course material

1. ARTV6830 Automation And Autonomy
Answer:
Analysis
As Theodor Adorno had stated, Art is autonomous and it is not. Music is said to intervene in
the non-musical sphere and affect it with its essence (Adorno 2013). With the rise of the
idea of absolute music in the nineteenth century, this belief was imposed. There also existed
a notion, that music does not just symbolise emotions, it also denotes and expresses the
stream of experiences that are within those sentiments.
Baroque Period
Rationale Behind Choosing This Period:
This period has been chosen for analysis because this period has a lot of elaborate and
highly embellished musical forms. It was the period where the counterpoint technique was
popularised, and the different forms of music, such as concerto and sonata all developed
during this period.
History And Evolution:
The term Baroque comes from the Portuguese word barraco, which means rough or
imperfect pearl. However, there is uncertainty as to from where the word had entered, as
mention can be made of the Spanish barrueco, the German Barock, and the Dutch Barok.
This artistic style began in Rome around 1600 and later spread to the other parts of Europe,
continuing till around 1750. The art of this period is said to be exaggerated, with detailed
ornamentation, like the compositions of Bach or Handel. Previously, the word baroque was
used to lend a derogatory tone to any piece of art, but in the present world, baroque
represents that period in history which richly diverse in the context of its music
(Baroque.org 2017).
The evolution of the counterpoint was noteworthy, and the detailing of the harmony gained
considerable emphasis. Counterpoint is when two or more separate lines of music are
played at the same time, one note against the other. This was a very prominent

2. characteristic feature of Bach’s music. The focus of the opera shifted to the aria from the
recitative, and contrast also gained importance, especially in the chorus and solo voices as
well as the orchestra of the Church. The concerto grosso, the suite and the sonata forms
developed during this period, and this is perceivable in the music of Bach, Vivaldi and
Handel (Kaltwasser 2015).
The trend of writing a piece of music in one particular key or tone still goes on, and this was
developed in the Baroque period. The concerts of this era had a basso continuo group that
had harpsichordists with lute players, and it was expected that the musicians were expert
devisers of both solo and accompaniment parts. The group would also have bass instrument
players, namely the cello and the viola da gamba.
Critical Analysis:
The pieces written were mostly suited for dance suites, and new techniques of playing were
worked on. The music became highly elaborate and ornamented, and the figured bass
technique was developed. As discussed by Bukofzer (2013), there was an expansion in the
number, range and intricacy of the performances, and the musical genres of opera, cantata
and oratorio were established, in the Middle Baroque Period (1630-1680). The music
composed was largely polyphonic, with numerous individual sets being played at the same
time, like in the fugue technique. The tritone was seen as being an unstable interval as it
was used in the creation of dissonance, and harmonic progressions sparked the interest of
the composers, which was present in a few of the preceding Renaissance period composers
as well.
The Late Baroque Period (1680-1730) produced the works of Handel, Bach, Vivaldi and
their contemporaries. Johann Fux was the one person who made polyphony the area of
interest for the later compositions and musical periods (Bukofzer 2013). On the other hand,
Handel regularly ‘borrowed’ compositions from other musicians, and reused his own as
well. One of his most famous pieces was Messiah which was released in 1742.
Classical Period
Reason For Choosing This Period:
The Classical music period has been chosen for analysis here, because it is the age when
some of the most dignified and notable musicians gained fame, along with the
popularisation of chamber music. The luxury of music was restricted only to the monarchy
and the upper classes, and the commoners had little or no chances at cultural enrichment.
History And Evolution:
This period of music is right in between the Baroque and the Romantic periods, spanning
from 1730 to 1820. The word classical is however used even now to denote the Western

3. styles, and the music was not as ornamented as in the baroque period. Instead, the style was
elegantly dignified while being serious and grandiose at the same time (Burkholder and
Donald 2014). There was an increase in the size and influence of the orchestra, and the
musical pieces started having increased and improved variety as compared to the earlier
ages. The fortepiano came as a replacement for the harpsichord, which allowed the
musicians to be able to play the notes the way they wanted, and the instrumental form was
extremely important for the classical musicians. The sonata, string quartet, symphony, trio,
and the solo concerto were the main techniques. Schubert’s work on vocal music was also
an important development of this era.
Mention should be made here of possibly the most famous and important of classical music
composers –– Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. The other noteworthy
composers include Emanuel Bach, Muzio Clementi, and Joseph Haydn
(Park et al. 2015). Beethoven was, however, more of a transitional artist, composing his art
at the end of the classical period and continuing into the Romantic era. Classical music was
largely associated with the aristocrats, and was patronised by the Court or the monarchy.
The main point of contrast between the music of the baroque and the classical periods was
the lack of complexity and ornamentation in the latter. Its texture was much lighter, with a
clear melody along with the incorporation of the style gallant.
Critical Analysis:
The classical period was one of structural clarity; Newton had just formulated his three laws
and it was seen as a paradigm, and thus the need for properly articulated philosophies or
ideas grew (Singer 2013). The polyphony that was prevalent in the Baroque period was
replaced by the classical homophony, which contributed to chords gaining an important
part in the composition of music, regardless of the interference it brought about in the
melodic smoothness.
This change in the style of music was influenced by the shifts in the economy as well as the
societal structure. With the progress of the 18th century, chamber music became
increasingly important, as the royalty were the primary patronisers of music. The continuo
lost significance, and its bass counterpart became almost extinct, with only the pipe organ
being still in use at religious Masses during the early 1800s. The music of the baroque era
barely had any dynamics, in contrast with the classical period, which had phrasing as well.
The concerto gained importance primarily due to Haydn and Mozart, a style which featured
a solo artist with an accompanying orchestra.
Romantic Period
Rationale Behind Choosing This Period:
The Romantic Period was perhaps the first era where music was associated closely with
emotions. Also, the people who were exposed to music also changed and the audience grew

4. in size, encompassing all sections of the society and not just the royalty.
History And Evolution:
The Romantic period in the history of Western music is closely related to the European
Romantic movement that started in the 18th century. Germany was the country that saw
the maximum domination of the Romantic era of music (Dickey 2015). This period was one
where the scope of music became more sentimental and thoughtful, crossing over several
themes of philosophy and literature. The orchestra increased even more in size, and so did
the range of the instruments that were used. The audience also changed; there were more
people from the middle and upper-middle classes of the society who came forward and
enjoyed the performances; previously, the concerts were paid for and arranged mainly by
the royalty. Some of the notable musicians of that period were Johann Strauss II, Wagner,
Richard Strauss and Rachmaninoff. Some of them even composed much more complex and
longer pieces.
The Romantic Movement was basically the reaction to the Industrial Revolution (Benchimol
2016). Its effect was seen most strongly in the literary forms and in art, and also in music
around 1789. Beethoven published his Fifth Symphony in 1810, which was reviewed by
Hoffmann and out came the musical romanticism principles (Ringer 2016). His writings,
along with many others provided the impetus for bringing Romanticism into the German
music scene.
Critical Analysis:
Music is affected by the changes pertaining to society, and also by historical events. The
Industrial Revolution brought about a change as well, as the mechanical valves were
improvised, and there were newer and better instruments to be played. The rise of the
middle class was also a significant factor, as the Romantic musicians composed pieces for all
occasions and not just for the royalty. There was no discrimination between the tastes of
music, as they composed even for those who had limited or no knowledge of music. They
believed that music was not to be restricted to just one particular section of society, and
that the sole idea of composing was to make the musical piece heard (Davies 2014).
One of the most noteworthy composers of the late Romantic period was Sergei
Rachmaninoff, a Russian pianist. Like, Mozart, he was a child prodigy, playing on his piano
from the tender age of four. His notable compositions include Rhapsody on a Theme of
Paganini, Symphonic Dances and his numerous symphonies (Norris 2014). His technique
was faultless and precise, with the implementation of staccato. He was said to possess
exceptionally large hands, which were beneficial in guiding him through the most complex
and difficult of chords. Arthur Rubinstein branded his tone as golden and living, with an
irresistible gloriousness and charm (Von Riesemann 2015). His powerful memory was an
added bonus as he could hear any composition one day and play it back the next without

5. any hindrance.
Modern Period:
Reason For Choosing This Period:
This period has been chosen as there is a lot of controversial music, especially in the post-
modern era. Also, the focus of music shifted to its physicality in this period, and there was
no one genre that was able to gain specific importance in this age (Su et al. 2014).
History And Evolution:
The word that is mostly attributed to modernism is ‘innovation’ (Anderson 2016). This era
was one that challenged and modified the older genres of music, with the composers
interpreting the already existing renditions in their own way. There came up newer and
more innovative ways of constructing and dealing with the various aspects of music such as
harmony, melody and rhythm. According to Edward Campbell, modern music is not a static
identity; it has been shaped and developed for the past many years both by the classical
virtues and historical developments, and although the idea of innovation is not a new
concept to music, it is one of the primary values fundamental to modernist art (Smith 2015).
Modernism is also defined by Eero Tarasti as the dismissal of the traditional techniques of
tonality, with incorporation of newer and more innovative models, such as atonalism or
polytonalism (Sobaskie 2016). Daniel Albright comments that modernism is music is like
experimenting the boundaries of creativity (Yamasaki 2015), and stipulates a list of
modernist techniques, namely expressionism, hyperrealism, new objectivity,
abstractionism, neoclassicism, neobarbarism, futurism and the mythic method.
Critical Analysis:
The term modernism is highly debatable; some believe that the modern era lasted from
1890-1930, calling the developments after 1930 post-modern. On the other hand, others
believe that modernism is dependent on the outlook of the composers, not any historical
period.
Jazz is one of the music genres that developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It
originated among the African Americans, and was derived from the ragtime and blues
genres (Kirschbaum 2015). It has since undergone several changes in style and expression
due to the influence of many other cultures. With several subgenres, jazz has no appropriate
definition.
Mention should perhaps be made here of the popular genres of music. Rock and roll music
originated in the United States during the 1950s, and from that developed the rock music
genre. Rock and roll was based on country music and also on rhythm and blues, and was the

6. foundation for the evolution of the rock genre (Lu and Akred 2014). The best known artist
is probably Elvis Presley, who was also called the King of Rock and Roll.
A typical rock music composition has an electric guitar as its focal point, with accompanying
drums, electric and bass guitars, and vocal artists. Notable bands include Led Zeppelin,
Nirvana, Guns N’ Roses, the Beatles, Deep Purple and AC/DC. Psychedelic rock bands like
the Doors, Psychotic Reaction, Pink Floyd and Radiohead dominated the second half of the
20th century.
Over time, rock has evolved a lot, and given rise to a diverse and varied range of subgenres,
some of which are punk rock, hard rock, new wave, alternative rock and progressive rock.
Post grunge rock is a subgenre with its stylistic origins in alternative rock and hard rock
along with the aesthetic elements of grunge music (Strong 2013). Bands like Nickelback,
Seether and the Foo Fighters belong to this genre.
Post Modern:
Rock music gave rise to the diverse subgenre of heavy metal, which is characterised by
exaggerated volume, speed and power. Perhaps the most fundamental element in
identifying metal music is in its use of distortions which are heavily amplified, long guitar
solos or shreds, and blast drumming (Brown 2015). In popular culture, metal is often
affiliated with aggression because of its predominant use of screaming or growling vocals
and down-tuned guitars in its subgenres such as metalcore (City in the Sea, Asking
Alexandria), deathcore (Xerath, Emmure), black metal (Behemoth), and thrash metal
(Slayer). Power metal (Dragonforce), however, deploys clean vocals. The 21st century also
saw the fusion of other genres with metal, and Nu metal was born –– Attila is one such band
which fuses rap into the metal scenes. The birth of djent is also noteworthy; it is a subgenre
of progressive metal which uses palm-muted chords. This technique was popularised by
Meshuggah, and as of now, many bands such as Periphery and TesseracT employ similar
styles.
A Comparison Between The Baroque, Classical And Modern Periods
The Baroque period saw the use of instruments like the harpsichord, and other stringed
instruments. They had more freedom when it came to the style of their composition, and
could focus on improvisation as well. This provided the artists to arrange for the solo
performances, and thus the opera style was explored in great detail. Their music was
however composed in one mood only, and the recurring rhythm was ABACABA. The
Classical period saw the invention of the sonata, and the piano dominated the scene –– it
was the main instrument used, not the harpsichord. The rules were far stricter when it
came to the composition of music, and could therefore make little or no improvisations. The
dominant rondo style was ABA or ABACA. Also, two moods were set by the musicians; it
was related either to lyricism or to pace.

7. There were not much sentiments associated with the Baroque or Classical music; Romantic
music on the other hand incorporated a lot of emotions and expressions. Solo instruments
were developed and the orchestra also grew in size in this period. The harmonies had a
more complex sound to them, and the chords were more colourful.
Similarities may be drawn, however, between baroque and rock music. This is because of
the use of harmonic progressions, and complex patterns of melody and structural
frameworks in rock music. The strong, regular beats and the harmony between several of
them are just like the counterpoint of the Baroque music. The emotional aspect of classical
music in it the instruments that are being played, while the emotions of the modern period
are in its lyrics.
Understanding Autonomous Art
Composer
In simple words, a composer is the person who creates or puts together a composition or a
piece of music. The musical composition could be either instrumental or vocal. A whole
array of instruments is available for the composition of music, such as the piano forte, or the
violin. In terms of Western classical music, artists who have created or composed melodies
and symphonies and have actively participated in the contribution to the richness of music
can be said to be composers (Scirea et al. 2016).
A composer typically writes music in the sheet music form, that is, with the use of musical
notations. Most composers are experienced in stage performances as well, like Beethoven
and Mozart. A composer needs to be well-versed in the different elements of music to be
able to create a commendable composition. In the modern era, artists who write new songs
are usually called songwriters.
In the Baroque period, the range and intricacy of music that the composers were exploring
were vast and ever-expanding. They even drew from the ancient Greek compositions to
write operas; they also developed the contrapuntal music during this age. The composers
needed to have a detailed knowledge regarding the theories of music, as contrapuntal
involved numerous separate lines of music played or sung together at the same time. They
used instruments like the harpsichord, clavichord and pipe organ. The concerto form that
was developed during this era continued to evolve in the later eras, along with the fugue,
sonata and invention. The compositions were polyphonic by nature, and had detailed
ornamentations.
In the words of Immanuel Kant, instrumental music was a beautiful but superficial entity,
and he preferred songs and the opera over it (Schalow and Velkley 2014). The Romantic age
saw some of the composers arguing about the expressive capacity of music, saying that
music should be expressive in terms of ideas, emotions and even images, which challenged

8. Kant’s theories regarding it. However, they did accept that the capacity of instrumental
music for representation. The modernists labelled music as pure, as they believed that
music did not represent anything other than their own selves. This feud between the artists
and the critics was simple a continuation of the argument on the autonomous nature of
music (Kupers, van Dijk and van Geert 2017).
Performer
In the industry of music, performers are those musicians who perform at a concert or a
show in front of the audience. They may take the stage solo, or be involved with an
orchestra, or be among the backup singers. A performer can arrange for other musicians
and dancers to accompany them, or choose to perform alone. They may also write their own
music (Sessions 2015).
A performer specialises in one or more styles of music, and they can not only perform but
may also conduct, compose, sing, and arrange for the orchestra. In the Medieval Ages, the
performers played soft music indoors, and the louder instruments were reserved for
outdoor performances. Most of the musicians were affiliated with the Roman Catholic
Church at that time, and had to perform for Masses from the church texts and also for
Gregorian chants (Wright 2014). The same was the case for the Renaissance musicians; the
music they composed was suitable for playing in church masses and chapels. The songs
were usually in Latin, and were characterised by polyphony –– there were separate
melodies being played at the same time. After the segregation of the church, the patronage
of the performers was divided between the Catholic and the Protestant Churches, and also
among the courts, amateurs and music publishers, and this gave more income opportunities
for them.
In the Baroque period, the music was characterised by exaggerated use of the counterpoint
and the basso continuo techniques. There was increased emphasis on the use of
instruments as compared to the Renaissance period, and the pace and texture of each
composition was stressed upon. Notable performers from that era include Johann Sebastian
Bach and Antonio Vivaldi.
During the musical age of Mozart and Beethoven, the middle class was gaining importance
and status; they had lived under the monarchy for a long time. The performance areas were
much more uneasy and restricted than the Baroque era.
The Romantic period brought with it a surge of upheavals, changes and revolutions in the
social, political and economical spheres. The heart of Romanticism was constituted by
revolutionary zeal, as it was nothing but a reaction against the Industrial Revolution.
English poetry was at its peak point of development, and so was the music which was then
associated with sentimentality and expressionism. Notable performers include Ludwig van
Beethoven, Richard Wagner and Johann Strauss II.

9. The performers of the 20th century rebuffed the sentimental ideas of Romanticism, and
emphasised on concrete things and physicality. Audio recording was invented and the
music industry saw a rise in the development of all kinds of music.
Audience
Music audiences have long been neglected as being an active part of performances, and
there are very less aspects left to explore regarding the observational studies that take into
consideration the point of view of the audiences and their experiences. In the words of Mark
Duffet, musicians need to pay attention to the audience and should have the capacity to
understand their tastes and preferences and what appeals to them (Duffett 2013).
Autonomy is art limits this, as it is a concept that restricts the understanding of the work of
art to only the artists themselves.
In the Baroque and Classical Ages, the audience for the music were mainly the royalty. The
concept of chamber music was in practice, and many composers flourished under the
patronage of the monarchies. The incorporation of emotions into music and the access to
art in the Romantic age was a big change for the audiences of that time. With the advent of
the technological facilities in the modern era, the audiences have been largely influenced,
and newer frameworks for distribution, communication and production of music have been
adopted.
The Definition Of Music
The concept of music itself is a paradox; it has its own unique way of operation, and its
medium is one of mysticism. Music is expressive, and even though one may not always
understand what it means, it does not mean that it has lost its significance. There are
compositions which may denote particular objects, like in the case of Beethoven’s sixth
symphony, which relates to birds. Kant has stated that our perception regarding any object
of beauty is devoid of discernible content. According to him, if someone perceives any
particular object as beautiful, that person will expect a similar judgement from the other
people as well. Subotnik has argued, that music should be such that any listener can
understand and decipher its meaning without having had any previous formal training
(Subotnik et al. 2016).
The argument over abstract art or music is forever a matter of debate, and Berger stated
that abstract art is only representational, or should be considered as that. This is because
most people who view or enjoy art, or music, do not have the sufficient knowledge to
actually interpret it or break it down and decipher it in a detailed one. Music should,
therefore, be such that everyone is able to translate it and bask in its beauty.
Rationale Behind Autonomous Art

10. Autonomy in art meant that only the composer could understand the true and actual
meaning of the composition. The scope of interpretation and inquiry becomes limited when
art is conceptualised as an autonomous entity. Autonomous art rose solely due to the need
for aestheticism. As argued by Berry (2015), authentic artworks today ought to, and do,
renounce all the norms and standards of artistic perfection, all the positive aesthetic values
of the tradition of autonomous art. Art becomes entertainment when people engage in it in
their leisure time, and that now includes some ‘cultural goods which are made from
materials and forms of traditional autonomous art. The artistic price to be paid for such a
success is also equally high –– not only the rejection of communication and the willed
absence of any settled supporting audience but also the analysis of the aesthetic values and
classifications that defined autonomous art, and thereby expression and meaning
(Senftleben 2014).
Art has become independent from other institutions in bourgeois society. The autonomy of
art has always been relative to bourgeois society as a whole. The function of these works
has been somewhat particular to art –– maintaining an image of humanity, satisfying
aesthetic contemplation, or undermining the autonomy of art. Autonomous art both affirms
and criticizes the society to which it belongs. The art itself has external pressures and
developments; this art has become problematic in advanced capitalist societies.
Autonomous art, by virtue of its autonomy, has a special significance.
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