Pros And Cons Of Human Animal Chimera

Pros And Cons Of Human Animal Chimera
A chimera is made of cells that are derived from two or more organisms. They can occur in nature. For example, when two separate sperm fertilize two
separate eggs and the embryos somehow fuse together creating a single fetus with genetically distinguishable cells, tetragametic chimerism occurs.
Although, chimeras are more commonly man–made. One way to make a chimera is to introduce the organs of one organism to another. In organ or
tissue transplants, the host receives two genetically distinct cells or tissues, creating a tissue chimera. The other method is introducing one organism's
cells to the embryo of another and letting them grow together into a hybrid. Scientists have found a way to use this unique method to create a
human–chimera.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A human–pig hybrid was successfully made with this method. Human–animal chimeras are useful as they can help scientists understand human biology
and the mechanisms of human diseases. In one research, human embryonic stem cells, pluripotent cells, were introduced to the brains of embryonic
mice. The experiment showed that the human cells formed many different and functional neural cell types and continued to develop into mature and
active human neurons within the mouse's brain. These type of chimeras allow the ideal live environment in which to study human neural development.
Furthermore, these types of chimeras could aid in developing new models of neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases possibly speed up drug
screenings. In another experiment, human hematopoietic stem cells, blood–forming stem cells, were transplanted in sheep fetuses. These stem cells
then formed the components of blood and the immune system and formed cells such as bone and muscle. The researchers also found that the
hematopoietic stem cells were capable of forming functional human liver cells. Models such as these have the possibility of making many human liver
cells to treat genetic diseases in fetuses or newborns where the liver cells are
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Cunninghamella Elegans
C.Resistance of Cunnighamella elegans to different concentrations of studied metals:–
In the present work, low concentrations of manganese could stimulate the Cunninghamella elegans growth. Interestingly, increase the manganese
concentration to 30 ppm was optimum for the fungus to give the highest growth rate and the best sporulation comparing with control and other
manganese concentrations (Fig. 35). Increasing the manganese concentration to 50 ppm recorded the same growth as control and then this rate
suddenly decreased with 100 ppm manganese. The fungus completely killed with 300 ppm manganese and above (Table 33, Fig. 34). There is no
appreciable difference in growth of Cunninghamella elegans with increasing concentration (1 ppm–100 ppm) of copper and markedly decreased with
increasing metal concentration (300 ppm–1000 ppm). Souza et al., (2005), revealed the physiological aspects of the growth of C. elegans in the
presence of copper, whereas C. elegans is able to grow in copper containing medium and that the metal has a stimulatory effect on biomass production.
Therefore, the fungal growth in control media was slower than in the presence of copper. In the present study, we confirmed the previous results but
with a limited amount of copper in the culture media (1 ppm– 50 ppm) while the growth inhibited with high concentrations (100 ppm to 1000 ppm) and
going slower than control. Luciana et al., (2004) stated that chitosan was the polysaccharides with the best capacity for copper biosorption (75 %). ...
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39). This fungus adapted well with all zinc concentrations, despite that the growth less than control but this rate was almost stable in different zinc
concentrations (Table 35, Fig. 39). The fungus sporulation increased gradually with increasing zinc concentrations in the culture media and higher than
that of control culture (Figs. 40,

The Causative Agent : Candida
3.2The causative agent: Candida Historically, C. albicans has been identified when the renowned Greek physician, Hippocrates, first described oral
thrush in his treatise 'Epidemics' published in 4th century B.C. However, the organism has not been studied vigorously till late twentieth century when
it became one of the most common 4 causes of blood stream and cardiovascular infections in United States hospitals. Since then, C. albicans has
gained the importance as a potential human pathogen and elevated to the level of model fungal pathogen . The last two decades have witnessed
increased incidence of Candida infections due to the widespread use of broad–spectrum antibiotics in addition to the increasing numbers of
HIV–infected and immune–compromised individuals . 3.2.1Taxonomy of Candida species Candida spp. belongs to Ascomycota (Kingdom: Mycetae,
Phylum: Ascomycota, Subphylum: Saccharomycotina, class: Saccharomycetes, order: Saccharomycetales, family: Saccharomyceteae, genus: Candida)
. However, Candida spp. was previously phylogenetic classified as imperfect fungi, Deuteromycetes, (Kingdom: Fungi, class: Deuteromycetes, order:
Moniliales, family: Cryptococcaceae, genus: Candida) which is described as a "taxonomic pit" in which yeasts without known sexual stage
(teleomorph) is thrown. Recent DNA sequence based methods have proven that both sexual and asexual Candida spp. are ascomycetes . 3.2.2Candida
species Over 200 Candida spp. exist in nature, however, only a few

Summary Of Death Of A Moth By Dillard
Dillard uses a fragment to show her reluctance as she accepts that they will not understand what really is given up. This fragment makes a striking
contrast with the previous sentences in the classroom scene which consists of continuous questions and run–on questions. Without stating it, Dillard
shows that she has given up and will continue to feel as if she is still alone in her situation. With the constant grammatically incorrect sentences Dillard
writes in, she ultimately creates a unique voice that results in a more personal essay for the reader to connect to. Dillard makes striking choices of
diction to craft a stronger argument in "Death of a Moth." One of her significant choices is her use of anatomical vocabulary that the reader would

Rheumatoid Arthritis Research
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease (McInnes & Schett, 2011; Smolen & Steiner, 2003; O'Dell, 2004) wherein the immune response
of the body is aberrant, tagging the healthy cells of the body as non–self or foreign which therefore leads the body to attack and eliminate its own
tissues. RA affects the synovial joints and is characterized by joint inflammation and the tissues surrounding it (Curtis, Gaffo, & Saag, 2006).
Moreover, around millions of the Earth's population are diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis (Bingham & Ruffing, 2016). Patients detected to have this
disease experience pain, stiffness or swelling in their joints (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, nd; Drane, Berry, Bieri, McFarlane, &
Brooks, 1997; Bellamy,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this study, crab shell wastes will be used as source of the treatment since they are readily available and abundant (Kim & Park, 2015; Das &
Ganesh, 2009). Furthermore, crab shells also contain useful chemicals that may be used for pharmaceuticals (Chen & Yan, 2015). In addition, they
contain high contents of chitin which is ideal as a source (Kim & Park, 2015; Das & Ganesh, 2009). Chitin is a nitrogen–containing structural
polysaccharide present in the cell wall of fungi and exoskeleton of crustaceans, insects and other arthropods. The exoskeleton serves are protection and
structural support for the arthropods (Pechenik, 2009). Furthermore, in crustaceans, the chitinous substances is added with calcium carbonate for added
protection (Berg, Martin, & Solomon, 2006). Chitin has several derivatives and one of them is chitosan. Chitosan is obtained through deacetylation of
chitin under alkaline conditions the acetyl group present in chitin is removed and thus the substance is converted into chitosan (Rinaudo & Younes,
2015). Chitosan is a copolymer composed of N– acetyl glucosamine and glucosamine and possesses various properties such as antimicrobial activity,
biocompatibility and biodegradability (Teli

Essay On Sodium Chloride
Our results mostly match with these studies. Interestedly, biofilm–associated cells showed to be significantly more metabolically active than the
sporangia at pH 9 (p 2 ppt has significantly reduce the infection loads (Stockwell and Mahony 2015). There is evidence that higher concentrations of
sodium chloride, 10% (w/v), can kill Bd in 2 min (Johnson et al. 2003).But, this is a very high concentration which can negatively affect amphibians
as well. Salinity of the natural water bodies increase gradually every year due to agricultural clearing, irrigation and the massive use of de–icing salt on
roads both in urban and suburban areas (Kaushal et al. 2005, Pitman 2002). There are lentic water bodies which have the mean annual salinity as high...
We provide more complete results regarding the effectiveness of the amphotericin B as an antifungal treatment for chytridiomycosis. As an attempt of
finding novel antifungal therapeutic agents for Bd, we tested the viability of the zoospores, sporangia and biofilm–associated cells in the presence of
different concentrations of methyl chavicol, curcumin, allicin and 6–gingerol. Plant extracts have been used to treat different microbial diseases of
humans, animals and plants for decades. Methyl chavicol is not soluble in water; instead it is highly soluble in ethanol and DMSO. Ethanol and
DMSO both kill Bd. Therefore, testing its ability to kill Bd was determined in mixed cultures by directly adding different volumes of oil into 10 ml
H–broth cultures. The minimal inhibitory concentration of methyl chavicol was 1 Вµl/ml which completely killed a mixer of both zoospores and
sporangia. Our results match with the previously reported MIC of 1 Вµl/ml for methyl chavicol which completely inhibited the mycelial growth of
Moniliophthora perniciosa (Costa et al. 2015). Antibacterial activities of Ocimum sp. essential oils, which consist methyl chavicol as the major
component, have been proved to be effective against different bacteria and fungi (Moghaddam et al. 2014, Pandey et al. 2014). Even though methyl
chavicol seems very promising in mitigating Bd in vitro, in vivo studies are highly recommended as there is evidence that methyl chavicol

Importance Of Synthetic Biology : High-Technology...
High–tech Perishable Designs – Synthetic Biology
Our journey of moving from homogenous to heterogeneous, from bio–mimicry to synthetic biology, of rationally engineer microorganisms dates back
to 1990s. Synthetic biology–unlike chemistry–is involved in the technical alteration of animate nature. Building on recent advances in genetic science
and technology, synthetic biology aims to understand the molecular fundamentals of the metabolic and reproductive functions of simple single–cell
organisms precisely. It thereby seeks to enable us thoroughly to manipulate and rearrange existing organisms in a standardised manner, and to equip
them with characteristics that do not occur in nature.
This arranged marriage of organisms has however, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With the growth of technology designers and bio–engineers have already started thinking about life–sustaining wearable for interplanetary voyages.
Students of MIT Media Lab have developed new life forms for the new voyages. These life forms are Combination of two microfluids, cyanobacteria
that converts light into sugar and E. Coli which consumes that sugar and produces biofuels useful for the built environment. For the first time, they are
having relationship inside a photosynthetic wearable, liquid channels glowing with life inside a wearable, breathing product – 'Mushtari – Jupitor's
Wonderer' along with . Followed by, Zuhal–Saturn's Wonderer, Otaared– Mercury's Wonderer and Qamar – Luna's Wonderer. (figure )'Living matter
within these structures will ultimately transform oxygen for breathing, photons for seeing, biomass for eating, biofuels for moving and calcium for
building.' (MIT Media Lab, 2014) And this we can call mothering the nature.
Let's now imagine if we can create personal microbiomes that would scan and repair damaged tissue, consume nutrients and evacuate waste to
sustain our bodies! Think of this as a form of edited biology. Speculate about the future of our race in a new age of symbiosis between our bodies,
microbes, our products and even our living space. This is called material ecology that can be found in nature and applied on by bioprinting.
However, blurring of the

Starfish And Green Crab Lab Report
Introduction The ecosystem with which the simulation is being done is an aquatic ecosystem. This specific ecosystem is home to producers such as:
black pine, coral weed, and nori seaweed. Stationary consumers like acorn barnacles, gooseneck barnacles, and mussels are also present. Mobile
consumers such as chitin, starfish, and whelk. The invasive mobile consumer is the green crab. Animals such as starfish compete with others like
green crabs for mussels. Starfish and whelk prey on and also compete for the gooseneck barnacle. Whelk and green crab also compete for the acorn
barnacles. The competition between starfish and green crab over mussels is what led me to my hypothesis as the mussel is one of the largest secondary
consumers in terms

Chi-Chon: Hybrid Breed Dog Varieties
Chi–Chi The Chi–Chi is a hybrid combination of two pure breed dog varieties. This hybrid is derived from the Chinese Crested and the Chihuahua.
This type of dog is generally small in build. Its average height is typically about 11 or 12 inches tall, and its average weight is usually about seven
pounds. The Chi–Chi may be a combination of several hues, including cream, brown, or black. The coat is generally smooth, and the dog's grooming
needs will usually be minimal to moderate. This dog is apt to be friendly and playful, and it can be an optimal choice for households with children.
However, it may not be an appropriate option for a person who requires a watchdog. Chi–Chon The Chi–Chon is a hybrid variety of canine. It is a mix
of two pure breeds: the Bison Frise and the Chihuahua. This dog is derived from two small breeds, so it will almost certainly be a small dog itself.
Its average height should be about 10 or 11 inches tall, and its average weight is typically between 10 and 11 pounds. This dog may have a coat in a
color combination of various hues, including black, brown, golden, and white. Its coat could be short or long, and it should not require a great deal of
grooming. The Chi–Chon is not apt to be a good watchdog, but it should be an appropriate choice for people with children. Chigi... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
It is mix of two kinds of pure–breed dogs: the Pembroke Welsh Corgi and the Chihuahua. This dog is apt to be small in build; its average height
should be about 10 or 11 inches tall, and its average weight will generally be between 10 and 15 pounds. Its coat may be one color or a combination
of colors. The coat could be medium, long, or short in length, and it may require moderate grooming. The Chigi is playful and easy to train, and it is
often a suitable choice for those who have children. It may not be an optimal candidate for household watchdog since it does not generally bark when
strangers

Tardigrade Research Paper
What is a tardigrade, and how did it get the title of The World's Most Resistant Creature? It all started in the year of 1773, scientist Johann August
Ephraim Goeze discovered this micro–organism. Johann Ephraim was a German zoologist; he did his work with aquatic invertebrates, particularly
insects, and worms, but in 1773 he described the tardigrade. He was the first person to describe the tardigrade and named it Kleiner WasserbГ¤r
meaning "little water bear". The reason he named the tardigrade this is because it has the same gait as a bear. In 1776, three years after the discovery
of the tardigrade, the phylum Tardigrada, or slow stepper, was named by Lazzaro Spallanzani. (Refer to image one at the end) A tardigrade is a
microorganism that has a barrel–shaped body with... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The tardigrade can survive a wide range of temperature: a few minutes at 151C, thirty years at –20C, a few days at –200C, and a few minutes at –272C.
They can survive the extremely low pressure and very high pressures. Tardigrades can survive 1,200 atmospheric pressure, and some species can
survive a pressure of 6,000 atmospheres. They can also survive the vacuum of space. The longest that tardigrades have survived in a dry state is
nearly ten years, but there is a report of leg movement in a 120–year–old tardigrade that was in dry moss. To prevent it from exploding from its water
content freezing it will drop its water content from 85% to only 3%. The tardigrade will also drop its water content to provide fewer reactants for
the radiation. The tardigrade can survive 1,000 times more radiation than any other animal. They can survive 5,000 Gy of gamma rays and 6,200 Gy
of heavy ions. The eggs in a late stage of development can survive 4,000 Gy. To put in perspective, five to ten Gy of gamma rays would be fatal to a
fully grown human. This micro–organism is one of the few species to have survived the five mass extinctions that Earth has

The Fungal Cell Wall And Its Effects On The Environment
CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION
1.0______
The fungal cell wall plays an important role in the physiological adaptation of the organism in its environment. The yeast's cell wall serves several
essential functions for the such as the ability to hold its shape, the regulation of water flow into and out of the cell, and the prevention of foreign bodies
that might be toxic from entering.1 It constantly changes during cell division, growth and morphogenesis; this dynamic feature dictates the organism's
protection or susceptibility to the environment.2,3,4,5
A true fungal cell wall consists of three main components; lipids, proteins and carbohydrates (glucan, mannan and chitin).3,6,7 The content of the cell
wall varies depending upon the type of fungal species. Schizosaccharomyces pombe is one fungal species which lacks chitin in its cell wall. The
pathogenic (disease causing) fungus Candida albicans and the saprophytic (feed on dead plant and animal remains) fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae
each contain glucan, mannan and a very small amount of chitin.8 A pictorial representation of mannoproteins (outermost layer), ОІ–glucans,
ОІ–glucans+chitin, and a plasma membrane that contains lipids is depicted in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1 Typical structure of a yeast cell wall.9
The Greene research group is primarily concerned with developing effective and milder procedures for isolating ОІ–glucan and mannan from the cell
wall of fungal species for structural and physicochemical characterization. This

Streptomyces Essay
Streptomyces is a genus of Gram–positive bacteria in the actinomycetes group. Streptomyces species are common inhabitants of soil, though they are
found in a variety of habitats. They have a mycelial and reproduce by the formation of spores at the extremities of aerial hyphae. They respire
aerobically and can use a wide range of organic compounds as carbon and energy sources. Streptomyces often produce extracellular enzymes that
allow them to utilize various materials such as starch, cellulose and chitin. They produce over half of all known antibiotics, and certain species are
commercially important. An example of an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces griseus is streptomycin. (Collins Dictionary of Biology, 3rd ed. 2005)
Streptomyces are the most extensively studied and well known genus of the actinomycete family. Streptomyces typically dwell the soil and are
significant decomposers. They also are medically significant due to their ability to produce... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Worthy of note is the process involving the production of antibiotics where there is a symbiotic relationship between Streptomyces and plant. The
antibiotic protects plants against pathogens, and plant exudates allows the growth of Streptomyces. Researchers have suggested that some antibiotics
originated as signal molecules, with the ability to effect variations in the expression of some genes that are unrelated to a stress response. DNA
replication; RNA synthesis; cell wall synthesis and protein synthesis have been identified as possible targets for cellular disruption which is
undoubtedly a complex process. Streptomyces is a well–known genus of the Actinomycetes family of bacteria with a unique morphology and
metabolism, which lends to its ability to produce more than half of the antibiotics that are used in agriculture and

Tracheaes Research Paper
Insects transport gases throughout their bodies through a system of branching tubes called tracheae which then branch off into tiny fluid lined tubes
called tracheoles. Gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, enter and exit the tracheae through paired openings called spiracles. These spiracles have
filtering devices such as fine hairs, which prevent tiny particles from clogging the gas exchange system. Spiracles also consist of valves that control
the degree to which the spiracles are open.
The gases pass through the tracheae and the tracheoles, which are permeable to both fluid and respiratory gases. These respiratory gases dissolve into
this fluid and then diffuse inwards and outwards of the respiring tissues down their concentration gradient. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Generally, fish are ectothermic and have a streamlined body to swim rapidly. Fish usually consist of scales that surround their body, one or two
dorsal fins, a tail fin and an anal fin, two sets of paired fins and jaws. Many different kinds of fish live in a freshwater, aquatic habitat such as lakes,
rivers and the ocean. The water that fish live in has a low concentration of oxygen and is more viscous than air. The amount of dissolved oxygen in a
volume of water is much less than in the same volume of air. Air is 21% oxygen but in water, dissolved oxygen is about 1% by volume. Considering
this, fish must have an efficient gas exchange membrane to live. (discuss this

Cholera Is An Infectious Bacterial Disease Of The Small...
Cholera is an infectious bacterial disease of the small intestine. This bacterium has spread through the world covering about 50 countries that came
about through 7 pandemics. This disease is a worldwide public health concern affecting 3–5 million people each year, killing 120,000. Before, it was
thought that cholera spread through a sort of fog known as a miasma however now we know the whole mechanism for the cholera toxin. It was
discovered that cholera is transmitted through fecal–oral transmission and is thus a waterborne bacterium. Although a very deadly and disturbing
disease, even without medical education, this disease can be managed and usually even treated.
Before science was as far advanced as it is today, people were unsure how cholera was spread or transmitted from person to person. The Europeans
and Americans believed it was spread through a miasma (like dirty fog) and got breathed in. Many people also believed it was brought from various
immigrant populations or was a disease of the poor. John Snow at the time was one of the few people skeptic of the popular belief that cholera was
spread through Miasma. He was a believer instead in a theory put forth by Girolamo Fracastoro known as the germ theory. Thegerm theory of disease
states that some diseases are caused by microorganisms and that reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. It wasn't until the work performed
by Louis Pasteur came about to validate the germ theory of disease and disprove

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Deacetylases
Apart from the advantages of Chemical Deacetylation it also have disadvantages such as Energy Consumption, Waste of concentrated alkaline solution
which results in increase of environmental pollution, broad and heterogeneous range of soluble and insoluble products.
An alternative enzymatic method has been discovered to overcome the limitation of preparation of chitosan by discovering chitin deacetylases . For
production of novel, well–defined chitosan we have found the use of chitin deacetylases for the conversion of chitin to chitosan, which is in contrast to
the currently used chemical procedure, offers the possibility of a controlled, non–degradable process . This method is specially used to prepare chitosan
oligomers For production of chitosan we use ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, chitosan solution must be free of aggregates, and hence the solvent for chitosan must be chosen carefully. The viscometric average molecular
weight is usually been calculated from intrinsic viscosity because of the lower impact of small fractions of aggregates, using the Mark–Houwink
relationship. In order to determine K and a parameters, an absolute MW has to be calculated using light scattering technique and due to high sensitivity
to aggregate formation the obtained value is usually overestimated. These artifacts may be carried out for instance by the use of 0.3M acetic acid/0.2M
sodium acetate (pH = 4.5) solvent which does not form aggregates in this mixture. Under these conditions, the absolute M values were obtained from
steric exclusion chromatography (SEC) equipped with viscometer and light scattering detector on line allowing to determine the Mark–Houwink
parameters without fractionation and also to obtain the relation between the radius of gyration (G) and the molecular weight(MW). The K (mL/g) and
a parameters at 25 В°C are 7.9 Г— 10в€’2 and 0.796

Three Taxonomic GroupsGas Exchange, Insects, Fish, And...
gas exchange is the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases across the membrane by diffusion. These can be found within the three taxonomic
groups – insects, fish and mammals. Each of these taxonomic groups all have different gas exchanges and adaptations to enable them to continue their
way of life. In this report, I will discuss the three taxonomic groups' gas exchanges, and adaptations to carry this out.
insects
The first taxonomic group is an insect. internal gas exchange systems connect individual cells, and tissues with the air outside, due to a system of
branching tubes named trachea. insects contain air tubes, named trachea and tracheoles throughout their body. These tubes are held in shape by
rings of chitin. Insects don't have a circulatory system as such, so the tracheoles are to reach each individual cell in the body, as they're relying on
diffusion to take place to take in oxygen. At each end of the tracheole, a small amount of liquid is placed, allowing gasses to dissolve, and then
diffuse into each of the cells. The tracheal system is efficient in maintaining a high metabolic rate. The places in which the tubes leave the body, are
called spiracles. Spiracles have the ability to open and close, to control the water loss. When in need of lots of oxygen, or if the environment is moist,
the spiracles begin to open. When they close or are slightly open, they're not in need of oxygen, or the environment is dry. Insects also 'ventilate' their
gas exchange

Glucosamine
Glucosamine is one of the biological components that helps to create more support for the joints and helps to exert a protective effect against joint
destruction in conditions associated with osteoarthritis. In healthy glucosamine is produced in the body naturally. Because one of the ingredients of
glucosamine is glucose, a naturally occurring sugar classified as an amino sugar. However, glucosamine does not behave in the body as an energy
source. Instead, it serves to blend sulphur into the cartilage and other body tissues. It is involved to maintain and repair the bones, joints, cartilage & in
the treatment of degenerative joint diseases (Chiusaroli et al., 2011; Distler and Anguelouch, 2006; Rangle and Sawitzke, 2012). Glucosamine is also
involved in constructing nails, skin, eyes, bones, ligaments, tendons, heart valves, discharging mucous from the respiratory system, digestive system,
and urinary tract. Chemically, the glucosamine (Figure 1.1) structure is an amino–monosaccharide and a substrate of glycosaminoglycans and
proteoglycans. These are substrates of hyaluronic acid that is a major component of joint fluid. Since glucosamine is a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Glucosamine is also a basic monomer of Chitin that is found in exoskeletons of invertebrate marine creatures such as oysters, crabs or shrimps
(Yang & Su, 2005). When chitin is hydrolyzed in the presence of mineral acid like sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid glucosamine is produced.
(Mojarrad et al. 2007). Glucosamine sulphate is not a not stable as it is and degrade on absorbing moisture due to its hygroscopic nature so it is
converted into a salt form. Glucosamine HCl is co–crystallized with potassium and sodium sulphate to produce glucosamine sulphate 2 KCl or 2 NaCl.
The content of Glucosamine base (active substance) in glucosamine sulphate 2 KCl is only 59% w/w. Most of dietary supplements contain
glucosamine sulphate 2 KCl rather than glucosamine HCl. (Eliska and Frantisek

Chemical Structure Of Chitin And Cellulose
3.2 Chemistry of chitin
Similar to its polysaccharide nature, Chitin has a similar chemical structure as that of cellulose. It is reported to be a polymer with high molecular
weight of N–acetyl–D–glucosamine units which are linked by ОІ–D bonds, which has 1000–3000 units (Shahidi & Abuzaytoun 2005). In similarity
with cellulose, chitin has an acetamido group at its C2 postion unlike cellulose which has a hydroxyl group (Shahidi & Abuzaytoun 2005). Figure 1
shows the structure of chitin, its derivative chitosan and cellulose.
Figure 1: Structure of chitin, chitosan and cellulose, Source: (Shahidi & Abuzaytoun 2005)
Furthermore, discussing the structure of chitin, it is reported that chitin and chitosan are heteropolymers as compared to cellulose which is a
homopolymer (Kumar R 2000). In addition to the structure of chitin the degree of N–acetylation is also an important part of its chemistry. It is important
to know the chemistry related to the degree of N–acetylation that is the ratio of 2–acetamido–2–deoxy–D–glucopyranose to
2–amino–2–deoxy–D–glucopyranose (Kumar R 2000), before considering its application for specific purposes. Furthermore, chitosan is one such
universally accepted derivative of chitin that is obtained by N–deacetylation to such a degree at which it is soluble in aqueous solution of acetic acid
and formic acid, an optimized degree to achieve chitosan is 0.35 or less. This ratio is can be defined by several analytical methods such as gel
permeation

Extremophiles Research Paper
Extremophiles – R. pachyptila By Richard Wilmer
Extremophiles are organisms that are adapted to not only withstand but thrive in extreme conditions. R. pachyptila or "giant tube worm" is a barophile
found on the Pacific Ocean floor able to withstand extremely high pressures. It can grow up to 2.4 metres and inhabits environments with a
temperature range of 2 to 30 degrees Celsius. It is one of many organisms that reside near hydrothermal vents, specifically black smokers that produce
high levels of hydrogen sulphide.
R. pachyptila inhabits the aphotic zone up to several miles below the surface where sunlight is non–existent, so photosynthesis is not an option and
most organisms are predators or feed on falling organic matter. The pressure... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When combined with calcium carbonate chitin forms a strong composite, which contributes to the ablility of R. pachyptila to withstand such high
pressures. Chitin is found across crustaceans and insects and is tough and pliable, providing protection while maintaining some flexibility. The
characteristic red plume of R. pachyptila can be just as much of a hinderance as it is an asset, being an attractive target for predators. To remedy this,
the plume can be retracted into the chitin tube when predators draw near. Additionally, the lack of many predators due to the extreme conditions often
allows R. pachyptila to flourish in its ecological

Permo-Triassic Mass Extinction Essay
The Permo–Triassic mass extinction: what died out
LIFE IN THE SEA
Fusulinid foraminifera disappeared completely, although other foram groups suffered much lower levels of extinction. Palaeozoic corals (Rugosa and
Tabulata) also vanished. Stenolaemate bryozoans and articulate brachiopods suffered near–complete extinction. The extant echinoderm groups all
experienced severe bottlenecks at this time: only two lineages of crinoids and echinoids made it into the Mesozoic. Several echinoderm groups (e.g.
Blastoidea) suffered complete extinction.
Fusilinid foraminifera (right) were unicellular animals, ranging in size from 0.1–8mm. Benthonic or planktonic forms with a considerable disparity in
morphology. Peaked in the Early Carboniferous, already in prolonged decline throughout Permian, and the final 10% died out during the PTME.
The non–fusilinid foraminifera (far right) included five suborders. The different suborders were affected differently by the extinction: the
Allogromiina are poorly known, the Textulariina lost a third of genera; Miololina lost half of the genera; Lagenina and Involutina showed dramatic
increase in post extinction radiation.Sponges (Porifera), the basal animal group (left), composed of an internal skeleton of spicules of calcite or silica,
and forming reefs. There were ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They were filled with gas or light fluid and could adjust their buoyancy. They include three orders: theGoniatitida were the bulk of Permian
ammonoids, but were in decline through the Permian, and all but one died out at the PTME; the Prolecanitida were a small order which was declining
throughout Permian, and only just survived across the P–T boundary, before dying out completely in the early Triassic; and the Ceratitida diversified in
the Permian, before being decimated by the extinction event, and then reappearing in the Early Triassic, and radiating to become the dominant Triassic

Advantages And Effect Of Organophosphate
Organophosphate is a term applied to describe any organic phosphorus (V) –bearing compound, it too refers to insecticides that acting on the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase. Organophosphate pesticides degrade at high speed by hydrolysis on exposure to soil, air and sunlight; these characteristics made
them a desirable alternative to the persistent organochloride pesticides. Many of organophosphate operative by inhibiting the action of
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in nerve cells, which is vital to nerve function in most of insects, animals, as well as humans. This leads to a pathologic
extra of acetylcholine in the body and causes the organophosphate poisoning indication such as dizziness, weakness and nausea.
Many of the organophosphate are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
JH acts as hormones that manipulate the type of molt that a juvenile insect will go through. With the presence of JH, Ecdysone triggers larva–to–larva
molts. On the contrary, the ecdysone will supports the larva–pupa or pupa–to–adult molt if absence of JH. The juvenile hormone analogs (JHAs)
insecticides such as methroprene and pyriproxyfen are insecticides that disturb the standard amount of juvenile hormone by mimic the chemical
structure or biological action of juvenile hormone (Wilson 2004, Henrick 2007). JHAs are more effective at the beginning stage of metamorphosis
and embryogenesis in insects, so it is broadly apply as larvicide. JHAs selectively target and disrupt the endocrine system of insects. The JHAs
interferes with molting process which causes premature molting, this may leads to deformations of wings and reproductive parts.
2.7.1.1 Methoprene
Methoprene is one of the insecticides under juvenile hormone analogs. It can be divided into two different forms namely s–methoprene and
r–methoprene. Methoprene was first registered in the United States for use as insecticides in year 1975.
The physical properties of Methoprene: (Kidd and James 1991, Kamrin 1997).
ISO common nameMethoprene
IUPAC name: isopropyl

Special Studies On Food Science And Technology
FOOD 7024
Special Studies in Food Science and Technology
Assignment 2
Chitin – occurrence, chemistry, extractions, properties and uses
Name: Vihang Rangrej
Student number: 43620348
Due date: 4th October 2016
Word count: 1. Introduction
In the race to develop alternatives in the recent era, chitin and derivatives has showed an immense potential of being used as an alternate polysaccharide
source and as a biopolymer in various sectors spanned from medical and food processing to waste management. Chitin gets its name from the
Greek word, 'Chiton', the meaning of which is a coat of mail. It first surfaced in 1811, used by Bradconnot (Shahidi et al. 1999). It is reported to be a
biopolymer that is 2nd widely available on the face of earth after cellulose (Shahidi et al. 1999; Fernando et al. 2016), chemically, chits is a poly ( ОІ–
(1пѓ 4)–N–acetyl–D–glucosamine), that first came into existence in 1884 (Rinaudo 2006).
In nature, chitin occurs in an ordered crystalline microfibrils which is a form of structural component found within the exoskeleton of arthropods or
within the cell walls of microbes such as fungi and yeast (Rinaudo 2006). Although these are the main sources of chitin, there are several other plants
and animal within the lower kingdoms which consists chitin that requires it for strength and reinforcement (Rinaudo 2006). However, the main sources
of chitin and its derivatives such a chitosan, until now have been crabs and shrimp shells available as a

Whiteleg Shrimp: A Case Study
This chapter discusses the methodology that will be used to identify the hypoglycemic effect of chitosan from the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus
vannamei) on Fructose–fed Streptozotocin Induced Sprague–Dawley Rats. Research Methodology The experimental method of research will be used
in this study. The chitosan will be obtained from the chitin that will be extracted from the waste (head and shell) of the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus
vannamei). Tests will be performed to identify and confirm the presence of chitosan and will be subjected to physical tests, chemical tests and
instrumental method through the use of FTIR, and Scanning Electron Micrograph for further identification. Biological testing will be conducted to
identify its potential hypoglycemic... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sample Preparation: Shrimp wastes (head and shell) of Litopenaeus vannamei or Whiteleg Shrimp will be obtained from Farmer's PublicMarket
Cubao. The shrimp wastes will be washed, air dried and refrigerated overnight. This will be oven dried for four consecutive days at 65ВєC. 1.3.
Extraction of Chitosan: 1.3.1. Deproteinization: Shrimp shell waste will be treated with 4% NaOH at room temperature for 24 hours. The alkali
will be drained from the shells and washed with distilled water repeatedly till pH dropped to neutral. 1.3.2. Demineralization: The deproteinized
shells will be treated with 4% HCl at room temperature for 12 hours for demineralization to yield chitin. The acid will be drained off from chitin,
washed with distilled water and finally dried at room temperature. The process will be repeated with 2% NaOH and 1%HCl. The chitin that will be
obtained will still have a slight pink hue. Further decolorization will be achieved by soaking chitin in 1% potassium permanganate for 30 mins
followed by 1% oxalic acid for 30 mins to 2 hours. 1.3.4. Deacetylation: The decolorized chitin will be deacetylated to form chitosan by treating with
65% NaOH for 3 days at room temperature. Alkali will be drained off and washed repeatedly with distilled water until pH is lowered. Chitosan will
further be dried at room temperature

Genetic Makeup In Carnivorous Plants
Rae'shawn Bart
November,06 2017
What about the Genetic makeup and DNA of a carnivorous plants different from other plants.
What makes a carnivorous plant different for starters, for those who don't know what a carnivorous plant is, it's a plant that instead of getting nutrients
from the soil and absorbing nutrients from water it gets its nutrients from eating things. An example of this would be the Venus fly trap, instead of
getting nutrients from the ground it eats fly's and other insects to get the nutrients it need, but the real question is what about their genetic makeup
makes them different from regular plants. Here is one of the ways it's different from regular plants.
Firstly, what makes them different is their genes and example of this would be the pitcher plant. Unlike the Venus fly trap, the pitcher plant has insects
go inside it and they get stuck in the liquid it produces. This plant has two different kind of leaves the first one being the normal leaves which regular
plants use, but the leave that is different is what forms the pitcher like shape of the pitcher plant which performs the catching reactions. Researcher's
sequenced the plants DNA and looked at the gene reaction between both leaf's (Boyce Greenfield)" What they found is that certain genes are only on
the pitcher leaf, or preferentially in the pitcher leaf, and that some of these very likely have to do with the trap development,". So, over the course of
time these carnivorous plants seemed

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Beauveria
Beauveria is well known genera of Entomopathogenic fungi. It is worldwide registered for its mycoinsecticides properties. Beauveria bassiana (Bb)
and Beauveria brongniarti are used to control insect pests (5). Beauveria bassiana is a filamentous fungus which belongs to the class Deuteromycete,
that grow naturally in soil. It acts as pathogen to various insects and causes white muscardine disease (6–10). Bb has a wide range of host and insect
pests. It can be used against vectors in human diseases (11). Wang et al., (12) and Liz et al., (13) reported that Bb is used to control insects in forests
such as pine caterpillar and silkworm. The penetration of EPF such as B.bassiana is through insect cuticle which mainly consists of polysaccharide ...
Beauvericin is a cyclooligomer depsipeptide ionophore that helps in the transportation of monovalent cations across membranes as a free carrier
uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation (20). Beauvericin shows an important biological activities as antifungal and antibiotic properties in vitro (21),
and antifungal agents in combinatorial therapies (22). Along with above functions, In 2004 Jow et al., (23) reported beauvericin as a broad–spectrum
antiproliferative agent which fight against different human cancer cell lines by activating calcium sensitive cellular apoptotic pathways. It also inhibits
the directional cell motility or haptotaxis which is essential for the formation of new blood vessels in case of on tumor or cancer tissues at subcytotoxic
concentrations (22), invasion of other tissues by cancer cells, and metastasis (24). Wang and Xu, (25) reported that beauvericin has antitumour activity
against cancer cell lines. During the molecular docking studies of about 36 protein structures of cancer molecules retrieved from PDB are docked with
the anticancer drug beauvericin and negative binding energy of the docked complex was calculated. Binding free energy reveals the drug resistance of
anticancer and finds the interaction between the active site and substrate of oncogene. These findings provide useful information for understanding the

Mantis Shrimp Research Paper
"They see something, walk up to it, pick it up, and maybe beat the crap out of it," says Justin Marshall, referring to a commonly unknown creature
called the Mantis Shrimp. This species often goes overlooked and unnoticed by most of the world and not just because it only grows 2–7 inches
("Peacock Mantis Shrimp" 1). Since it is such an unknown animal, many people do not know what it is or what makes it remarkable. How can the
small mantis shrimp, a crustacean whose appearance is more like that of a clown than a ferocious beast, be worth noting in the different fields of
science? They are more interesting than they seem. Mantis shrimp possess a vast array of fascinating physical features that set them apart from other
sea–dwelling animals: their clubs ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This happens 50 times faster than the blink of an eye..." ("Peacock Mantis Shrimp's" 1). The specific bow–like muscle system is what allows it to
accelerate so fast. As a result of the extraordinary speed the shrimp's appendages can reach, the energy released into the water causes it to cavitate or
vaporize the water when it hits the prey. Cavitation is a very destructive phenomenon; when the bubbles from cavitation burst, they cause a small
implosion like reaction that produces heat, light, and sound. The cavitation bubbles act like a second impact to whatever animal the mantis shrimp is
targeting. If the first punches fail to immediately kill the prey, the cavitation bubbles would create the implosion that would finish the job. The same
type of cavitation bubbles that the shrimp can create have been known to badly damage rotating boat propellers (Caldwell "Mechanics of Movement"
1).With its speed, force, and effect on the water around it, mantis shrimp have very little predators and can quickly annihilate whatever prey it sets its
eyes

Examples Of Homecoming Of Humans : Bio-Mimicry
Homecoming of Humans: Bio–mimicry Nature is man's teacher. She unfolds her treasure to his search, unseals his eye, illumes his mind, and purifies
his heart; an influence breathes from all the sights and sounds of her existence. (Alfred Billings Street) One of the latest apprentice for creativity and
innovation is Bio–mimicry (1982) It comes from the Greek bios – life, and mimesis – imitation. Inspired by flora and fauna bio–mimetic designers and
engineers have created astonishing products. Few of the examples are, Cephalopod Camouflage, Kingfisher inspired Bullet Train, Sunflower inspired
Heliotrope, Humpback Whales inspired wind Turbines. (figure1&2) Automobile manufacturers have inspected analogues algorithms in their quest for
securer vehicles. After the years of long research, in 2009 Nissan unveiled its Eporo robot car concept, based on the schooling behaviour of fish.
(Nissan Motor Corporation, 2009) Bio–mimicry stretches its horizon to architecture as well. Erin Rovalo from Biomimicry 3.8 says, "The natural
world and ecological system are maybe the best picture for what a sustainable world looks and performs like, and if our built environment can function
like these ecosystems, maybe that's the pinnacle of what sustainable design can be." (Poon, 2016) Guided by the same fundamentals and inspired by
the structure of termite mounds, 'The East Gate Building', an office complex in Zimbabwe has an internal climate control system. In the

The Four Types Of Organic Molecules
An organic molecule is a molecule that must have Carbon and Hydrogen. They are important because they act as a backbone for all living matter.
Without Carbon and Hydrogen, life would not exist. A monomer is one subunit or building block of a larger molecule. The four types of organic
molecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates have two functions which is, provides short term energy and structure in some organisms. They have an atomic makeup of Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen, with a 2:1 ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen. The monomer is a monosaccharide which contains a single sugar. A couple examples
of this would be glucose, fructose, and deoxyribose which is found in DNA. Yet, foods with this monomer in it would be mostly fruits, candy, and
soda. Carbohydrates also have a polysaccharide which is a polymer made of many monosaccharides strung together. Some examples of these are
starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. A starch is storage from glucose in plants(potatoes, pasta, waffles, and toast). Glycogen is storage from glucose
in animals. Cellous is structure in plants (cell wall). Chitin is structure in animals (exoskeleton). Proteins have two main functions as well, but which is,
build a cell or body structure and control all cell and body functions. Examples of cell or body structure is hair, muscle, bone, tendons, and skin.
Examples of proteins controlling cell and body functions are motion, support, metabolism, transport, defence, and

Medicinal Effects Of Mushrooms And Their Metabolites
2.1 Mushrooms were known and consumed as food in ceremonies as far back as prehistoric times. Throughout the history, mushrooms were used in
different cultures for their medicinal and tonic properties (Gunde–Cimerman, 1999). Mushrooms represent a major and as yet largely untapped source
of great new pharmaceutical products. The most noteworthy medicinal effect of mushrooms and their metabolites that they fascinated the attention of
the public in the modern years is their antitumour property. Many pharmaceutical ingredients with potent and unique properties were isolated from
mushrooms and spread worldwide. Many of them are not strictly pharmaceutical products but represent the novel class of dietary supplements of
approx. 10,000 known species of mushrooms, 2000 are safe and 300 have significant pharmacological properties (Hobbs, 1995, Miles and Chang,
1997). Mushrooms are nutritional functional food and as a source of physiologically valuable and nontoxic medicines. They have been informed to
have major pharmacological effects or physiological properties such as bio regulation, maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of biorhythm, cure of
various diseases, and avoidance and improvement of life threatening diseases such as cancer, cerebral stroke and heart disease. They have been also
demonstrated to have effective ingredients for decreasing blood cholesterol, hypolipidemic, antithrombotic, hypotensive and other applications. 2.2
OYSTER MUSHROOMS Mushrooms belonging to the

Medicinal Effects Of Mushrooms And Their Metabolites Essay
Mushrooms were known and consumed as food in ceremonies as far back as prehistoric times. Throughout the history, mushrooms were used in
different cultures for their medicinal and tonic properties (Gunde–Cimerman, 1999). The longest tradition of using edible mushrooms for medicinal
purposes is in China. Mushrooms represent a major and as yet largely untapped source of powerful new pharmaceutical products. The most significant
medicinal effect of mushrooms and their metabolites that attracted the attention of the public in the recent years is their antitumour property. Many
pharmaceutical substances with potent and unique properties were isolated from mushrooms and distributed worldwide. Many of them are not strictly
pharmaceutical products but represent the novel class of dietary supplements of approximately 10,000 known species of mushrooms, 2000 are safe
and 300 have significant pharmacological properties (Hobbs, 1995, Miles and Chang, 1997). Mushrooms are nutritional functional food and as a
source of physiologically beneficial and nontoxic medicines. They have been reported to have significant pharmacological effects or physiological
properties such as bio regulation, maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of biorhythm, cure of various diseases, and prevention and improvement of
life threatening diseases such as cancer, cerebral stroke and heart disease. They have been also demonstrated to have effective substances for decreasing
blood cholesterol, hypolipidemic,

Disadvantages Of Chitone
Abstract
Biomaterials have been successfully developed and applied in biomedical devices. Natural polymers are readily accepted by the body and possess high
bioactivity and biocompatibility. Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N–acetyl glucosamine, and is among the most abundant biopolymers on
earth and has been used in a wide range of biomedical applications. Chitosan a polycationic polymer comprise of different functional groups that can be
modified with a wide range of ligands. The unique physicochemical properties offer chitosan great potential in a range of biomedical applications such
as tissue engineering, drug delivery vehicles, and enzyme immobilization for biosensing. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan in ...
Unlike plant fibres, chitosan possesses positive ionic charges which give it the ability to chemically bind with negative charge fats, lipids, proteins,
cholesterol, macromolecules and metal ions 26. In view of this, chitosan have increasing commercial interest as suitable resource materials due to their
excellent properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, adsorption, and ability to form films and to chelate metal ions 27. Chitosan and
simple aldehydes produce N–alkyl chitosan upon hydrogenation. The presence of the more or less bulky substituents weakens the hydrogen bonds of
the chitosan. Therefore, N–alkyl chitosan swell in water inspite of the hydrophobicity of alkyl chains. The N–alkyl chitosan retain the film forming
property of chitosan 27. The presence of the amino groups at the C–2 positions in chitosan makes it more versatile in comparison to chitin. Below are
some chemical and biological properties28 of chitosan. The presence of certain functionalities like –OH and –NH2 groups in the chitosan molecules
provides a basis for interaction with other polymers and biological

Test For Sugars, Starches, Proteins, And Lipids
Purpose: The purpose of this lab was to test for sugars, starches, proteins, and lipids.
Background information:
Biological macromolecules are the large molecules necessary for life. There are four different types of macromolecules which include carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Each macromolecule has a specific function like providing energy or simply insulation. Macromolecules are made
from monomers which come together through dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis to create the polymer or macromolecule.
Carbohydrates are made from monosaccharides which are shaped like hexagons and come together to make polysaccharides which provide quick
energy, structural support for plants (cellulose in cell walls) and are also found as chitin in the exoskeletons of arthropods. Lipids are made from
glycerol and three fatty acids and are found in two different forms–unsaturated and saturated. Lipids provide long term energy storage, insulate and
cushion, and prevent water loss. Proteins are made from amino acids which come together forming a protein with peptide bonds. Proteins serve as
hormones, muscle, parts of the immune system, and enzymes but if they are the wrong shape, they can 't do their job. Nucleic acids are made from
nucleotides and serve as DNA and RNA which store genetic info and transfer info to make new cells.
When conducting this experiment, certain safety precautions must be taken. Proper protective gear must be worn including goggles and closed–toed

Vibrio Ficheri Symbiont Relationship
The bacteria Vibrio fischeri are found in most marine environments but only in levels almost non–detectable. However the interest with these marine
bacteria did not come from the free–living low abundant ocean population, but from the unique relationship it has with the Hawaiian bobtail squid
(Eurrymna scolopes). Bioluminescent strains of the V. Fischeri form symbiotic relationships with these marine squids. The association between these
two species has interested scientists for over 25 years related to the understanding of host–symbiont relationships, bioluminescence and quorum sensing
(Ruby 2008). V. Fischeri is also used as a model species, which is the extensive study of a species that provides insight into the mechanisms of other
species... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
fischeri is extremely important within the specialized niche of the occupants of the E. scolopes squid light organs, not only so they allow for the
anti–predation mechanisms to be utilized by the squid but also the well studied relationship that plays an important role in the health of their hosts.
This can lead to a greater understanding not only to marine based bacteria in marine organism but also in a more general sense of host health and
disease. By studying different model species (such as this one) it is not only possible to learn the processes that govern these relationships but also
allows comparative studies between systems (Dunn 2012). Leading to a greater overall understanding of microbes and host organism in all areas of

Why Are Carbohydrates Important In Living Organisms
Patrick Audish
16 October 2017
Moris
Biology P: 5
Extra Credit The nucleic acid is needed in the body to keep our dna. Nucleic acid is a macromolecule that stores and communicate genetic energy.
There are six major nucleotides and it is made of carbon nitrate, oxygen, phosphorus, and hydrogen. In living organisms there are two types of nucleic
acids called deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. DNA and RNA in the nucleic acids bonds into the phosphate of another nucleotide. ATP stores
energy in a storehouse and it could only be used by cells in a variety of reactions. ATP releases energy when the second and the third phosphate group
is broken. Triphosphate is a nucleotide with three phosphate group. Nucleotides are smaller repeating subunits made of nucleic acids. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Carbohydrates are composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. A formula often used is (CH2O)ПЂ. Carbohydrates is important because it has a big
role of providing energy for organisms. Disaccharide is when two monosaccharides are joined together and monosaccharides can also be linked to
form a larger one. Disaccharide is the same as glucose as they are both sugar. Longer carbohydrates are called polysaccharide. When your body needs
energy during physical activities or between meals glycogen is broken down into glucose. Carbohydrates is used for both living organisms and plants.
For living organisms it provides energy but for plants it is called cellulose and that provides structural support in the cell walls. The cellulose is made
up of glucose chained and linked together. Chitin is the hard outer shell of a shrimp and of lobster. Chitin is a fibrous substance of

Survivability Of Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis : An Analysis
The ability of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis to grow in amphibian and non–amphibian hosts such as zebrafish (Liew et al. 2017), cray fish
(McMahon et al. 2013), reptiles (Kilburn et al. 2011), and waterfowl (Garmyn et al. 2012) is well documented. There are also records of the
survivability of B. dendrobatidis in the sediments and water (Kirshtein et al. 2007). In this study, we showed that B. dendrobatidis has the potential to
form a biofilm which ensures its survival in the environment without hosts. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis forms a biofilm–like structure in vitro
when grown in H–broth media in dark at 23ЛљC. Biofilm–associated proteins were found in supernatant of Bd zoospore suspension (Brutyn et al.
2012). Our observations and... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
dendrobatidis is not morphology specific. Our results strongly match the findings which describes biofilm formation of fungi such as Candida and T.
asahii (Bonaventura et al. 2006, Chandra et al. 2001, Ramage et al. 2001). SEM images of the mature biofilm showed extra cellular matrix–like
material. The composition of extra cellular matrix material was determined by extracting extra cellular polysaccharides and identifying the glycosyl
composition with gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry analysis. Total carbohydrate pool was composed mainly of ribose, xylose, mannose,
galactose and glucose. No activity for the glucose 6–phospahe dehydrogenase confirmed that the cells have not lysed during extracting
polysaccharides from the mature biofilms. The comprehensive studies of the composition of the matrix are very few and mostly about bacterial
biofilms though Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans are included (Mitchell et al.
2016, Vlamakis et al. 2013, Ma et al. 2009, Beauvais et al. 2009). The composition of the B. dendrobatidis biofilm extra cellular matrix resembled the
matrix composition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae which consists of mannose and glucose mainly (Beauvais et al. 2009) with galactose at some
conditions (Faria–Oliveira et al 2014). Interestingly, most of the matrix components of the matrix have been similar to cell wall constituents (Nett et al.
2009). Glucose, galactose, xylose and

Fatty Acid Is Good For Human Health
fatty acid, which has excellent nutritive value. There are other substances in insects that are good for human health; for example, antibacterial protein
and peptide, enzymes and hormones. Certain insects constitute superior health food. As a nutritional resource, edible insects and their industrialization
should be focused on in future studies.
4.1.1Protein and amino acids
Protein is the basis of all organism activity and constitutes numerous essential materials such as enzymes, hormones and hemoglobin. It is a principal
constituent of antibodies as it bolsters the immunity role of the body. It is the only material that produces nitrogen for maintaining acid and alkali
balance, transforming genetic information and transporting essential materials in the human body. It can also supply energy due to its ability to
produce heat. Insect bodies are rich in protein and the proportion are higher than that of most plants; the protein content of several insects is higher than
that of commercial meat, poultry fowls and eggs. It is composed of more than 20 types of amino acids that benefit the human body; among which eight
are necessary for human nutrition as they cannot be synthesized in the body (Jin 1987).
4.1.2Fat
Fat is an important element that stores and supplies energy to the human body, as well as supporting and protecting various organs in the body. Fat can
also aid in the absorption of vitamins.
Phosphate, carbohydrate and cholesterol are components of many tissues and

A Family Of Transcription Factors
Introduction
1. The Grainyhead (Grh) gene family
Grainyhead (Grh) genes are conserved in metazoans. They encode a family of transcription factors with a unique, unusually large, DNA–binding and
dimerization domain, and an isoleucine–rich activation domain(Attardi and Tjian, 1993; Gustavsson et al., 2008; Moussian and Uv, 2005; Ting et al.,
2003b; Uv et al., 1994; Venkatesan et al., 2003; Wilanowski et al., 2002). Grh factors were first identified inDrosophila (Bray et al., 1989; Bray and
Kafatos, 1991; Dynlacht et al., 1989; Johnson et al., 1989) and since then, they were also found in animals as diverse as nematodes and humans. Grh
proteins have not yet been detected in unicellular organisms. Phylogenetic analysis subdivides this gene family into two main classes, the Grh–like
sub–family and the CP2 sub–family, depending whether the family members are more related to the Drosophila grh, or to another Drosophila gene,
CP2 (Ting et al., 2003b; Venkatesan et al., 2003; Wilanowski et al., 2002). The fly and worm genomes each contain a single grh gene. Mammals, both
mice and humans, have evolved three Grh homologues: Grh–like–1 (Grhl–1, or Mammalian Grainyhead (MGR)/TFCP2L2), Grhl–2 (Brother–of–MGR
(BOM)/TFCP2L3) and Grhl–3 (Sister–of–MGR (SOM)/ TFCP2L4). This group of genes encodes proteins with highly homologous DNA–binding and
dimerization domains. They all show restricted expression pattern during embryogenesis and play important roles in organogenesis and epidermal

Examining The Super Molecular Assembly Of A Fumigatus Cell...
1) Examining the super–molecular assembly of A. fumigatus cell walls.
In anticipating for this proposed study, we have
produced 13C, 15N–uniformly labeled A. fumigatus (Af293 strain) and the isotope–enrichment provides good sensitivity for structural characterization
using multidimensional solid–state NMR (Fig. 2A, B). We will measure a series of 2D and 3D correlation spectra, both through–bond and
through–space, on the fungus to assign NMR resonances and analyze cell wall composition. The 13C chemical shifts of protein and chitins are easily
resolved from glucans due to differences in their chemical structures. The glucan linkage, however, is highly diverse and difficult to distinguish among
different forms. We will thus systematically... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2) Investigating the mobility and hydration of A. fumigatus cell molecules.
The delivery pathway and depth of insertion of inhibitors will be affected by the mechanistic property and porosity of fungal cell walls, which can be
examined by measuring the mobility and hydration of biomolecules. Our preliminary 1D data have revealed a very distinct dynamical profile for cell
wall molecules for A. fumigatus (Fig. 3). The 1H–13C INEPT spectrum (Fig.3, top) showed quite a few sharp resonances belonging to very mobile
molecules, while the 1H–13C cross polarization spectrum (Fig 3, bottom) contained only broad peaks from the rigid molecules, including chitins. These
results led us to hypothesize that chitin forms the rigid scaffold whereas glucans form a relatively mobile matrix. We will also measure transverse and
longitudinal relaxation times, chemical shift anisotropy, and dipolar couplings with site–specific resolutions. The combined measurements cover a
wide range of motions happening from nanoseconds to milliseconds, including both local reorientation and collective motion of multiple sugar rings. It
is particularly interesting to know whether dynamical heterogeneity is present for the same molecule. For example, for ОІ–1,3–glucan, some
disordered chains could fill the interstitial space between chitin microfibrils while other partially oriented chains can hydrogen bond to the chitin
surface becoming partially rigidified. If this scenario occurs, we will observe

Black Soldier Fly Research Paper
The black solider fly is indigenous to the southern United States and is now distributed to warm temperate regions (Diener et al., 2009). Black
soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have been used in backyard and farm composting systems for decades, mainly to treat animal manures (Tomberlin, 2001;
Oliver, 2008). However, due to several unique characteristics, BSFL have been investigated in a variety of beneficial applications. The life cycle of the
BSFL is divided into four phases with an average lifespan of 36 days depending on the environmental conditions (i.e. temperature, moisture, and air
supply) (Fig.1). (Tomberlin et al., 2002). Mature flies have no functioning mouth–parts and are not associated with transmission of diseases or
considered pests... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Like energy crops, BSFL have not been previously digested and thus may offer higher bio–methane potential than manures or biowastes. However,
unlike energy crops, BSFL would not compete with food crops in agricultural land usage, and pose the associated environmental issues such as soil
erosion and pesticide leakage to surface and ground water (EEA, 2006). Furthermore, BSFL have a high per–acre productivity, fast growth rate, and
can be grown on non–arable land areas similar to algae. However, harvesting and valorization of algae biomass require significant water use and
high capital and operation costs, which make it economically challenging (Mussgnug et al., 2010). Therefore, the objective of the current research
is to investigate the potential of BSFL as a feedstock for anaerobic digestion, including integration of anaerobic digestion into different BSFL
biorefinery options. Specifically, we investigated the following pathways: (1) Anaerobic digestion of food waste (2) Anaerobic digestion of BSFL fed
on food waste along with residual food waste; (3) BSFL fed on food waste used to produce biodiesel and digestion of the residual lipid extracted BSFL
combined with residual food waste. Data are also reported on the bio–methane of BSF cuticle and adult black soldier flies, and characterization data is
provided on all

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