critical listening

1. What is listening?
Which activity involves the most amount of listening? Students spend 20
percent of all school related hours just listening. If television
watching and one-half of conversations are included, students
spend approximately 50 percent of their waking hours just
listening. For those hours spent in the classroom, the amount of
listening time can be almost 100 percent. Look at your own
activities, especially those related to college. Are most of your
activities focused around listening, especially in the classroom?
If you ask a group of students to give a one word description of listening, some
would say hearing; however, hearing is physical. Listening is following and
understanding the sound---it is hearing with a purpose. Good listening is built
on three basic skills: attitude, attention, and adjustment. These skills are
known collectively as triple-A listening.
Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the
brain. Listening leads to the understanding of facts and ideas. But listening
takes attention, or sticking to the task at hand in spite of distractions. It
requires concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one
particular problem. A person who incorporates listening with concentration is
actively listening. Active listening is a method of responding to another that
encourages communication.
Listening is a very important skill, especially for tutors. Many tutors tend to
talk too much during a tutorial session. This defeats the purpose of tutoring,
which is to allow students to learn by discussion. Rather than turning the
session into a mini-lecture, tutors must actively listen and encourage their
students to participate and become active learners. Giving a student your full
attention is sometimes difficult because you start to run out of time, or you
find yourself thinking about your next question; however, the time you spend
actively listening to your student will result in a quality tutoring session.
Poor Listening Habits and Good Listening Habits
Poor Listening
Habits
Poor Listeners... Good Listeners...
Criticizing a
speaker
Criticize the speaker's voice,
clothes, or looks. Therefore,
they decide that the speaker
won`t say anything
important.
Realize that a lecture is not a
popularity contest. Good
listeners look for the ideas being
presented, not for things to
criticize.
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2. Finding fault
with the speaker
become so involved in
disagreeing with something
the speaker states that they
stop listening to the
remainder of the lecture
Listen with the mind, not the
emotions. Good listeners jot
down something they disagree
with to ask the speaker later,
and then go on listening.
Allowing yourself
to be distracted
Use little distractions --
someone coughing, a pencil
dropping, the door opening
and closing -- as an excuse to
stop listening.
Filter out distractions and
concentrate on what the speaker
is saying.
Faking attention
Look at the speaker but don't
listen. They expect to get the
material from the textbook
later.
Understand that speakers talk
about what they think is most
important. Good listeners know
that a good lecture may not
contain the same information as
the textbook.
Forcing every
lecture into one
format
Outline the lecture in detail.
The listener is so concerned
with organization that he
misses the content.
Adjust their style of note-taking
to the speaker's topic and
method of organization.
Listening only
for facts
Only want the facts. They
consider everything else to be
only the speaker's opinion.
Want to see how the facts and
examples support the speaker's
ideas and arguments. Good
listeners know that facts are
important, because they support
ideas.
Listening to only
the easy
material
Think it is too difficult to
follow the speaker's
complicated ideas and logic.A
poor listener wants
entertainment, not education.
Want to learn something new
and try to understand the
speaker's point. A good listener
is not afraid of difficult,
technical, or complicated ideas.
Calling a subject
boring
Decide a lecture is going to be
dull and "turn out" the
speaker.
Listen closely for information
that can be important and
useful, even when a lecture is
dull.
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3. Overreacting to
"push button"
emotional words
Get upset at words which
trigger certain emotions --
words such as communist,
income tax, Hitler or
abortion. Emotion begins and
listening ends.
Hear these same words. When
they do, they listen very
carefully. A good listener tries to
understand the speaker's point
of view.
Wasting thought
speed
Move along lazily with the
speaker even though thinking
is faster than speaking. A
poor listener daydreams and
falls behind.
Use any extra time or pauses in
the lecture to reflect on the
speaker's message. They think
about what the speaker is
saying, summarize the main
points, and think about the next
points.
Types of Listening
Different situations require different types of listening. We may listen to obtain
information, improve a relationship, gain appreciation for something, make
discriminations, or engage in a critical evaluation.
While certain skills are basic and necessary for all
types of listening (receiving, attending, and
understanding), each type requires some special
skills.
Informative Listening
Informative listening is the name we give to the situation where the listener’s
primary concern is to understand the message. Listeners are successful insofar
as the meaning they assign to messages is as close as possible to that which
the sender intended.
Informative listening, or listening to understand, is found in all areas of our
lives. Much of our learning comes from informative listening. For example, we
listen to lectures or instructions from teachers—and what we learn depends on
how well we listen. In the workplace, we listen to understand new practices or
procedures—and how well we perform depends on how well we listen. We listen
to instructions, briefings, reports, and speeches; if we listen poorly, we aren’t
equipped with the information we need.
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4. There are three key variables related to informative listening. Knowing these
variables can help you begin to improve your informative listening skills; that
is, you will become increasingly successful in understanding what the speaker
means.
1. Vocabulary. The precise relationship between vocabulary and listening has
never been determined, but it is clear that increasing your vocabulary will
increase your potential for better understanding. And it’s never too late to
improve your vocabulary. Having a genuine interest in words and language,
making a conscious effort to learn new words, breaking down unfamiliar words
into their component parts—all these things will help you improve your
vocabulary.
2. Concentration. Concentration is difficult. You can remember times when
another person was not concentrating on what you were saying—and you
probably can remember times when you were not concentrating on something
that someone was saying to you.
Some years ago my oldest daughter, Teri, interrupted my reading of the
newspaper to ask, “Is it OK if I take your car over to a friend’s house to spend
the night? I’ll be home before you go to work in the morning.” Without
concentrating on what she was asking, I said, “Sure, go ahead.” Several
minutes later, I realized what she had said. She was not coming home that
night, and I had to leave the house earlier than usual the next morning. I had
to drive from Montgomery to Mobile, where I was to give a speech—and all my
notes and visual aids were in my automobile. Fortunately for me, Teri had left
the telephone number of her friend, and I was able to retrieve my automobile.
There are many reasons people don’t concentrate when listening. Sometimes
listeners try to divide their attention between two competing stimuli. At other
times, listeners are preoccupied with something other than the speaker of the
moment. Sometimes listeners are too ego-involved, or too concerned with their
own needs to concentrate on the message being delivered. Or perhaps they lack
curiosity, energy, or interest. Many people simply have not learned to
concentrate while listening. Others just refuse to discipline themselves, lacking
the motivation to accept responsibility for good listening. Concentration
requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of responsibility.
3. Memory. Memory is an especially crucial variable to informative listening;
you cannot process information without bringing memory into play. More
specifically, memory helps your informative listening in three ways.
a. It allows you to recall experiences and information necessary to function in
the world around you. In other words, without memory you would have no
knowledge bank.
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5. b. It establishes expectations concerning what you will encounter. You would
be unable to drive in heavy traffic, react to new situations, or make common
decisions in life without memory of your past experiences.
c. It allows you to understand what others say. Without simple memory of the
meaning of words, you could not communicate with anyone else. Without
memory of concepts and ideas, you could not understand the meaning of
messages.
Relationship Listening
The purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual or to
improve the relationship between people. Therapeutic listening is a special type
of relationship listening. Therapeutic listening brings to mind situations where
counselors, medical personnel, or other professionals allow a troubled person
to talk through a problem. But it can also be used when you listen to friends or
acquaintances and allow them to “get things off their chests.” Although
relationship listening requires you to listen for information, the emphasis is on
understanding the other person. Three behaviors are key to effective
relationship listening: attending, supporting, and empathizing.
1. Attending. Much has been said about the importance of “paying attention,”
or “attending” behavior. In relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate
that the listener is focusing on the speaker. Nonverbal cues are crucial in
relationship listening; that is; your nonverbal behavior indicates that you are
attending to the speaker— or that you aren’t!
Eye contact is one of the most important attending behaviors. Looking
appropriately and comfortably at the speaker sends a message that is different
from that sent by a frequent shift of gaze, staring, or looking around the room.
Body positioning communicates acceptance or lack of it. Leaning forward,
toward the speaker, demonstrates interest; leaning away communicates lack of
interest. Head nods, smiles, frowns, and vocalized cues such as “uh huh,” “I
see,” or “yes”—all are positive attending behaviors. A pleasant tone of voice,
gentle touching, and concern for the other person’s comfort are other attending
behaviors.
2. Supporting. Many responses have a negative or non-supportive effect; for
example, interrupting the speaker, changing the subject, turning the
conversation toward yourself, and demonstrating a lack of concern for the
other person. Giving advice, attempting to manipulate the conversation, or
indicating that you consider yourself superior are other behaviors that will
have an adverse effect on the relationship.
Sometimes the best response is silence. The speaker may need a “sounding
board,” not a “resounding board.” Wise relationship listeners know when to
talk and when to just listen—and they generally listen more than they talk.
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6. Three characteristics describe supportive listeners: (1) discretion—being careful
about what they say and do; (2) belief—expressing confidence in the ability of
the other person; and (3) patience—being willing to give others the time they
need to express themselves adequately.
3. Empathizing. What is empathy? It is not sympathy, which is a feeling for or
about another. Nor is it apathy, which is a lack of feeling. Empathy is feeling
and thinking with another person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go
into the world of another—to see as the other sees, hear as the other hears,
and feel as the other feels.
Obviously, the person who has had more experience and lived longer stands a
better chance of being an effective empathic listener. The person who has never
been divorced, lost a child to death, been bankrupt, or lost a job may have a
more difficult time relating to people with these problems than one who has
experienced such things.
Risk is involved with being an empathic relationship listener. You cannot be an
effective empathic listener without becoming involved, which sometimes means
learning more than you really want to know. But commanders can’t command
effectively, bosses can’t supervise skillfully, and individuals can’t relate
interpersonally without empathy. Abraham Lincoln is reported to have said, “I
feel sorry for the man who cannot feel the stripes upon the back of another.”
Truly, those who cannot feel with another person are at a disadvantage in
understanding that person.
Empathic behavior can be learned. First, you must learn as much as you can
about the other person. Second, you must accept the other person—even if you
can’t accept some aspects of that person’s behavior. Third, you must have the
desire to be an empathic listener. And you must remember that empathy is
crucial to effective relationship listening.
Appreciative Listening
Appreciative listening includes listening to music for enjoyment, to speakers
because you like their style, to your choices in theater, television, radio, or film.
It is the response of the listener, not the source of the message that defines
appreciative listening. That which provides appreciative listening for one
person may provide something else for another. For example, hard rock music
is not a source of appreciative listening for me. I would rather listen to gospel,
country, jazz, or the “golden oldies.”
The quality of appreciative listening depends in large part on three factors:
presentation, perception, and previous experience.
1. Presentation. I just mentioned that I prefer gospel music to hard rock. But I
don’t enjoy all gospels. For example, I don’t enjoy gospel music when it is
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7. presented in a “glitzy” setting—or when it is performed by someone who fails to
demonstrate an understanding of the music’s meaning. (I might add that I
don’t usually enjoy gospel when it is off-key or poorly done—but there are
exceptions, such as the time I heard a 103-year-old man sing “Amazing Grace.”
Never have I enjoyed it more!)
I enjoy gospel music when I hear it in the little churches of rural Alabama. I
also enjoy it when it is presented in the large church I attend in Montgomery. I
also very much enjoy presentations of gospel music on radio, on television, or
in concert by well-known performers who understand its meaning.
I enjoy hearing good speakers, speakers whom I admire, and speakers who
have expertise. I frequently attend lectures at Air University by speakers who
have all three of these characteristics. Among the speakers I have heard there
recently: General Charles “Chuck” Horner, the air component commander of
Desert Storm—a war dominated by airpower; Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dr
John White; former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Colin Powell;
and US Ambassador to the UN, Jeanne Kirkpatrick. I have heard many other
outstanding speakers at Air University, of course—these four simply came to
mind readily as examples of speakers who had all three of the characteristics
mentioned above: all were good speakers; all had my admiration; and all had a
great deal of expertise.
Presentation encompasses many factors: the medium, the setting, the style and
personality of the presenter, to name just a few. Sometimes it is our perception
of the presentation, rather than the actual presentation, that most influences
our listening pleasure or displeasure. Perception is an important factor in
appreciative listening.
2. Perception. For years, I did not care to listen to jazz music. I had always
believed that people like me—from a conservative rural Midwestern background
—wouldn’t like jazz. Then I started to work for a new boss—a general officer
who enjoyed jazz. I admired him very much. My mind was now open to listen to
jazz. My perception was changing, and I began to enjoy jazz music.
Expectations play a large role in perception. If I
attend a concert under duress with no expectation of
enjoying the music (perhaps my wife insists that I
attend, or my position in the community makes it the
thing to do), I may be pleasantly surprised. But I
stand a lot better chance of enjoying the concert if I
expect to enjoy it.
Perceptions—and the expectations that drive them—
have their basis in attitudes. Our attitudes determine
how we react to, and interact with, the world around
us. There was a time, not many years ago, when I did not want a personal
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8. computer (PC) in my office. I did not want to even be around a PC. I did not
enjoy working with computers.
Six years ago, I wrote a book called Speaking Effectively: A Guide for Air Force
Speakers.* The book you are now reading is a companion volume to that one. I
wrote the first book in longhand; I’m composing this one on my PC. Fortunately
for me, my attitude toward computers has changed. If my attitude had changed
six years sooner, I could have written the earlier book in less time—and saved
both time and effort for the publisher.
Perceptions influence all areas of our lives. Certainly, they are crucial
determinants as to whether or not we enjoy or appreciate the things we listen
to. Obviously, perceptions also determine what we listen to in the first place. As
we said earlier, listening is selective.
3. Previous experience. The discussion of perception makes it clear that
previous experience influences whether we enjoy listening to something. In
some cases, we enjoy listening to things because we are experts in the area.
Sometimes, however, expertise or previous experience prevents us from
enjoying a presentation because we are too sensitive to imperfections. Previous
experience plays a large role in appreciative listening.
Many people enjoy the sounds of large-city traffic. Perhaps their growing up in
a large city was a happy experience for them. The blare of horns honking, the
sound of roaring engines accelerating, even the shrill shriek of sirens piercing
the air—all these things may remind them of pleasant times in their lives. They
appreciate hearing these sounds.
Others, having grown up on a farm or in a small town, have learned to enjoy
the sounds of nature. For them, a walk in the country produces sounds of
enjoyment: the rustle of leaves in the breeze, the song of a robin, the babble of
a brook.
Usually, if we associate a sound or other experience with pleasant memories,
then we appreciate or enjoy it. However, if the sound or experience is
associated with unpleasant memories, we probably will not appreciate or enjoy
it.
But we can change! Let’s return to the example of
how I learned to enjoy listening to jazz. I did not
enjoy jazz music when I first heard it. Then I worked
for a man who enjoyed it. More than once when we
were TDY, I sat with him in the evenings listening to
jazz combos or jazz pianists . . . and I learned to like
jazz. We should not shut our minds to the fact that
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9. we can learn to like, enjoy, and appreciate new and different things. We can
learn to be better appreciative listeners.
Critical Listening
The ability to listen critically is essential in a democracy. On the job, in the
community, at service clubs, in places of worship, in the family—there is
practically no place you can go where critical listening is unimportant.
Politicians, the media, salesmen, advocates of policies and procedures, and our
own financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual needs require us
to place a premium on critical listening and the thinking that accompanies it.
The subject of critical listening deserves much more attention than we can
afford it here. But there are three things to keep in mind. These three things
were outlined by Aristotle, the classical Greek rhetorician, more than 2,000
years ago in his treatise, The Rhetoric.* They are as follows: ethos, or speaker
credibility; logos, or logical arguments; and pathos, or psychological appeals.
1. Ethos. Credibility of the speaker is important. The two critical factors of
speaker credibility are expertness and trustworthiness. A speaker may be
expert or competent and still not be trustworthy. For example, an autocratic
dictator of a certain third world country might be an expert on the question of
his country’s possession of nuclear arms; but I would not trust him to tell me.
On the other hand a person might be trustworthy, but not be an expert on the
subject. I trust my best friend; he would tell me the truth about nuclear arms
in that third world country, if he knew and I asked him. But his information
would be of questionable validity since he is simply not an expert in such
things.
When listening to a message that requires a critical judgment or response, ask
yourself, “Is the speaker a credible source, one who is both an expert on the
subject and one who can be trusted to be honest, unbiased, and
straightforward?” Remember that a person may have personality or charisma.
But these do not take the place of credibility. A person may even be highly
competent and an expert in one area and simply not be informed in another.
Returning to the example of speakers at Air University, I trust General Horner.
He is an expert on the use of airpower, and he is trustworthy. I listen intently
when he speaks on the subject. But I would not expect him to be an expert on
buying used cars, knitting, or nutrition. He may be an expert on any or all of
these things, but I would want to “check it out” before I put too much stock in
his ideas on these subjects.
Effective critical listening requires careful judgment about the expertness and
trustworthiness of the speaker. In fact, ethos or speaker credibility may be the
most important single factor in critical listening and thinking. However, ethos
without logos is not enough.
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10. 2. Logos. Even speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by
intention, but by accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of
analysis. Critical listeners have a right to expect well supported arguments
from speakers, arguments that contain both true propositions and valid
inferences or conclusions. When evaluating arguments, listeners should ask
several questions about the proposition or statements made:
a. Are the statements true?
b. Are the data the best that can be obtained?
c. Are the sources of the data known to the listeners? In other words do
listeners know where the information came from?
d. Is the data accurately portrayed?
e. Is the data representative? That is, would all the data, or at least a
preponderance of it show the same thing?
The above questions may all be answered to your satisfaction, yet the logic may
be faulty. For perhaps the data do not lead to or justify the inferences or
conclusions drawn. Listeners should ask themselves the following questions:
a. Is the conclusion a certainty or are exceptions possible?
b. Were all cause-effect relationships established beyond doubt?
c. Does the data justify the inference drawn or the conclusion given?
d. Does the inference or conclusion “follow” from the data, or is there a non
sequitur, which means literally, “it does not necessarily follow”?
e. Is there evidence of strong logical thinking by the speaker?*
Both ethos and logos are crucial elements of critical listening. But reliance on
just these two elements without consideration of pathos would be akin to
attempting to sit on a three-legged stool with one leg missing. Pathos is the
third leg.
3. Pathos. The psychological or emotional element of communication is often
misunderstood and misused. Simply said, speakers often use psychological
appeals to gain an emotional response from listeners. Effective critical listeners
carefully determine the focus of the speaker’s message.
Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are
important to us including: adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity,
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11. companionship, guilt, independence, loyalty, power, pride, sympathy, altruism.
There are many others, of course; the list is a long one.
There are several questions critical listeners should ask themselves when
assessing the pathos element:
a. Is the speaker attempting to manipulate rather than persuade me?
b. What is the speaker’s intent?
c. Is the speaker combining logos with pathos?
d. Am I responding merely to the pathos?
e. Next week or next year will I be satisfied with the decision I am making today?
Effective critical listening depends on the listener keeping all three elements of
the message in the analysis and in perspective: ethos, or source credibility;
logos, or logical argument; and pathos, or psychological appeals.
Discriminative Listening
The final type of listening is discriminative listening. It may be the most
important type, for it is basic to the other four. By being sensitive to changes in
the speaker’s rate, volume, force, pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener
can detect even nuances of difference in meaning. By sensing the impact of
certain responses, such as “uh huh,” or “I see,” relationship listening can be
strengthened. Detection of differences between sounds made by certain
instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by the a cappella vocal group,
enhances appreciative listening. Finally, sensitivity to pauses, and other vocal
and nonverbal cues, allows critical listeners to more accurately judge not only
the speaker’s message, but his intentions as well.
Obviously, many people have good discriminatory listening ability in some
areas but not in others. Our middle daughter, Nanette, has always been very
adept at picking up minute differences in a person’s voice that might signal
feelings. She has a gift for discriminating and applying what she hears to
relationship listening. But her ability to discriminate among the different
sounds that come from an automobile engine is practically nil. One weekend
she pulled into the driveway, fan belt squealing. I said, “Nanette, can’t you hear
that? You’re wearing out a belt. You’re lucky you got home.” “Oh that,” she
said. “I wondered what that was. I had no idea.”
Although discriminative listening cuts across the other four types of listening,
there are three things to consider about this type of listening.
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12. 1. Hearing ability. Obviously, people who lack the ability to hear well will have
greater difficulty in discriminating among sounds. Often this problem is more
acute for some frequencies, or pitches, than others. For example, a person may
be less able to discriminate when the sound is coming from a bass voice than
from a higher pitched one.
2. Awareness of sound structure. Native speakers become quite proficient at
recognizing vowel and consonant sounds that do or do not appear at the
beginning, middle, or end of words. For example, a listener might hear “this
sandal” when what the speaker said was “this handle”; but since English words
do not begin with “sb,” one would not mistake “this bean” for “this beans.”
Attention to the sound structure of the language will lead to more proficient
discriminatory listening. A person who pays attention to sound structure would
recognize that a rapidly spoken “Idrankitfirst” could mean either “I drank it
first” or “I’d rank it first.” Recognition of the two meanings would cause the
listener to seek clarification.*
8 Critical Listening Skills Factors for Managers
Of all the key management activities that you need in your toolkit, the communication skills
you need are the most important. Most managers feel that this is all about what they say, yet it's
clear from research that listening is much more important.
1. Full Attention Required - If one of your employees comes up to you discuss a problem or
query, you should ideally give them your full attention. Keeping aside your own work for a little
while, because its important for any person working under you to feel that you are available for
them, any time.
2. No Interruptions - When listening to someone be careful to not interrupt them while they are
talking. It is a sign that you are not giving them proper attention. Wait for a pause in the sentence
for any interjection or comments. Even then, allowing a silence for them to gather their thoughts,
is a really valuable exercise and often produces the most fruitful results.
3. Encourage Them! - Make them feel comfortable and ensure they know that they have your
undivided attention. Smile occasionally. Lean in. If you have a grip on the topic of conversation,
ask questions, - showing that you are interested in the conversation - and them as individuals! If
you are not clear about something that is said feel free to ask for elaboration or explanation.
4. Recall is Good - If you are fully involved in the conversation, you will also tend to maintain a
good memory of it, which will be handy for future reference. If, for example, your employee
discusses a problem with you to seek your advice, a follow up to the conversation would mean a
lot to them.
5. It's a Motivator Too - Your great listening skills also helps to motivate your people perform to
their best. Realistically speaking if your employees are happy and feel important and fulfilled in
their work, then tangible rewards like pay raises, bonuses etc. take a back seat. Supporting the
organization that shows they care (through your excellent listening skills!) becomes their top
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13. priority. By involving them in the working of the company as much as possible, it provides them
with a clear view of what lies ahead in terms of company plans, future aims and goals.
6. All Ideas are Valued - If one of your employees gives you a suggestion in a meeting or
otherwise, encourage them. If you don’t like their idea don’t dismiss it off-handedly. Explore
with them where there may be flaws. Your personal experience should feed into the success of
the team as a whole. Always listen encouragingly to their ideas and make sure that you
compliment them on their enthusiasm and positive participation.
7. See the Value - Informal communication within the office is an excellent way to collect
feedback about the way things are going - policies, ideas, plans, and relationships even. Not only
can what you hear around the place have a great value in terms of 'intelligence', but if you start to
get creative, you will seek out feedback from teams away from your own. For example, you
might be able to find out how the sales department feel about the impact your admin team have
on their side of the business, and use that knowledge to make focused improvements yourself.
8. Don't Forget 'Virtual' - When we are talking about communication, it does not necessarily
refer to face-to-face communication. Memos, emails, phone calls, video calls, letters etc are all
important in your behaviors. Whenever you have contact from someone on your team, make sure
you acknowledge it as soon as you can at least - even if you are going to take time to reply to it.
DISCUSSION
If you looking to develop a functional, productive team, it is important to make your employees
feel that they are an indispensable part of it.
Putting your listening skills to optimum use when you are communicating with the people
working under you can truly make the difference.
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