twenty years from now. It has occurred
throughout history and continues to this day. As recently as 1996, a man from Ohio with connections
to an extremist group was able to obtain Bubonic Plague cultures through the US Postal Service
(Danzig & Berkowsky, 1997). In the last month, several people within the United States have
become infected with anthrax. As we stand right now, America is unprepared for a large–scale attack
with biological weapons, and as we continue with our "War on Terrorism," the likelihood of such an
attack is increasing every day. Terrorists can use three major methods to most effectively distribute a
biological agent in the US: 1) air dispersal to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Several methods have been suggested for the massive airborne release of biological agents. Crop
dusters, the most likely, are designed to release high concentrations of pesticides over large areas.
This form of pesticide distribution exactly parallels the optimal methods for dispersal of a harmful
biological agent. Stationary sprayers have also been implicated as a potential source of biological
attack and could include backpack sprayers, agricultural sprayers, or even perfume atomizers
(Danzig & Berkowsky, 1997). Airborne schemes of distribution are virtually uncontrollable by
government agencies. Crop dusters are available to anyone with a pilot's license and backpack
sprayers can be found in most hardware stores. The consequence of the recent anthrax attacks
through the US Postal service pale in comparison to the potential consequences of such an airborne
attack.
Although anthrax is not contagious, there are numerous potential airborne agents that are. Once a
contagious infecting agent, such as smallpox or the plague, enters a population, it can spread very
quickly from one person to the next. With the speed and popularity of air travel, an infection can
spread across the country–or even the world, in a matter of days. The contamination of one person
with a highly contagious disease in an airport is all

Anthrax: A Deadly Biological Weapon Essay
Biological weapons are a widely used source of terror. The definition of a biological weapon is a
harmful biological agent (as a pathogenic microorganism or a neurotoxin) used as a weapon to cause
death or disease usually on a large scale ("Biological Weapon," The Merriam– Webster Dictionary).
There are numerous substances used as biological weapons. Some include Glanders, Botulism, and
Brucellosis. Biological weapons consist of a kind of substance or disease that is used to launch an
attack on a large population of people. A commonly used biological weapon is Anthrax. Inhalation
of Anthrax is the most common way of causing harm. When someone is poisoned by inhaling
Anthrax, they have actually been exposed to the spores of Anthrax. ... Show more content on
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The second form of Anthrax poisoning is Gastrointestinal Anthrax. This is when Anthrax is ingested.
It is cause by consumption of infected or undercooked meats. As I stated earlier, Anthrax is common
among livestock and if not treated, can spread throughout a whole herd of livestock. The final form
of Anthrax poisoning is Respiratory Anthrax. This is the most common and most deadly form of
Anthrax. Respiratory Anthrax is caused by the transfer of Anthrax spores from the air into the lungs.
The effects of these different forms of Anthrax poisoning are numerous. The bacteria can easily
avoid the body's detection system and spread throughout the body. By the time the Anthrax is
detected it is usually too late. For Cutaneous Anthrax a human will suffer from sores on the skin.
With this type of infection it only takes a small cut for the bacteria to invade. Handling infected
animals or animal products is the common transportation of Cutaneous Anthrax (Chemical and
Biological Terrorism. 133). This form of Anthrax is curable, but only if it is caught at an early stage
and treated with proper antibiotics. If a person does not seek immediate treatment, this infection
could result in death. For Gastrointestinal Anthrax, a human will suffer from mouth and throat sores.
They will have trouble swallowing, nausea, tiredness, bloody vomit and/or diarrhea, and loss of
appetite (Chemical and Biological Terrorism. 133–134).

Bioterrorism Research Paper
1
BIO 260
Dr. Paul Reese
Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents.
These agents are bacteria, viruses, or toxins, and may be in a naturally– occurring or a human–
modified form. A bioterrorism attack is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins or other
harmful agents used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. These agents are typically
found in nature, but it is possible that they could be mutated or altered to increase their ability to
cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into
the environment. Biological agents can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Already existing systems of good agricultural practice, good manufacturing practice and 'hazard
analysis and critical control point' (HACCP) can be used. Government agencies, working with the
private sector, have regulatory and advisory responsibility in promoting safe food measures by
industry, including good agricultural and good manufacturing practices. Surveillance, preparedness,
and response elements specific to food safety, should be included in existing national emergency
response plans to achieve balance between threats to food safety and other threats. A new threat for
the food chain is the introduction of a chemical, biological, or radio nuclear agent into food during
production, processing, distribution or preparation of food. The responsibility to avoid this lies in
the hands of the food industry. Many foods, such as fish, meat, poultry, fruit and vegetables, are
consumed with minimal processing. Other, such as cereal products and cooking oils, undergo
considerable 4 processing before reaching the consumer. Vulnerable to sabotage are the points
where food changes hands. The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response
Act of 2002, directs the Secretary of Health and Human Services to take steps to protect the public
from a threatened or actual terrorist attack on the

Terrorism : The Threat Of Terrorism
Terrorism is defined in the word itself; to promote terror or fear. The goal of a terrorist is also to
create the most damage, particularly mass casualties. Terrorists have a variety of ways to instill fear,
but what Americans fear most is the use of WMDs. Terrorists have used WMDs as a tactics to
induce fear for generations and in some cases they followed thru with their threats. After Pearl
Harbor, Americans realized they could be attacked at home, but over time the memory of that day
faded and was replaced by bravado again. Unfortunately, the idea that the United States could never
be touched was decimated as millions watched those towers fall on 9/11. The question is no longer if
the United States will be hit, but has become, when will it happen again?
The truth is an attack could happen at any time; in fact some attacks have already been prevented.
The FBI and local police stop some sort of terrorist threat every week; although it is very rarely
made public. The more important question should be what are they going to use against the US
next? According to Fermin De La Torre, he believes it will be an active shooter or IED that terrorist
will mostly use. I would have to disagree, however based on the escalation level terrorist have
already taken. They may use IEDs to distract or disarm, but in order to destroy it will be something
far more powerful and horrible. Now, will it be Chemical, Biological, Radiological, or Nuclear?
Those are the four categories that are feared

A Report On The Environmental Action Plan
Rational / Purpose: My environmental action plan will consist of containing a controlled non–toxic
ecosystem around my home by using natural remedies that are safe for my family, pets, and plant
life. My plan is to use non–toxic pest controls to ward off insects that do damage and spread disease.
My plan will also consist of incorporating plants that encourage good insects that help my homes
ecofriendly environment.
My plan will consist of the following points:
Goals
My goals are to educate myself, family, friends, neighbors, and classmates on how to utilize safe
natural pest controls and to ensure a safe sustainable environment. There are a number of things to
know to achieve these goals.
Example:
1. Applying nature pest control for ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If you have a pet, comb it regularly with a flea comb and wash its bedding frequently. Be sure to
vacuum floors, rugs and upholstery your pet comes in contact with regularly.
List was created by
Step 2: In the spring invest in plants that draw in beneficial insects like the Praying mantis that is a
beneficial insect to have around the home. "Mantis lies in wait for their food and when close
enough, snap it up with a lightning movement of their strong forelegs. Mantis has enormous
appetites, eating various aphids, leafhoppers, mosquitoes, caterpillars and other soft–bodied insects
when young. Later they will eat larger insects, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, and other pest insects.
Another beneficial insect is the Ladybug; they are voracious eaters of aphids, scale insects,
mealybugs and mites." It's like having help keeping your outside environment free from pest that
cause damage and try to take over your home. This is the best way to rid pest without spraying
harmful toxins. Insect information was provided by Buglogical Control Systems Inc.
Step 3: planting herbs detour pests from inside and outside the home. Sage and garlic placed on the
deck will also detour ants and mosquitoes. Cucumber peels or slices in kitchen or at point of entry
will detour ants due to it bitter taste. Things to detour flies are sweet basil next to doors or plant in
containers. Also crushed mint or bay leaf homemade flytraps. Cockroach detours are bay

How Self Control Is Truly Free Will
In everyday life we have the free will to control every aspect of our lives and actions through our
choices and self control, however there are times when this sense of free will is challenged. In
Patricia Churchland's article she covers how self control is truly free will, it can shape our actions,
as well as habits. Yet, there are reasons why ones own self control could be diminished, for example,
the case of the man who had strangled his own wife in his sleep. Churchland believes that self
control is an application of our free will, and that the two could basically be interchangeable. Using
Churchland's article, you can understand that although self control is the application of our free will,
but there are times where our self ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Self–control "plays a role in what you believe every bit as much as it does in what you decide to
do." (Churchland, 194) In this sense self–control could be described as what people confuse as free
will. An example would be the fact that we may not have the free will to choose what we crave,
sometimes we just have an urge to eat junk food due to biological factors, however we can exhibit
self control and resist eating the junk food. In Churchland's article she discusses how we learn self
control over time, that when a person is young they spend years learning right and wrong, and how
to execute self control in situations. As people grow older they use these lessons and reflect on them
to understand how to act in situations. This makes it easier for a person to make their own decisions
when it comes down to it.
However, there can be limits on a person's self control, a factor that constrains a persons' ability to
exert their self control. Whether it be an external force or even an internal issue. Churchland uses the
example of Tourette's. In this example, she mentions how someone with Tourette's can suffer from
an over whelming need to commit certain tics. However, there are instances where the subject can

Controlling Chemical and Biological Weapons Essay
Controlling Chemical and Biological Weapons
History and Introduction
Chemical and biological weapons (CBWs) have been used over the ages as an effective means of
warfare. The earliest incident of biological weapons (BWs) occurred in the third century B.C., when
the Carthaginian leader Hannibal filled up pots with venomous snakes and threw them onto enemy
ships. (Cirincione, 48) Since then, biological weapons have been used very infrequently. This is
mainly due to enormous cost required to create and handle BW's (many of the groups who have
attempted to create such weapons have ended up infecting themselves more often then their intended
targets). (Henderson, 25) In contrast, chemical weapons have been used fairly frequently in ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In fact, there are currently 144 member states of the Biological Weapons and Toxin Convention and
145 members of the Chemical Weapons Convention. (Cirincione, 52) Still, as Robert Blitzer of the
FBI explains, CBWs pose a major threat to modern society. "The consensus of people in law
enforcement and intelligence communities is that it's not a matter of if it's going to happen, it's
when. We are very concerned."(Henderson, 25) In the following I hope to explain why controlling
the production CBWs has become a serious problem for law enforcement organizations around the
world and what can be done to improve intelligence.
Proliferation
During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union stockpiled biological and
chemical weapons. Both sides chemical and biological weapons programs were overshadowed by
their nuclear programs during the war, but the U.S. and the Soviet Union had decided they needed to
pursue such programs in order "to deter the use of chemical (and biological) weapons by other states
through threatened retaliation in kind." (Moodie, 9) By the 1988 the U.S. had stockpiled
approximately 30,000 metric tons of chemical weapons and 45,000 tons of biological weapons
while the Soviet Union had produced over 40,000 tons of chemical weapons (it is unknown how
much biological weapons the Soviet Union ever had). (Cirincione, 47–52)

The Power of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring Essay
The Power of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring In 1962, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring and
was greeted with a roar of protest and approval. After years and years of controversy and skepticism
surrounding its argument, Silent Spring was and still is recognized as a perceptive warning of things
in progress and things to come. The book set the stage for the first real and effectual environmental
movement. In 17 chapters, many of which can stand alone as essays, Carson develops a deceptively
simple premise: the use and overuse of synthetic chemicals to control insect pests introduces these
chemicals into the air, water, and soil and into the food chain where they poison animals and
humans, and disrupt the many intricate ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Carson's other books, Under the Sea Wind, The Sea Around Us (which stayed on the New York
Times bestseller list for 86 weeks), and The Edge of The Sea all focus on nature's strength and the
inter–connectedness of nature and all living things. But DDT exposed the vulnerability of nature and
I think this influenced the writing of Silent Spring. DDT was the most powerful pesticide in the
world at the time of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring. Unlike most pesticides, whose effectiveness is
limited to destroying one or two types of insects, DDT was capable of killing hundreds of different
kinds at once. Developed in 1939, it first distinguished itself during World War II, clearing South
Pacific islands of malaria–causing insects for U.S. troops, while in Europe being used as an effective
de–lousing powder. Its inventor was awarded the Nobel Prize. When DDT became available for
civilian use in 1945, there were only a few people who expressed second thoughts about this new
miracle compound. One was nature writer Edwin Way Teale, who warned, "A spray as
indiscriminate as DDT can upset the economy of nature as much as a revolution upsets social
economy. Ninety percent of all insects are good, and if they are killed, things go out of kilter right
away." Another was Rachel Carson, who wrote to the Reader's Digest to propose an article about a
series of tests on DDT being conducted not far from where she lived in Maryland. The magazine
rejected the idea. Silent Spring gives

Essay on Bio Warfare
Biological warfare is war waged with deadly chemicals, biological agents, or radioactive materials
(CBR). They can be used to kill large amounts of people, destroy food, or just temporarily stun them
for a matter of time so troops can come in and torture them or do whatever troops led by an
manipulative tyrant who destroys everything. Using CBR, allowed you to kill everything and leave
the buildings standing instead of nuclear weapons which destroy everything, put fallout in the air,
and have radioactive materials wash into the ground and streams. Using deadly chemicals in war has
been going on since the early 1900's during World War I (1914–1918). Chemicals such as tear gas,
chlorine gas, phosgene, and mustard gas. The first 3 are things ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The Hague Conference of 1899 made an attempt to outlaw projectiles carrying poison gases; the
agreement to this effect lasted only until W.W.I. In Geneva in 1925 a League of Nations protocol
against chemical and biological war was signed; it was not, however, ratified by the United States
until 1975. The treaty outlaws the first use of such weapons in warfare, but nations generally reserve
the right to use them in retaliation. Agreements totally banning chemical warfare have proved
difficult to achieve. A treaty totally banning biological warfare was drawn up by the Geneva
Disarmament Conference in 1971 and approved by the United Nations General Assembly. Some 80
nations signed the Biological Weapons Convention, which the United States ratified in 1974. This
treaty is unique because it outlaws a whole class of weapons by most of the world. Its effectiveness,
however, is still questionable; progress in genetic engineering has also complicated this issue. At the
Bush–Gorbachev summit in June 1990, a treaty was signed providing for both the United States and
USSR to reduce stockpiles of chemical weapons. In May 1991, 19 industrial nations––including the
United States–commited to adopt controls on the export of 50 common chemicals used to
manufacture these weapons. Anthrax is a contagious disease of warm–blooded animals, including
humans, caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. One of the oldest known diseases, it was once
epidemic and still appears in many world areas,

Biological Control In Golf Course Essay
Biological Control in Golf Course Maintenance Golf courses are a beautiful example of agricultural
art that many people take for granted. Millions of dollars a year are spent on chemicals which are
used to improve the appearance of grasses and trees, and to control diseases. But what if there was
an effective way to do this without the use of chemicals that can harm the environment? Biological
control is the act of using biological components, such as entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes,
hyperparasites and antibiosis protection. Most golf course superintendents have come accustomed to
using chemicals, but have not looked towards the future and refuse to acknowledge the effect they
may have on the environment in the long run. Entomopathogenic nematodes are ... Show more
Each species of entomopathogenic fungi has the ability to effect different organisms, which is
shown in Table 1. (ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI AS BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS) It
is known that insects make excellent vectors for plant pathogens, and using entomopathogenic fungi
kills those vectors, thus slowing the spread of the disease in certain areas. On golf courses, the most
common vectors include chinch bugs, bill bugs and aphids which are usually very small and occur
in large numbers. The fungi in this case is only harmful towards a specific host – which means it is
safe for humans and other organisms in the environment. (ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI AS
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS) The fungus is first introduced to the turf, which can then be
fed upon (or just touched) by a susceptible vector organism, causing inoculation by the fungus. The
fungus can enter the body by contact, ingestion or through other orifices in the body. Once inside,
the fungus can grow and reproduce, eventually becoming severely toxic and killing the

Using Clostridium botulinum as a Biological Weapon Essay...
Fatal Dilemma: Using Clostridium botulinum as a Biological Weapon
Ever since the dawn of biotechnology, the world had to face a new dilemma: bioterrorism. Using
biological agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc., bioterrorism attack aims to cause illness of
death in people, animals, or plants as a method of warfare. Used throughout history, biological
weapon serves as a pivotal role in disarming an army. Botulism toxin, known for the most toxic
substance in the biological world, has been used throughout history as a biological weapon. The
bacteria Clostridium botulinum causes botulism causes botulism disease, which is a serious paralytic
illness that strikes all age groups. The clinical forms of botulism include foodborne ... Show more
The dead bodies that carried highly contagious diseases, such as smallpox and bubonic plague, were
catapulted into besieged towns, where they quickly spread to civilians within the town walls
(Hurlbert 4).
Usage of biological weapon reached its height during the 19th century world wars, as agents were
used in all criminal, terrorist, or state–sponsored events (Anderson 20). Sprouted from the world
wars, biological research programs for both offensive and defensive strategies have been developed
by the United States, Britain, the former Soviet Union, Canada, and several other nations (Fong vii).
However, attention has not been focused on the potential threats of biological warfare and
bioterrorism until the terrorist attack on September 11th, 2001 and the anthrax crisis in Florida and
New York City (Fong vii). Throughout history, biological warfare has played a significant role, as
biological weapons, deliberately or inadvertently, in restricted and assisted armies over the
centuries.
Advantages of biological weapons are that they are effective in spreading the disease, highly toxic,
inexpensive, and cultivated in a short period of time. Due to the detrimental effects of biological
weapon, the army faced with these weapons would be easily disarmed. However, biological
weapons prove difficult to store and deliver without unintentionally releasing them (Hurlbert 6).
Therefore, innocent workers and civilians are

Weapons Of Mass Destruction
Introduction
The United States government has a responsibility to assess and prepare for the weapons of mass
destruction threat posed by terrorists. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) is a term that
individuals often use to generalize groups of distinct weapons into one main category when
discussing acts of terrorism (Mauroni, 2010). A more precise way of describing WMD terrorism is
by addressing the weapon by the appropriate classification, in order to understand the significance
of the type of weapon.. Throughout this paper, these weapons will be classified by chemical,
biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN). These weapon types have different protocols, which
makes it imperative that each weapon is adequately understood in terms of probability and the
potential impact (Mauroni, 2010). Generally, all weapons are low probability but they each have
different impacts on society and the likelihood of each weapon being deployed by terrorists vary.
According to Meulenbelt and Nieuwenhuizen (2015), "Chemical weapons seem to be relatively
easily obtainable, biological ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Attempts at nuclear terrorism are probable but there will be many obstacles for success. One main
factor that hinder use of nuclear weapons is the acquisition of fissionable material. The raw material
that is widely used for production of nuclear devices is uranium and plutonium (Meulenbelt and
Nieuwenhuizen, 2015). These materials are not easily obtainable and successful weaponization is
highly unlikely. Terrorists are able to obtain these materials from facilities but these buildings are
heavily secured. Using uranium and plutonium to create a nuclear weapon requires technological
sophistication and it is cost–effective. These characteristics support the evaluation that, nuclear
attacks are unlikely to occur but the impact would be terrifying (Meulenbelt and Nieuwenhuizen,

Biological Control of the Erythrina Gall Wasp Essay
There is a long history of failed attempts of biological controls in Hawaii. The one ingrained in
everyone's mind is the day hunting mongoose released to control nocturnal rats in the 1800's.
However, a stricter quarantine process was set up by the State since and there have been numerous
effective bio–controls. Within the last four years the Erythrina Gall Wasp has rapidly become a
highly invasive pest in Hawaii. Facing no long–term control other than bio–control the Erythrina
Gall Wasp's cousin has been released throughout the islands to save Erythrina plants.
In an interview with Nicoli Barca, a field tech with the Nature Conservancy he stated biological
controls are very effective when done right. An example of its effectiveness is ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The wasps' larvae create galls in the tissue of the trees and as adults develop they create exit holes.
Areas affected by the galls include all soft tissue such as leaflets, leaves, petioles and new shoots of
Erythrina plants. The galls created deform the fleshy tissue of the trees, which the larvae develop
within. Results of a numerous amount of galls include loss of growth, defoliation and even death of
the inflicted tree. According to the Honolulu Advertiser, the EGW is the "most environmentally
damaging and costly invasive species to creep into the islands in decades" (Vorsino). With no natural
predators and no effective pesticides the EGW has become a critical threat to the endemic Wiliwili
tree (Erythrina sandwicensis). Other plants heavily affected by the EGW are the ornamental coral
trees (Erythrina variegata) used as windbreakers throughout the islands. Coral trees seemed to have
been hit harder by this pest than the Wiliwili. However, scientists fear the Wiliwili could reach the
endangered status without action (Vorsino).
The only short–term control of the EGW is removing affected Erythrina plants and out–planting
others. In efforts to control the EGW populations' long–term Moshen Ramadan State Department of
Agriculture exploratory entomologist, went to Tanzania to look for a biological control. In 2006,
Ramadan brought back the Eurytoma wasp, which attacks 95 percent of the gall

Types Of Integrated Pest Management Programs Against Cotton
The spiny bollworm, E. insulana and the pink bollworm, P. gossypiella are the most serious pest's
infested cotton in Egypt. The reduction in cotton yield was mostly related to the
Review of literature
39
late season infestation with both species and the economic yields are almost impossible to achieve
without their chemical control. In Egypt, Khidr et al. (1996) tested the efficacy of the pyrethroids,
cypermethrin, cis–cyfluthrin, S–fenvalerate, fenpropathrin and cyhalothrin against
P. gossypiella and E. insulana. They stated that, all insecticides gave a high degree of control against
cotton bollworms and the treatment increased the yield of cotton significantly over the control, with
s–fenvalerate being the best treatment. Aref (1997) evaluated the efficiency of integrated pest
management programs against cotton bollworms under field conditions. The author stated that,
dursban was more effective against bollworms than kindo or larvainand no clear correlations were
found between moth catches and flower infestation. Sharaf (2003) at
El–Mansoura, evaluated the field efficiency of insecticides against P. gossypiella and E. insulana
infesting cotton plants. The author tested three chemical insecticides groups, four pyrethroids, two
organophosphates and one carbamate. Tested pyrethroids were the most effective which induced the
highest percentage of reduction in bollworms larvae population, followed by carbamate and
organophosphorous insecticides. The sequence of dursban, kendo

Jeanne Harley Guillemin on Biological Weapons
A native of Brooklyn, New York, Jeanne Harley Guillemin was born in 1943. As well as being an
author and medical anthropologist, for 25 she was a Professor of Sociology at Boston College.
There, she participated in extensive research on medical ethics and hospital technology. For her
works she received fellowships to become a member of the U.S. Senate Finance Committee at the
Hastings Center for The Study of Ethics. In addition, she was co–head of the National Library of
Medicine's Health Aware Project. This was a partner project with Harvard Medical School which
tested how the uses of the internet could include proving education on preventive health measures to
the public. She married Harvard geneticist and molecular biologist Matthew Meselson in 1986. He
was an anti–chemical and biological weapons advocate, and with this came her interest in the
manipulation of biomedical science by government weapons programs. She became involved in
Meselson's analysis of suspected abuse of international arms control contracts by the Soviet Union
which included germ weapons. The United States accused the Soviet Union for "yellow rain";
yellow rain is an airborne substance that sticks to outside surfaces, and if humans are exposed to the
substance, it can result in a wide range of incapacitating symptoms, sometimes ultimately death. It
was assumed that the Soviets aided the Laotian army by allowing them to implement deadly
mycotoxins to assault Hmong refugee allies of the United States

Pros And Cons Of Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism is defined according to Centers of Disease Control & Prevention as "deliberate release
of viruses, bacteria, or other germs (agents) used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or
plants" (CDC, 2007). Going into history, it can be said that bioterrorism is not a recent phenomenon,
since it has been practiced as a war tactic in middle ages, many European wars and in the World
Wars (Riedel 2004; Wheelis 2002).In the North American context, it is pertinent to mention about
the Siege of Fort Pitt. A British commander by the name of Amherst, has been alleged to order
distribution of blankets to Native Americans, which were previously contaminated by small pox
patients(Riedel, 2004).It is also reported that many countries were involved in developing biological
weapons program both in World War I ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite stern warnings from the United Nations, many countries like USA, Canada, Britain, France,
and the Soviet Union had set up advanced offensive and defensive biological weapons development
programs (Riedel 2004). The 1972 biological weapons convention (BWC) treaty was signed and
ratified initially by 22 nations and is currently signed by 173 countries as of March 2015 (UNOG,
2015). However the main shortcoming of BWC is lack of clear guidelines for inspections,
disarmament, and no fixed protocol exists to regulate any violations(Riedel, 2004). It is well known
that Iraq had developed a biological and chemical warfare program in late 1980s (Riedel 2004) and
this phenomena did not limit itself to countries only. In 1985 some members of a religious cult
Rajneshee, planned and carried out a deliberate biological attack via food contamination in a
restaurants in Oregon, USA(Riedel,2004).A terrorist group named Aum Shinrikyo launched a Sarin
gas attack at Tokyo underground subway in

The Effects Of Fungal Diseases
diseases in addition to physiological disorder. However, fungal diseases, especially rust is
considered one of the major destructive diseases affecting the crop yield (Hagedron, 1984 and Kraft,
and Pfleger, 2001), especially in the north and middle parts of the Delta in Egypt and several
countries in the world (Abada et al., 1997; Gupta and Shayam, 1998 and Parilli et al., 2015).
The fungus Uromyces pisi is a heteroecious rust pathogen, completing its life cycle on two host
plant species. The sexual stages are completed on Euphorbia cyparissias (cypress spurge), while the
asexual lifecycle stages are completed on leguminous crop hosts such as Lathyrus, Orobus, Pisum
and Vicia spp. E. cyparissias is an erect, branching, rhizomatous ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The nectar contains fungal gametes (spermatia) that are transferred by nectar feeding insects
(including bees and ants) from one fungal mating type to another. Once fertilization has occurred,
aeciospores are released which infect leguminous host plants including field peas.
Managing plant diseases with fungicides sometimes gives good results. However, improper use of
fungicides leads mostly to environmental pollution, disasters throughout the world and the
phenomena of resistance to the causal pathogens (Brewer and Larkin, 2005). Therefore, to overcome
these difficulties, it is urgent to apply alternative safe efficient methods against such disease or at
least rationalization their application.
Biological control is considered an important approach of agricultural biotechnology in recent years
for controlling many fungal plant pathogens. Both Bacillus and Trichoderma spp. are the most
promising and effective bioagents against
various plant pathogenic fungi (Deshmukh et al., 2010; Barakat et al., 2014 and Ragab et al., 2015).
Trichoderma as antagonist is much more complex, that is nutrient competition, hyperparasitism,
antibiosis, space and cell wall degrading enzymes (Abd–El–Khair et al., 2010 and Junid et al.,
2013).
It was also found that there is a large variety of volatile secondary metabolites produced by
Trichoderma spp. such as ethylene, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, aldehydes and ketones which
play an important role in controlling many plant

Nuture Nature Vs Nurture
TWINS AND THE NATURE–NURTURE OF INTELLIGENCE: Intelligence is defined by
psychologists as "the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex
ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience" (Dr. C. George Boeree 2003). It is an interesting
aspect of the human being that psychologists try to understand in terms of the various factors that
influence it. The variation in the level of intelligence in human beings is scored using the IQ. It is
evaluated across a spectrum of perspectives ranging from biological, psychoanalysis, cognitive
psychology, humanism and behaviorism. But the most debated is how nature and nurture influence
intelligence. Nature follows with a biological approach focusing on genetic, hormonal and neuro–
chemical explanations of behavior that are acquired, while nurture focuses on all behavior learnt
from the environment through conditioning. "Nature is what we think of as pre–wiring and is
influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the
influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning
on an individual" (Saul McLeod , 2007). How nature or nurture influence intelligence or which of
them is more influential, is highly studied psychologists. Such studies have been attempted by using
twins by isolating from their siblings, and evaluating whether genetic or environmental factors has
influence on their intelligence. In their use, identical (monozygote) twins are separated and made to
grow in different environmental conditions such as socioeconomic status, parents' behavior,
alcoholism, criminal behavior, emotional adaptation and nutrition while non–identical twins are
used as controls. This is done by testing their IQ. (Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence, 2005) The
influence of nature on genetic is easily studied using heritability or traits that are considered
inherited, including intelligence. Psychologists try to compare the influence of heritability and the
environment by taking advantage of the idea that monozygotic twins share 100 percent of their
genes while dizygotic twins share 50 percent. Consequently identical twins are expected to display
the same

Biological Weapon Funding
Taylor Boulet
Crim. 4412 – Research Paper
Proposal to ban the funding of Biological agents and make it illegal for use in warfare. Biological
weapons have been around for many years. Some of the biological weapons being used today
around the world are; Brucella, Brucellosis, Smallpox, and Anthrax, etc. These bio–agents are
mostly being used in terrorism/warfare situations. The uses of these agents are extremely dangerous
as they can easily be disseminated, or transmitted from person to person. Imagine a large city like
New York City or San Francisco being infiltrated with a smallpox virus. In a matter of days,
thousands of casualties would be infected and the spread of the disease would be almost
uncontrollable. With that being said, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is known as biodefense research. The main efforts in biodefense are directed towards
understanding the basic biology of potential bioterrorism agents, understanding the interaction
between the human immune system and these microorganisms, developing and improving drugs and
vaccines that are effective against bioterrorism agents, developing tools to quickly and accurately
diagnose diseases caused by these agents, and establishing resources and biosafety laboratories to
facilitate biodefense research. These scientists performing this critical research are the ones who
have the opportunity to come together for one cause in order to create a less dangerous world. Brian
Heap writes in "Scientists Against Biological Weapons", that "Scientists need to support policy –
makers in negotiations to secure an effective international instrument banning the development,
production, and use of biological weapons. It is not possible for any single nation to protect itself
fully from the malign use of biological agents without complementary action by all other

Pros And Disadvantages Of Bioterrorism
BIOTERRORISM
DEFINITION
Bioterrorrism comes the word bio and terrorism.Bio comes the word biological agent while
terrorism is violence and threats to intimidate and force people to follow some rules especially when
it related to politics. So bioterrorism means sudden outbreak of biological agent dissemination for
violence and to threats to intimidate people. They deliberate release these biological agent such as
viruses, bacteria, toxin or germs and cause death to innocent people. Viruses have several
advantages when comparing with bacteria. Virus is more resistant in antibiotics compared to
bacteria. Furthermore, virus is more dangerous compared to bacteria. Virus is very difficult to
overcome and can cause severe illness and sometimes lead to death. Biological agent can spread to
world by many ways. They can spread through food, air or water. So it makes terrorist`s work easier
to force and intimidate innocent people. United State is one of the country that is widely popular of
bioterrorism but other developing countries also have this bioterrorism because these developing
countries usually attack other countries by bioterrorism. Bioterrorism is the most commonly use
because it is easy and can attack people silently or softly because it is very hard to be detected.
(B) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But now, people call the biological warfare as bioterrorism instead of biological warfare. This
bioterrorism started in 14th to 15th when they knew how virus was transmitted. Then use of
biological weapon is widely use around 19th to 20th centuries. During world war 1, it start when
German attempts to use anthrax to spread among animals. Anton Dilger is the one who start to sent
the virus to United State. But, Anton Dilger never arrested until he run to Spain and died in 1918.
While in 1972, two students were arrested because they want to poison city'water supply with

Nature Vs Nurture : The Biological Approach
Nature vs Nurture is something that has been researched for many years especially when it comes to
finding the reason for someone committing a crime. When talking about nature, I am talking about
how you are born. The genes that you are born with that make you who you are. When referring to
nurture I am talking about how someone is raised. Such as the environment you live in and what is
taught to you. As humans we cannot control our nature it is simply what you are born with. When
you are born you have all your genes that will decide what you look like, how tall or short you will
be, so why do we not believe that our behavioral tendencies, and personality attributes come from
our genes too. Psychological theories such as the biological approach, and psychoanalysis have
helped to show us how are genetics predetermine our behavior. Researchers have found multiple
facts that support each side and for years no one has been able to decide which one influences us
over the other one. I believe that our nature has a greater impact on us then our nurture especially
when it comes to criminal actions.
The biological approach states that "all thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately have a biological
cause" (Simply Psychology). This approach says that we are affected by biological factors.
Biological factors are "anything which affects the function and behavior of a living organism.
Internally, this factor can be a physical, physiological, chemical, neurological, or genetic condition

Bioterrorism Research Paper
Bioterrorism
Introduction
Imagine the United States fifteen years from now, 2030 an Ebola outbreak has accord. Infection
spreading every second, cities all over America growing anxious not knowing how to react to such a
deadly disease. Humans trying to find a safe place to shelter their family frustrated with the little
supplies of food and water left to help them surviver for at least the next few days, but knowing they
can't do anything because the deadly virus is everywhere. Hospitals all over America full of infected
patients; chaos happening all around us and we will not be able to do anything because it will simply
be too late. Americans often don't realize what's happening amongst them, the danger of bioterror a
risk that threatens all humanity, they would rather concern themselves with miner issues that don't
appose such threats as those of bioterrorism, and even if they did few will be the ones to act on it.
It's not until the issue has accord that they realize they should had ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Scientist have made studies and deep investigations about what to expect in our future. If we
continue with our carless ways we are looking at a huge risk, a risk that we are not ready to battle.
America is not prepared to face a huge bioterror outbreak. For example, in 2014 there was an Ebola
virus outbreak in West Africa, a virus they were not well prepared for causing infections to spread
around the world. An on going disease so strong we will fail to keep under control with the lack of
preparations. Something must be done to stop this virus; all of us should be worried and concerned
about what could happen in a couple of years from now. If we fail to work together and find a
solution to help ourselves with these mass distractions we will face consequences that will cause our
death. Consequences that we won't be able to handle even if America thinks it can; it will simply be
too

Sign Here If You Exist By Jill Sisson Quinn
Austrian–British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein once said, "The real question of life after death
isn 't whether or not it exists, but even if it does what problem this really solves." The idea that death
is inevitable is well known by everyone, yet no one is certain as to what happens afterwards. Even
though the subject of life after death has been argued for centuries by many philosophers and
theologians. In the article Sign Here If You Exist, Jill Sisson Quinn adequately employs figurative
language, rhetoric questionings, and personal anecdotes to demonstrate a controversial argument on
the topic of life after death. In her article, Quinn uses multiple figurative languages to strengthen her
claim that life after death does not exist. This is a very opinionated piece therefore using figurative
language such as metaphors, simile, diction and symbols help enhance the validity of the author's
argument, while effectively giving her opinion to the readers in a subdued manner. Quinn's use of
the Ichneumon wasp as a symbol for the process of human life is a subtle way of writing it. Her
article starts off with a detailed description of the physical features of a Female Giant Ichneumon
Wasp, which then proceeds to a biology based background explanation on the specie. During her
descriptions, Quinn uses carefully chosen words that is meant to let the reader go beyond imagining
the wasp and to think of it as something more. She explains "Her overall appearance of fragility –
the

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