Chapter twoLiterature ReviewThis chapter will demonstrate ot.docx

Chapter two
Literature Review
This chapter will demonstrate other's studies and literature done
by students, researcher and scholars. This will cover the
following points:
· History and definition of women empowerment
· Determinants of women empowerment
· Progress of women empowerment in Oman
· Omanisation and women empowerment (vision 2020)
· Management of Human Resources in Oman
Definition of Women Empowerment
The concept of women empowerment is gaining significance all
over the world as evidenced by the measures taken by major
countries, researches made by academicians of universities, and
initiatives taken by international platforms like United Nations.
The existing research and literature indicate that concept of
women empowerment appeared in the second half of the
twentieth century. But historical facts show that this concept
appeared in 7th century when Islam religion came into being.
The rights of women as given in the Qura’n and the traditions of
Prophet Muhammad were a revolutionary step in the 7th
century.
Spiritual equality of sexes has been recognized in Islam. This
is due to the recognition by classical Muslim jurisprudence of
the essential inequality of men and women and division of
rights of women into different categories as wife, mother and
daughter instead of women’s rights(Mandal,2013).
The rights given in Qura’n, though revolutionary at that time,
recognized the need for a gradual approach towards
achievement of the full message of the Qura’n. The United
Nations in this regard played an important role by emphasizing
a gender focus approach and enhancing critical importance of
women empowerment through declaration of the ‘Women’s

Decade’ in 1975.(Mandal,2013)
The concept of women empowerment is a boiling issue all over
the world. Women Empowerment refers to "increasing and
improving the social, economic, political and legal strength of
the women, to ensure equal-right to women, and to make them
confident enough to claim their rights".(Teamwork,2015)
The concept in this wider and comprehensive sense became
popular through the United Nations specialized institutions in
the beginning of the 1990’s. The United Nations various
institutions became especially aware of the increasing
significance of women’s empowerment to the success of
development programs in developing countries. The
empowerment of women was crucial component to a great
number of declarations and platforms of action such as the 1990
World Conference on Education for All, the 1992 United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the 1993
Human Rights Conference, the 1994 International Conference
on Population and Development, the 1995 World Summit for
Social Development and the Regional Preparatory Conferences
for the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women. This
increased interest in, and understanding of, women’s pivotal
role in the development process has also been mirrored in the
goals and priorities of all UN organizations and agencies. The
United Nations resident agents in developing countries have
been urged to play a greater role in facilitating interagency
cooperation on the specific issues of gender equality, equity and
women’s empowerment at country level. (Anser,2010)
Many researches and scholar worked hard to define and express
their view on women empower. The feminist scholar and
activist Srilatha Batliwala (1995) expresses her view of
empowerment as “the process of challenging existing power-
relations, and of gaining greater control over the sources of
power, may be termed as empowerment.” According to Chandra
(1997), “Empowerment in its simplest form means the
manifestation or re-distribution of power that challenges
patriarchal ideology and the male domination.” Kamala Bhasin

(1998) also broadly defines the term empowerment. Bhasin cites
that, “It means recognizing women’s contribution, women’s
knowledge; it means helping women fight their own fears, and
feeling of inadequacy and inferiority; it means women
enhancing their self-respect and self-dignity; it means women
controlling their own bodies; it means women becoming
economically independent and self-reliant; it means women
controlling resources like land and property; it means reducing
women’s burden of work, especially within the home; it means
creating and strengthening women’s groups and organizations;
it means promoting qualities of nurturing, caring, gentleness not
just in women but also in men.” According to Sushama Sahay
(1998), “Empowerment is an active, multi-dimensional process
which enables women to realize their full identity and powers in
all spheres of life”. It implies decentralization of power and
authority in the deprived, oppressed and powerless people who
have not been able to participate in decision making and
implementation of policies and programs of both government
organizations as well as in societal matters. Empowerment of
women is not only essential but also imperative for all round
development of a country(Mandal,2013).
Mahatma Gandhi also spoke in favor of women’s empowerment,
he declares that, “According to me empowerment may mean
equal status to women, opportunity and freedom to develop
herself” (Gangrade, 2001, p. 1).
I think, the issue of ‘women empowerment’ has become a
central point in the programs and activities of the United
Nations and other Government and Non-Government
Organizations. Subsequently, it has also become a major
concern of the social scientists, politicians, bureaucrats and
researchers. But there is a lack of unanimity among the scholars
in comprehending the term empowerment. Various scholars
have tried to define the term from their own perspectives. The
term empowerment has different meanings in different socio-
cultural, economic and political contexts. An exploration of
local terms associated with empowerment around the world

always encompasses a wide variety of definitions. These terms
include self-strength, self-control, self-power, self-reliance,
personal choice, capability of fighting for one’s rights,
independence, own decision making power, freedom etc. These
definitions are embedded in local value systems and beliefs.
Empowerment has both intrinsic as well as instrumental value.
Determinants of women empowerment
It is evident from the above discussions that different authors
and organizations have tried to define the term ‘empowerment’
from their own perspectives. It ranges from self-strength to
efficiency building of women. However, empowerment of
women now can be categorized into three main part economic
empowerment, social empowerment and political empowerment.
Economic empowerment
By enhancing women’s economic power at home in terms of
control over resources gender inequality can be reduced, self-
confidence increases, women have a greater voice in the
household, women can begin to have control over “life options”
and they can have a greater influence in community affairs
(Blumberg 2005). This debate is particularly important to the
discussion of the links between employment and empowerment
because the standard argument is that it is not enough to work
and earn a wage, but rather it is control over those resources
that matters (Kabeer ,1997)
A woman may work, but if she has no say in how resources are
managed or allocated
in the household, she is unlikely to gain any control or power in
the household. Numerous examples of female workers suggest
that the control over resources is closely intertwined with
women’s autonomy. Looking at female Bangladeshi workers,
Kabeer (1997) found that access to earnings did not in itself
serve as evidence of improvements in bargaining power in the
home, but that women’s work and wages allowed for the
theoretical possibility, though not usually acted upon, of being
able to support own self and own children if they left their
husband and of being able to return to one’s natal family as a

contributing member (Kabeer 1995). This possibility of
alternatives allowed for more autonomy and could increase
women’s ability to assert strategic choices.
Other researchers though find that control over resources may
not actually matter that much to women’s empowerment because
control over resources does not necessarily translate into any
real power or into changes in patriarchal control (Endeley
,2001). Accordingto Kibria, control over resources is shaped by
socioeconomic background and male kin’s ability to provide for
the family. Working class men are more likely to retain control
over wages because it affirms their ability to provide for their
family and men in higher economic classes are more likely to
hand over control over resources. But, this also demonstrates
that they could provide for their family and that the woman’s
wages were not essential to the household. In either case,
women’s access to or even “control” over resources did not
translate into woman’s empowerment because women lacked
any real control and were unable to challenge the male system
of control in the household.
Socio-demographic background could influence empowerment
both directly, but also indirectly in its relation to employment
opportunities, social status and expectations about proper
gender roles. Studies find that the status of husbands and wives
at marriage and the social context, in terms of family systems
and household characteristics, are important to financial
arrangements, decision-making power and to women’s economic
power overall (Frankenberg and Thomas 2001). Younger
women, less educated women, rural women, poor women and
women of lower castes or classes are also less likely to be
empowered.
Education may be one of the most important influences on
women’s employment and its link to empowerment because of
its relation to life chances and outcomes. Among Sri Lankan
women, education and employment are critical factors in
financial domestic power, but they are not in social and

organizational matters (Malhotra and Mather 1997). So while
more educated and employed women may have a greater say in
financial decisions, they do not necessarily have more say in
other matters in the household.
There is very little research on the connections between
occupation and women’s empowerment, but studies suggest that
there is good reason to believe that a woman’s occupation can
play a role in empowerment outcomes. A woman’s occupation
may be important because occupations are associated with
income, educational requirements and power within society.
They can tell you something about the skills and credentials
required to do the job, about the monetary rewards associated
with such a position, about working conditions and about class
position.
In India, women work in jobs from all occupational
classifications, but they are largely concentrated in low-skill,
low-income positions like agricultural, domestic work and
unskilled manual labor. Very few women are working in higher
prestige occupational categories and women are rarely in
positions of authority in any employment sector. For those few
women who have the education and the opportunity to work in
non-manual position, they are often found in “feminized”
occupations in the service industry, like nursing, teaching and
social work (ILO ,1998).
There were other studies indicated that workplaces have
changed dramatically in the last few decades as advances in
technology and economic growth around the world have
changed job types and work requirements (Sullivan & Hodson,
2002). In many countries, changing organisational structures
have meant that the workplaces of the future appear destined to
have only a small core of full-time permanent employees
working from a conventional office, with most skills brought in
on a contract basis from people either working from home or
hired for specific projects. Thus, a high degree of flexibility in
the organisation’s policies and culture will be required (Powell,
1999).

In addition, family-friendly organisations, flexible working
hours and home-based work are arrangements that have become
associated with the needs of working women. Working
arrangements that facilitate the reconciliation of work with
family life are an important component of balancing work and
family commitments. Such arrangements are often referred to as
“familyfriendly” work practices (Gray & Tudball, 2002;
Villegas, 1990). These practices include control over starting
and finishing times (flexible working hours), access to a
telephone for family reasons, availability of permanent part-
time employment and child care leave or time off for
dependants. In addition, home-based work is attractive to
women because it allows them to combine work with family
responsibilities (Gray & Tudball, 2002; Villegas, 1990).
Flexible work arrangements are alternative work arrangements
that differ from the standard on-site, eight to five, five-day-a-
week schedules (Sharpe, Hermsen & Billings, 2002, p. 80).
These alternative work arrangements have been introduced to
the labour market for many reasons, but many employers have
implemented them to help harried workers meet conflicting
work and family demands (Sharpe et al., 2002). Research shows
that women are more likely than men to use alternative work
arrangements to help alleviate pressures resulting from
incompatible work and family responsibilities (Sharpe et al.,
2002).
However, flexible work arrangements can also benefit
employers. Employers can smooth out staffing levels during
seasonal fluctuations or other changes in market demand, gain
financial flexibility (e.g. by reducing benefits and expenses
associated with layoffs or termination) by using workers who
are on the payroll of a third-party employer and gain functional
flexibility by accessing specialised skills as needed rather than
making long-term commitments for skills that may become
technologically obsolete or that are required only for short-term
projects (Broschak et al., 2008).
Social empowerment

Social Empowerment refers to the enabling force that
strengthens women’s social relations and their position in social
structures. Social empowerment addresses the social
discriminations existing in the society based on disability, race,
ethnicity, religion, or gender. From a sociological point of
view, K.D. Gangrade (2001) has extended a definition of
empowerment. He considers women’s empowerment as “equal
status to women opportunity and freedom to develop herself.”
Research on discriminatory social norms by Overseas
Development Institute(ODI) and the Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) have shown the many
ways in which discriminatory laws and practices may curtail her
ability to break the cycle of poverty and access the resources
she needs for her empowerment. The OECD’s Social
Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) and ODI’s research and
case studies on social norms, provide insights into how social
norms are felt at all stages of her life and result in diminished
development outcomes. Even before she is born, a girl is more
likely to be seen as a burden for her family, sex-selective
abortions, female infanticide, poor nutrition and healthcare, and
the neglect of girls mirror the preference for boys that is
prevalent across many societies. If she goes to school,
discriminatory social norms may undermine her educational
achievements and her ability to stay in school. These include
gender stereotypes in school curricula, the risk of violence on
the journey to school, as well as within the classroom, and
household chores that leave her less time for her homework. She
may also be one of the more than 35 million girls in the world
whose education is cut short by child marriage, the costs of
education or simply because her education is less valued than
that of her brothers. Social norms will also shape her life
choices as a young woman. Her pathway may have already been
chosen for her by others as a result of forced and/or early
marriage, a social norm that, as well as being a violation of her
human rights, exposes her to higher rates of maternal mortality,
domestic violence and reduced decision-making power within

her new family. Her health and well-being may have been
compromised by FGM/C, about which, as a young girl, she
could exercise little informed choice. For a young woman
entering the labour market, social norms influence both the type
and quality of employment. Occupations deemed ‘appropriate’
for women are often the most vulnerable and undervalued
within the informal economy. For a woman entrepreneur,
getting access to the necessary financial resources and credit is
complicated by discriminatory practices, such as the inability to
open a savings account in her own name without a male
guardian or holding significant collateral. Even within her own
family, the decision-making ability of an adult woman is
contingent on the value of her role as a daughter, sister, mother,
and grandmother. The low value attributed to women is also
mirrored in the unequal division of domestic care
responsibilities, seen as ‘women’s work’, with women across all
economies and societies having to juggle the double workload
of paid and unpaid work. Inheritance laws and practices still
prevent women accessing and controlling land and assets,
disempowering millions of women in developing countries.
Violence against women is perhaps the clearest example of how
discriminatory norms can disempower a woman to the point
where she is in physical danger. Recent studies indicate that
across the world, one in three women have experienced violence
from an intimate partner. The almost pandemic nature of
violence against women worldwide is a reflection of the unequal
power relations between women and men, which see women
even accepting violence inflicted against them as part of normal
life. Although laws and political commitments to end violence
against women are increasing around the world, cases that made
global news in India in 2012 and 2013, coupled with data on the
prevalence of violence, pinpoint discriminatory social norms as
the driving force behind such violence, highlighting this as a
pivotal focus for change Understanding the impact of social
norms across the lifecycle of a woman reveals their complex,
interdependent and seemingly intractable nature, often leading

to a misplaced reluctance by policy makers and practitioners to
tackle them at all. Processes of social norm change can and do
occur, but they require a comprehensive approach that
recognises their often messy and non-linear nature. What is
clear, however, is that measuring social norms is critical for
both understanding and supporting long-term transformative
change for women.(ODI,2015)
Political empowerment.
Political empowerment is a process that enables women to
increase their
mobility and break their isolation, to develop their self -
confidence and self
image and to establish their public presence whereby they
participate in
decision making in an expanding frame work of awareness and
critical
analysis to control and influence the direction of
development(Roona,2009). Political
equality includes not only equal right to franchise but also more
importantly,
the right to access to the institutionalized centers of power.
Today, one of the issues of concern is the level of women’s
participation
in political life. Political participation includes the right to
vote, right to
contest, right to candidature, their role as women as
campaigners, members
and their involvement in the decision making process. and
appointment of
women at all levels of government. Reserving seats for women
in the political
institutions will provide them an opportunity to raise their
grievances and other
related personal and social problems in a formal manner. The
participation of

women in the electoral process is an indicator of their political
consciousness as
well as their aspiration for status enhancement. The figures
concerning
women’s common participation has been more or less steadily
expanding over
the years through various elections as voters and as candidates
and in terms of
participation in campaigning. The number of women getting
elected to
representative body has been steadily increasing
(Mehendale,2000)
Politics is the arena for societal decision making. Individuals
who hold formal and official positions in government allocate
scarce resources, e.g., tax revenues, and direct resources to
some groups at the expense of others (Piscopo ,2014). Decisions
by politicians affect people’s individual choices by encouraging
some behaviors and outlawing others. To hold a political
position is to hold a position of authority. Yet, not all decision-
making takes place in elite spheres of society. Those with
formal or informal political power hold power over other social
institutions, such as the family or education, and are able to
codify particular practices into law (Martin 2004). Political
elites have the power to enforce their decisions, sometimes with
force. Therefore, looking at the makeup of individuals in formal
positions of power and important positions in civil society
highlights who is legitimated to make society-wide decisions in
that society.
Okeke (1995) asserts that “the stability of any nation rests on
the political awareness and knowledge of her citizens. When
women who make up to 50% of the population acquire political
power, they will increase the critical mass of Nigeria citizens
who have power to steer Nigeria to the right direction. Political
empowerment of women will augur well for the development
and stability of Nigeria.”

Eboh (2002) maintains that keeping the African women-folk
down retards not only development but also the emergence of
true democracy. Women have been powerful agents of
development, participating in decision making during and after
colonial rule, since it has not been proved that women in
decision-making positions have been a disappointment when in
those positions of authority, a favorable attitude among the
educated people and others should be created. Thus the growing
ascent of women into decision-making positions should be
allowed. The adoption of democratic rule in 1999 provided an
opportunity for women’s political participation, but the position
of women in terms of women in power and decision-making has
only slightly improved (UNIFEM, 2004).
Progress of women empowerment in Oman
The Sultanate of Oman is considered a leader in the
empowerment of women and involving them in different
development activities. The Omani woman has been an essential
contributor on building the Omani society. She has taken a part
in the constant development of Oman as she was empowered to
participate in the prosperity of this country.
The Omani woman works with passion and dedication to elevate
her position in all fields of life, until she is finally pioneered
scientifically and practically. The Basic Law of the State
confirms the equality between men and women in Oman. Based
on this principle, step by step, Omani women had equal
opportunities in education, health care, job vacancies and
participation in making political decisions, with no distraction
to her duties towards family and society. Her role has changed
from being an ordinary member in the society, into a maker of
significant contributions in the Omani renaissance(ITA,2017)
Women took an active role in the process and were visible
participants in various ﬁelds within the private and public
sectors. However, Oman’s relatively small job market became
virtually saturated in the 1980s, leading to more starkly deﬁned
gender roles and setting back some of the progress previously

achieved. Thus, women’s representation in the labor force
decreased from 17.1 percent in 1980 to 14.2 percent in 1990( Al
Talei,2010).In the mid-1990s, as government’s efforts to reduce
the number of foreign workers through the policy of
“Omanization” came into full effect, national women along with
men were recruited to fill jobs customarily held by the
expatriates. This had a particularly positive effect on poor, less
educated women, who were increasingly able to obtain jobs as
cleaners, hospital orderlies, and kitchen help, allowing them to
support themselves in the face of hardship and giving them a
new role in the community. The number of female university
graduates also increased during this period, acting as a catalyst
for empowerment. By 2003, women’s representation in the labor
force resurged to 17.2 percent( Al Talei,2010). Over the last
five years, women have continued to enjoy higher levels of
economic participation, and per some sources they now
represent 19.1 percent of Oman’s workforce. Oman’s patriarchal
culture, in combination with conservative religious norms,
continues to have a profound impact on women. Despite
progress, women face discrimination in almost all areas of life,
and men are traditionally and legally seen as heads of
household. Women remain underrepresented in the judiciary and
government structures, and do not have full freedom to make
decisions about their health and reproductive rights. Moreover,
they are afforded unequal rights under the personal status law,
which governs inheritance, marriage, divorce, and child
custody. Attempts by the government to incorporate a more
liberal interpretation of women’s rights and duties into the
country’s laws and practices have had mixed success. Oman was
one of the first Gulf countries to provide women with political
rights and begin integrating them into government structures.
Women have been allowed to vote and stand in elections for the
Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Council), the lower house of
parliament, since 1994, when only select individuals approved
by government leaders could vote. Universal adult suffrage was
offered for the first time in 2003. In November 2007, the sultan

appointed 14 women to the 70-member Majlis al-Dawla (State
Council), the upper house of parliament, doubling the number of
female members from 2004. However, for the ﬁrst time since
they were permitted to run, female candidates failed to win any
of the 84 seats contested in the 2007 elections to the
Consultative Council. Despite the disappointing result, the
traditional image of women is slowly changing as more women
are becoming visible in their roles as political candidates,
leaders, and decision makers. (al-Talei,2003). Here human
resources practices and policy play vital role in developing
women performance in the society.
Employees of all ages, color, types are important for the
organizations all over the world. Human resource practices
include different policies regarding employees which affect
Their conditions of job.
Human resources are the most important sources to attain the
goals of the organizations efficiently and effectively. In this
global world organizations need to encourage all type of
workers to achieve their mission. Female workers need different
kind of attention of human resource practices because they are
different from male employees, their problems are different. In
this age of globalization female workers are still discouraged to
work with male employees especially in the third world
countries. Female employees are working and contributing in
the developed countries. According to Kuvaas (2015) working
conditions, working hours, organizational policies for female,
working environment, job satisfaction level, job evaluation
criteria, compensation etc., all affect the female workers and
should be considered for their participation. Employee
performance is closely related to human resource policies and
practices. Employee’s satisfaction, interest in job, interest in
achieving organizational goals etc., all depends upon human
resource practices of the organizations . Employee’s
performance depends upon the job satisfaction of the
employees. Job satisfaction of the workers does not mean that
the workers are happy only but it means that employees feel that

they are the part of the organization. They are important for the
organizations. They are considered important in decision
making, developing policies, rules and regulations, strategies
etc. satisfied workers are always found motivated, self-devoted
and their performance is always better than the dis-satisfied
workers of the organizations. Here come HR role in developing
policies and practices which enable women empowering in the
work environment(Nadeem,2015) .
Omanisation and women empowerment (vision 2020)
The vision for Oman’s Economy: Oman 2020, with its main
dimensions promulgated at the Vision Conference (Oman 2020)
held in 1995, represent the first step in the Sultanate march to
build a vision through the second long term strategy (1996-
2020) representing the work strategy of the second national
development strategy extending for quarter of a century
(Ministry of National Economy ,2010).
It goes without saying to mention that Oman’s economy –
during a span of forty years of the wise leadership of HM Sultan
Qaboos – has achieved remarkable development transformation
through seven Five Year Development Plans covering the period
1996 – 2010, from a traditional economy to a global and
developing economy. Oman’s economy is characterised by many
and diversified points of strength including sound planning,
accurate project implementation, strong and comprehensive
infrastructure, expanded income sources, stable social and
economic policies in addition to wide open doors for the private
sector and foreign investment. Joining the membership of the
World Trade Organisation in 1/10/2000 was considered as an
international appreciation of the capability of the Sultanate’s
economy to adjust to the requirement of the global economy and
to be an effective part in it.
The Vision of the Sultanate focuses on human resource
development of Oman and upgrading its efficiency through
development of basic and higher education policies, vocational
qualification and training, strengthening the role of women in
the labour market, national statistic capacity building capable of

dealing with modern technologies Ministry of National
Economy ,2010).
Sultan Qaboos Bin Said who has taken a deep interest in their
welfare. Indicative of the role they are playing is evident in
many areas. An example is the workplace. Statistics show that
their numbers in the public sector has jumped from 29, 218 in
2003 to 68,200 in 2012. In the private sector 35,248 women
were employed in 2012 against 13,383 in 2003. The important
role played by women is evident in the kind of jobs they are
engaged in. A case in point is the woman pilot in Oman Air,
which even has Omani hostesses. Women are employed in
important positions in Petroleum Development Oman. Scores of
women are working in the banking sector.
Omani women are working as doctors and nurses in public and
private sector hospitals. Women are employed as teachers.
There are women working in sales. Oman women can also be
found behind the counters in shops and supermarkets. Even in
the area of governance, women are playing an important role.
There are women ministers. The Shura Council has a woman
member. Women are posted in various positions in the
Sultanate’s diplomatic missions abroad. In recent years, the
programme of Omanisation, initiated in 1988, has helped
women in a great way. Large numbers of women found
employment after the Sultan issued orders to the public and
private sectors about three years ago to provide 50,000 jobs for
nationals. Subsequently, as new targets were set annually in the
state budget, more and more women found employment. The
important role played by Omani women in the workplace can be
attributed to the increasing importance being given to their
education.
Before 1970, there were just three schools for about 900 boys
with no provision for women. After 1970, the education
scenario changed as the core of the Sultanate’s education policy
was based on the principle of ‘education for all’ and girls began
to be given equal importance as boys in admissions to
educational institutions. And today, the number of boys and

girls in schools, colleges and universities are also most equal.
There has been a dramatic increase in the participation of
Omani women in the public and private sector, as well as a
growing trend towards female Omani students opting for private
school education and going on to pursue higher education, a
study recently released by the National Centre for Statistics and
Information (NCSI) reveals.
According to the NCSI figures, the number of Omani women
holding top management, middle management and direct
management positions within the Public Sector witnessed a
healthy 50 per cent growth since 2008, with a total of 774
Omani women holding Senior Public Service positions against
the 2008 total of 510. At the end of 2012, Omani women
accounted for approximately 10 per cent of all senior public
sector roles in the country.
The figures highlight the increasing emphasis placed by the
government on providing opportunities for talented Omani
women to play a greater role in the public and private sector as
the economy continues to diversify and grow. The study also
reveals a growing trend amongst young Omani women to choose
private schooling, and to pursue higher education.
According to the NCSI study, the number of Omani females
enrolled in private schools has almost doubled since the 08/09
school year, with the total number of such Omani females rising
to 32,434 for the 12/13 school year, against the 08/09 total of
17,218. During the same period, the number of Omani females
enrolled in higher educational institutions rose by 20 per cent,
with 51,048 Omani females enrolled in the 11/12 school year
against the 07/08 total of 41,533.(Shehadeh,2016)
Management of Human Resources in Oman
The key institutions that are responsible for regulating
employment and HRM practices in Oman consist of committees,
ministries and authorities such as the Ministry of the National
Economy, the Council of the Civil Service, the Ministry of the
Civil Service, the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of

Education, the Ministry of Manpower and the Institute of Public
Administration (Budhwar et. al., 2002; Al-Hamadi et al., 2007).
In addition to these, there is also the Council of Ministers, one
of the most important institutions which plays a significant role
in the formulation of human resource development policy
(Ministry of Information, 2010). The Council of Ministers helps
in the design and implementation of the policy of the state and
is the authority responsible for ensuring the implementation of
policy. The Civil Service Council is responsible for developing
general policies that affect the Civil Service, as well as for
looking at ways of increasing the level of nationals in the
workforce (i.e. Omanization). This is done by determining
which laws and decisions are likely to achieve higher outcomes.
The Ministry of Manpower holds overall responsibility for
employment within the private sector; duties include creating
policies that affect both national workers and foreign workers
employed in the private sector (Ministry of Manpower, 2009;
Shayban, 2008).
The above institutional set-up not only influences the activities
of the units and organizations in the public and private sectors,
but also both constrains and enables the behaviours of managers
and HR practitioners, affecting what they can and cannot do.
The Omanization policy guides recruitment and selection as
well as human resource development activities in public and
private sector organizations (Al-Lamki, 1998, 2005; Shayban,
2008). Like most civil services, the Omani public servants and
organizations are regulated by the Omani public service code
which effectively evolved through royal decrees issued between
1970 and 2010 (Al-Ansi, 1994). In particular, these decrees
have clarified the role and conduct of members of the public
sector and how they will be treated and rewarded by their
employers. Some of these decrees have a direct bearing on the
private sector organizations.
The government of Oman has long recognized the importance of
human resource development in general, and has manifested its
commitment through education and many other avenues. Like

governments all over the world, it also realizes that without
training and development, the public and private sector cannot
maximize its use of human capital. Much emphasis is therefore
placed on the training of these employees, who will be able to
increase their job skills by attending a variety of training and
development programs organized either internally or by outside
agencies. The government believes that this will be instrumental
in bringing about effective and proactive HRD policies. This
nationwide commitment has also been translated into the
establishment of the administrative apparatus for formal
training; this has been done by creating training departments
and sections in every ministry, with positions such as training
directors, and by allocating them the resources they need.
(Rajasekar,2013)
Development, and the government is trying hard to develop its
employees through a variety of HRD interventions. Public
sector organizations have adopted change and are now thinking
in terms of the benefits of training and the return of the
investment on their human capital. However, most of the
training and development interventions are still regulated and
managed by policies initially promulgated by the Ministry of
Civil Services (MOCS) as well as by the later directives issued
by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). These are all in
line with the MOCS guidelines. Inevitably, in this kind of
bureaucratic entity, with a centralized training system
controlling nodal agencies and fund disbursement, change is
difficult to bring about, and initiatives taken by individual
organization are often, unfortunately, stifled.
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