3. Introduction
• Trade will only be complete if both parties of the transaction believe
that they will gain from the voluntary exchange (win-win approach).
• International trade is voluntary exchange of goods, services or assets
between residents (individuals or organizations) of two or more
countries.
• International trade theory
– explains why it is beneficial for countries to engage in international
trade
– helps countries formulate their economic policy
– explains the pattern of international trade in the world economy
3
4. 2.1. An Overview of Trade Theory
• What is free trade(FT) and its Benefit
• Free trade refers to a situation where a government does not
attempt to influence through quotas or duties what its citizens can
buy from another country or what they can produce and sell to
another country.
• FT allows a country
• To specialize in the manufacture and export of products that can be
produced most efficiently in that country.
• To Import products and services that can be produced more efficiently in
other countries
• Limits on imports may be beneficial to local producers, but not
beneficial for consumers
• FT allow country to engage in IT even for products it is able to
produce for itself (Make or buy decisions in free market). 4
5. Con’t
• International Trade Theory:
• Talks about benefits of international trade
• theories show why countries should trade for products/
services even when they can produce them domestically
(Classical theories)
• Talks about patterns of international trade
• theories show why countries specialize the way they do
(Factor endowment theories)
• Talks about the role of intervention
• theories help articulate the role of government policy (tariffs,
quotas, etc.)
6. Trade Theory and Government Policy
• While the theories all suggest that trade is beneficial, they lack
agreement in their recommendations for government policy .
• Mercantilism makes a case for government involvement in
promoting exports and limiting imports.
• Smith, Ricardo, and Heckscher-Ohlin promote unrestricted free
trade.
• New trade theory and Porter justify limited and selective
government intervention to support the development of certain
export-oriented industries
6
7. 2.2. Evolution of International Trade Theory
• Mercantilism (16th and 17th centuries) encouraged exports
and discouraged imports
• Adam Smith (1776) promoted unrestricted free trade
(Absolute Advantage)
• David Ricardo (19th century) built on Smith ideas
(Comparative Advantage)
• Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin (20th century ) refined
Ricardo’s work (Factor Endowment)
7
8. Mercantilism (1500s -1700s)
• Mercantilism (mid-16th century) - it is in a country’s best interest
to maintain a trade surplus (to export more than it imports).
• Accumulation of financial wealth in the form of gold (has been
used as currency).
• It advocated government intervention to achieve a surplus in the
balance of trade.
• It viewed trade as a zero-sum game (one in which a gain by one
country results in a loss by another and the total wealth from the
international trade will be zero; it is just shift of wealth).
9. • Mercantilism is problematic and not economically valid
• Trade is a positive-sum game, a situation in which all countries
can benefit.
10. Cont’d….
• Neomercantilists/protectionists – Modern supporters of
mercantilism; claim that a country should create trade barriers to
protect its industries from foreign competition.
• A country’s wealth, usually measured by its holding of gold and
silver, should be accumulated by encouraging exports and
discouraging imports.
10
11. Advantages
• Increase in wealth
• Creating market for home country
• Promoted import substitution
Drawback:
• Only a supplier/exporter region benefits
• Another region is at loss/zero sum-game
11
12. Absolute Advantage (1776)
• Smith (1776) - countries differ in their ability to produce
goods efficiently
• A country has an absolute advantage in the production of
a product when it is more efficient than any other country
in producing it.
• According to Smith
– trade is not a zero-sum game
– countries should specialize in the production of goods for
which they have an absolute advantage and then trade
these goods for the goods produced by other countries.
12
13. Absolute Advantage
• Assume that two countries, Ghana and South Korea, both have
200 units of resources that could either be used to produce rice or
cocoa
– In Ghana, it takes 10 units of resources to produce one ton of
cocoa and 20 units of resources to produce one ton of rice
– So, Ghana could produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 10 tons
of rice and no cocoa, or some combination of rice and cocoa
between the two extremes
– In South Korea it takes 40 units of resources to produce one
ton of cocoa and 10 resources to produce one ton of rice
– So, South Korea could produce 5 tons of cocoa and no rice, 20
tons of rice and no cocoa, or some combination in between
13
14. Absolute Advantage
• Ghana has an absolute advantage in the production of cocoa
• South Korea has an absolute advantage in the production of rice
• Without trade (Half Resources for each product)
– Ghana would produce 10 tons of cocoa and 5 tons of rice
– South Korea would produce 10 tons of rice and 2.5 tons of
cocoa
• If each country specializes in the product in which it has an
absolute advantage and trades for the other product
– Ghana would produce 20 tons of cocoa
– South Korea would produce 20 tons of rice
14
15. Absolute Advantage
• Suppose
– Ghana could trade 6 tons of cocoa to South Korea for 6 tons
of rice
• After trade
– Ghana would have 14 tons of cocoa left, and 6 tons of rice
– South Korea would have 14 tons of rice left and 6 tons of
cocoa
• Both countries gained from trade
15
21. • Advantages:
– Every one benefits from the low prices of trade
– More production because of specialization of products
– Lower cost per unit
• Drawback:
– Neglected transportation costs between regions
– Neglected factors associated with natural resource
endowments (200 units of resources)
– What if there is a country with no absolute advantage? Leads
to Theory of Comparative Advantage.
21
22. 5-22
Theory Of Comparative Advantage (1817)
• David Ricardo asked what might happen when one
country has an absolute advantage in the production
of all goods.
• Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage suggests
that countries should specialize in the production of
those goods they produce most efficiently and buy
goods that they produce less efficiently from other
countries.
23. 5-23
How Does The Theory Of Comparative Advantage Work?
• Assume
– Ghana is more efficient in the production of both cocoa and rice
– in Ghana, it takes 10 resources to produce one ton of cocoa, and 13
1/3 resources to produce one ton of rice
– So, Ghana could produce 20 tons of cocoa and no rice, 15 tons of rice
and no cocoa, or some combination of the two (Ex. 15 Cocoa & 3.75)
– in South Korea, it takes 40 resources to produce one ton of cocoa
and 20 resources to produce one ton of rice
– so, South Korea could produce 5 tons of cocoa and no rice, 10 tons of
rice and no cocoa, or some combination of the two
24. 5-24
How Does The Theory Of Comparative Advantage Work?
• With trade
– Ghana could export 4 tons of cocoa to South Korea in exchange for 4
tons of rice
– Ghana will still have 11 tons of cocoa, and 4 additional tons of rice
– South Korea still has 6 tons of rice and 4 tons of cocoa
– if each country specializes in the production of the good in which it
has a comparative advantage and trades for the other, both
countries gain
• Comparative advantage theory provides a strong rationale for
encouraging free trade
25. How Does The Theory Of
Comparative Advantage Work?
Comparative Advantage and the Gains from Trade
29. How Does The Theory Of
Comparative Advantage Work?
Comparative Advantage and the Gains from Trade
30. Theory Of Comparative Advantage
Advantages:
• Allows regions to focus on producing goods that they
are best at making, allows lagging regions to join
developed regions
Drawback:
• Neglected exchange rates
30
31. Relative Factor Endowment Theory (Heckscher-Ohlin Theory)
Early 1900s
• comparative advantage arises from differences in national
factor endowments (the extent to which a country is
endowed with resources such as land, labor, and capital)
• The more abundant a factor, the lower its cost
• countries will export goods that make intensive use of those
factors that are locally abundant, and import goods that
make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce
• Factor endowments determine trade pattern
• (US export agricultural goods--- abundant land,
• while China export textiles and footwear--- cheap labor)
32. Practical Examples of Factor Relationships
• Land-Labor Relationship:
• In Hong Kong and Netherlands land prices are very high because it is
in demand, it is why neither Hong Kong nor Netherland excels in the
production of goods requiring large amounts of land such as wool or
wheat. Australia and Canada produce these goods because land is
abundant compared to the number of people .
• Labor-Capital Relationship:
• In countries where there is little capital available for investment and
where the amount of investment per worker is low, managers might
expect cheap labor rates and export competitiveness in products
requiring large amounts of labor relative to capital.
• Iran, (where labor is abundant compared to capital) excels in
the production of homemade carpets.
• Exports of emerging economies, show a high intensity of less skilled
labor.
33. Differentiating Heckscher-OhlinTheoryfrom Comparative
Advantage
• LikeDavidRicardo’s theoryitalsoarguesthatfreetradeisbeneficial.
• Unlike absolute concept of comparative advantage, however,
Heckscher-Ohlin theory argues that the pattern of international
tradeisdeterminedbydifferencesinfactorendowments,rather than
differencesinproductivity.
34. The product Life Cycle Theory (1960s)…….
1.Introduction:
Innovation in response to observed need
Exporting by the innovative country
2.Growth:
Increase in exports by the innovating country - To address
increase in foreign demand (of similar nature)
Increased capital intensity -Rapid growth in sales encourages
standardization and development of process technology
Some foreign production (outsourcing)
35. The product Life Cycle Theory (1960s)……..
3.Maturity:
Decline in exports from the innovating country
More product standardization
More capital intensity
Production start-ups in emerging economies
4.Decline:
Concentration of production in emerging economies
Innovating country becoming net importer
• The PLC theory holds that the location of production to serve
world markets shifts as the production move through their life
cycle.
36. National Competitive Advantage Porter’s Diamond (Porter, 1990)
Porter (1990) tried to explain why a nation achieves
international success in a particular industry
Porter analyzed case studies of more than 100 firms and found
that the firm that succeeds in global markets first succeeded in
intense domestic competition.
Porter identified four attributes he calls the diamond that
promote or impede the creation of competitive advantage
Success occurs where these attributes exist.
More/greater the attribute, the higher chance of success
37
38. I. Factor Endowments
• A nation's position in factor endowments (factors of production) can
lead to competitive advantage
– These factors can be either
• basic (natural resources, climate, location) or
• advanced (skilled labor, infrastructure, technological know-how)
• Basic factors can provide an initial advantage that is then reinforced
and extended by investment in advanced factors.
II. Demand conditions - the nature of home demand for an
industry’s product or service influence the development of capabilities
• Sophisticated and demanding customers pressure firms to be more
competitive and to produce high quality, innovative products.
39
39. III. Related and Supporting Industries
• This is related to the presence of supplier industries and related
industries that are internationally competitive
– These industries provide cost-effective inputs, but they also
participate in the upgrading process, thus stimulating other
companies in the chain to innovate
– having world class manufacturers of meat processing
equipment can lead to a competitive meat industry.
40
40. IV. Firm Strategy, Structure, and Rivalry
• Long term corporate vision is a determinant of success
• Management ‘ideology’ and structure of the firm can either
help or hurt you
• nations are characterized by different management ideologies
which influence the ability of firms to build national
competitive advantage
• Presence of domestic rivalry improves a company’s
competitiveness
• There is a strong association between vigorous domestic rivalry
and the creation and persistence of competitive advantage in
an industry
41
