MYANMAR PEARLS SUSTAINABLE MARKET

6/26/2018 Pearl - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl 1/18
Pearl
Various pearls
General
Category Carbonate
mineral, protein
Formula
(repeating
unit)
Calcium
carbonate,
CaCO3
Conchiolin
Strunz
classification
05.AB
Crystal
system
Orthorhombic[1]
Identification
Color white, pink,
silver, cream,
brown, green,
blue, black,
yellow, orange,
gold, purple,
iridescent
Cleavage None[1]
Pearl
A pearl is a hard glistening object produced within the soft tissue
(specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such
as a conulariid. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is composed of
calcium carbonate (mainly aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and
calcite)[3] in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in
concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many
other shapes, known as baroque pearls, can occur. The finest quality natural
pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many
centuries. Because of this, pearl has become a metaphor for something rare,
fine, admirable and valuable.
The most valuable pearls occur spontaneously in the wild, but are extremely
rare. These wild pearls are referred to as natural pearls. Cultured or farmed
pearls from pearl oysters and freshwater mussels make up the majority of
those currently sold. Imitation pearls are also widely sold in inexpensive
jewelry, but the quality of their iridescence is usually very poor and is easily
distinguished from that of genuine pearls. Pearls have been harvested and
cultivated primarily for use in jewelry, but in the past were also used to
adorn clothing. They have also been crushed and used in cosmetics,
medicines and paint formulations.
Whether wild or cultured, gem-quality pearls are almost always nacreous
and iridescent, like the interior of the shell that produces them. However,
almost all species of shelled mollusks are capable of producing pearls
(technically "calcareous concretions") of lesser shine or less spherical shape.
Although these may also be legitimately referred to as "pearls" by
gemological labs and also under U.S. Federal Trade Commission rules,[4]
and are formed in the same way, most of them have no value except as
curiosities.
Etymology
Definition
Physical properties
Freshwater and saltwater pearls
Creation
Natural pearls
Contents

Fracture Uneven
Mohs scale
hardness
2.5–4.5[1]
Streak white
Specific
gravity
2.60–2.85[1]
Refractive
index Common
pearl: 1.52-
1.66
Black pearl:
1.53-1.69[1]
Birefringence 0.156
Pleochroism Absent
Dispersion None
Ultraviolet
fluorescence White
pearls: light
blue to light
yellow;
Yellow and
golden
pearls:
yellow-
green,
greenish
brown to
dark brown;
Black
pearls:
commonly
pink to
orange-
red[2]
Cultured pearls
Imitation pearls
Gemological identification
Value of a natural pearl
Origin of a natural pearl
Types of cultured pearls
From other species
History
Pearl hunting
British Isles
Pearl farming
Timeline of pearl production
Freshwater pearl farming
Momme weight
In jewelry
Gallery
Shapes
Lengths of pearl necklaces
Colors
Religious references
Hindu scriptures
Hebrew scriptures
New Testament scriptures
Islamic scriptures
Additional references
See also
References
External links
The English word pearl comes from the French perle, originally from the
Latin perna meaning leg, after the ham- or mutton leg-shaped bivalve.[5]
Etymology
Definition

All shelled mollusks can, by
natural processes, produce some
kind of "pearl" when an irritating
microscopic object becomes
trapped within its mantle folds,
but the great majority of these
"pearls" are not valued as
gemstones. Nacreous pearls, the
best-known and most
commercially significant, are
primarily produced by two groups
of molluskan bivalves or clams. A
nacreous pearl is made from
layers of nacre, by the same living
process as is used in the secretion of the mother of pearl which lines the shell.
Natural (or wild) pearls, formed without human intervention, are very rare. Many hundreds of pearl oysters or mussels
must be gathered and opened, and thus killed, to find even one wild pearl; for many centuries, this was the only way pearls
were obtained, and why pearls fetched such extraordinary prices in the past. Cultured pearls are formed in pearl farms,
using human intervention as well as natural processes.
One family of nacreous pearl bivalves – the pearl oyster – lives in the sea, while the other – a very different group of
bivalves – lives in freshwater; these are the river mussels such as the freshwater pearl mussel. Saltwater pearls can grow in
several species of marine pearl oysters in the family Pteriidae. Freshwater pearls grow within certain (but by no means all)
species of freshwater mussels in the order Unionida, the families Unionidae and Margaritiferidae.
The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection, refraction, and
diffraction of light from the translucent layers. The thinner and more
numerous the layers in the pearl, the finer the luster. The iridescence that
pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers, which breaks
up light falling on the surface. In addition, pearls (especially cultured
freshwater pearls) can be dyed yellow, green, blue, brown, pink, purple, or
black. The very best pearls have a metallic mirror-like luster.
Because pearls are made primarily of calcium carbonate, they can be dissolved
in vinegar. Calcium carbonate is susceptible to even a weak acid solution
because the crystals of calcium carbonate react with the acetic acid in the
vinegar to form calcium acetate and carbon dioxide.
Freshwater and saltwater pearls may sometimes look quite similar, but they come from different sources.
Freshwater pearls form in various species of freshwater mussels, family Unionidae, which live in lakes, rivers, ponds and
other bodies of fresh water. These freshwater pearl mussels occur not only in hotter climates, but also in colder more
temperate areas such as Scotland (where they are protected under law). Most freshwater cultured pearls sold today come
Georgian seed pearl gold ring
A black pearl and a shell of the
black-lipped pearl oyster. The
iridescent colors originate from
nacre layers.
Physical properties
Structure of nacre layers, wherein
aragonite plates are separated by
biopolymers, such as chitin, lustrin
and silk-like proteins
Freshwater and saltwater pearls

from China.
Saltwater pearls grow within pearl oysters, family Pteriidae, which live in
oceans. Saltwater pearl oysters are usually cultivated in protected lagoons or
volcanic atolls.
Pearls are formed inside the shell of certain mollusks as a defense mechanism
against a potentially threatening irritant such as a parasite inside the shell, or
an attack from outside that injures the mantle tissue. The mollusk creates a
pearl sac to seal off the irritation. Pearls are thus the result of an immune
response analogous in the human body to the capture of an antigen by a
phagocyte (phagocytosis).[6]
The mollusk's mantle (protective membrane) deposits layers of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the mineral aragonite or a mixture of
aragonite and calcite (polymorphs with the same chemical formula, but
different crystal structures) held together by an organic horn-like compound
called conchiolin. The combination of aragonite and conchiolin is called
nacre, which makes up mother-of-pearl. The commonly held belief that a
grain of sand acts as the irritant is in fact rarely the case. Typical stimuli
include organic material, parasites, or even damage that displaces mantle
tissue to another part of the mollusk's body. These small particles or
organisms gain entry when the shell valves are open for feeding or respiration.
In cultured pearls, the irritant is typically an introduced piece of the mantle
epithelium, with or without a spherical bead (beaded or beadless cultured
pearls).[7][8]
Natural pearls are nearly 100% calcium carbonate and conchiolin. It is
thought that natural pearls form under a set of accidental conditions when a
microscopic intruder or parasite enters a bivalve mollusk and settles inside the shell. The mollusk, irritated by the
intruder, forms a pearl sac of external mantle tissue cells and secretes the calcium carbonate and conchiolin to cover the
irritant. This secretion process is repeated many times, thus producing a pearl. Natural pearls come in many shapes, with
perfectly round ones being comparatively rare.
Typically, the build-up of a natural pearl consists of a brown central zone formed by columnar calcium carbonate (usually
calcite, sometimes columnar aragonite) and a yellowish to white outer zone consisting of nacre (tabular aragonite). In a
pearl cross-section such as the diagram, these two different materials can be seen. The presence of columnar calcium
carbonate rich in organic material indicates juvenile mantle tissue that formed during the early stage of pearl
development. Displaced living cells with a well-defined task may continue to perform their function in their new location,
often resulting in a cyst. Such displacement may occur via an injury. The fragile rim of the shell is exposed and is prone to
damage and injury. Crabs, other predators and parasites such as worm larvae may produce traumatic attacks and cause
injuries in which some external mantle tissue cells are disconnected from their layer. Embedded in the conjunctive tissue
of the mantle, these cells may survive and form a small pocket in which they continue to secrete calcium carbonate, their
natural product. The pocket is called a pearl sac, and grows with time by cell division. The juvenile mantle tissue cells,
Electron microscopy image of a
fractured surface of nacre
Creation
Diagram comparing a cross-section
of a cultured pearl, upper, with a
natural pearl, lower
Natural pearls

according to their stage of growth, secrete columnar calcium carbonate from pearl sac's inner surface. In time, the pearl
sac's external mantle cells proceed to the formation of tabular aragonite. When the transition to nacre secretion occurs,
the brown pebble becomes covered with a nacreous coating. During this process, the pearl sac seems to travel into the
shell; however, the sac actually stays in its original relative position the mantle tissue while the shell itself grows. After a
couple of years, a pearl forms and the shell may be found by a lucky pearl fisher.[9]
Cultured pearls are the response of the shell to a tissue implant. A tiny piece
of mantle tissue (called a graft) from a donor shell is transplanted into a
recipient shell, causing a pearl sac to form into which the tissue precipitates
calcium carbonate. There are a number of methods for producing cultured
pearls: using freshwater or seawater shells, transplanting the graft into the
mantle or into the gonad, and adding a spherical bead as a nucleus. Most
saltwater cultured pearls are grown with beads. Tradenames of cultured
pearls are Akoya, white or golden South sea, and black Tahitian. Most
beadless cultured pearls are mantle-grown in freshwater shells in China, and
are known as freshwater cultured pearls.
Cultured pearls can be distinguished from natural pearls by X-ray
examination.[10] Nucleated cultured pearls are often 'preformed' as they tend
to follow the shape of the implanted shell bead nucleus. After a bead is inserted into the oyster, it secretes a few layers of
nacre around the bead; the resulting cultured pearl can then be harvested in as few as six months.
When a cultured pearl with a bead nucleus is X-rayed, it reveals a different structure to that of a natural pearl (see
diagram). A beaded cultured pearl shows a solid center with no concentric growth rings, whereas a natural pearl shows a
series of concentric growth rings. A beadless cultured pearl (whether of freshwater or saltwater origin) may show growth
rings, but also a complex central cavity, witness of the first precipitation of the young pearl sac.[10]
Some imitation pearls (also called shell pearls) are simply made of mother-of-pearl, coral or conch shell, while others are
made from glass and are coated with a solution containing fish scales called essence d'Orient. Although imitation pearls
look the part, they do not have the same weight or smoothness as real pearls, and their luster will also dim greatly.
A well-equipped gem testing laboratory can distinguish natural pearls from cultured pearls by using gemological X-ray
equipment to examine the center of a pearl. With X-rays it is possible to see the growth rings of the pearl, where the layers
of calcium carbonate are separated by thin layers of conchiolin. The differentiation of natural pearls from non-beaded
cultured pearls can be very difficult without the use of this X-ray technique.
Natural and cultured pearls can be distinguished from imitation pearls using a microscope. Another method of testing for
imitations is to rub two pearls against each other. Imitation pearls are completely smooth, but natural and cultured pearls
are composed of nacre platelets, making both feel slightly gritty.
Cultured pearls
Nuclei from Toba Pearl Island,
Japan
Imitation pearls
Gemological identification
Value of a natural pearl

Fine quality natural pearls are very rare jewels. Their values are determined
similarly to those of other precious gems, according to size, shape, color,
quality of surface, orient and luster.
Single natural pearls are often sold as collectors' items, or set as centerpieces
in unique jewelry. Very few matched strands of natural pearls exist, and those
that do often sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. (In 1917, jeweler Pierre
Cartier purchased the Fifth Avenue mansion that is now the New York Cartier
store in exchange for a matched double strand of natural pearls Cartier had
been collecting for years; at the time, it was valued at US$1 million.)[11]
The introduction and advance of the cultured pearl hit the pearl industry
hard. Pearl dealers publicly disputed the authenticity of these new cultured
products, and left many consumers uneasy and confused about their much
lower prices. Essentially, the controversy damaged the images of both natural and cultured pearls. By the 1950s, when a
significant number of women in developed countries could afford their own cultured pearl necklace, natural pearls were
reduced to a small, exclusive niche in the pearl industry.
Previously, natural pearls were found in many parts of the world. Present day
natural pearling is confined mostly to seas off Bahrain. Australia also has one
of the world's last remaining fleets of pearl diving ships. Australian pearl
divers dive for south sea pearl oysters to be used in the cultured south sea
pearl industry. The catch of pearl oysters is similar to the numbers of oysters
taken during the natural pearl days. Hence significant numbers of natural
pearls are still found in the Australian Indian Ocean waters from wild oysters.
X-ray examination is required to positively verify natural pearls found today.
Keshi pearls, although they often occur by chance, are not considered natural.
They are a byproduct of the culturing process, and hence do not happen
without human intervention. They are quite small, typically only a few
millimeters. Keshi pearls are produced by many different types of marine
mollusks and freshwater mussels in China. Keshi pearls are actually a mistake
in the cultured pearl seeding process. In seeding the cultured pearl, a piece of
mantle muscle from a sacrificed oyster is placed with a bead of mother of
pearl within the oyster. If the piece of mantle should slip off the bead, a pearl
forms of baroque shape about the mantle piece which is entirely nacre. Therefore, a Keshi pearl could be considered
superior to cultured pearls with a mother of pearl bead center. In the cultured pearl industry, the resources used to create
a mistaken all nacre baroque pearl is a drain on the production of round cultured pearls. Therefore, they are trying to
improve culturing technique so that keshi pearls do not occur. All nacre pearls may one day be limited to natural found
pearls.[12][13][14] Today many "keshi" pearls are actually intentional, with post-harvest shells returned to the water to
regenerate a pearl in the existing pearl sac.
Pearl tiara of Empress Eugénie
(1853) featuring 212 natural pearls,
Louvre, Paris.
Origin of a natural pearl
Mary, Queen of Scots wearing a
rope of black pearls
Types of cultured pearls

Tahitian pearls, frequently referred to as black pearls,[15] are highly valued
because of their rarity; the culturing process for them dictates a smaller
volume output and they can never be mass-produced because, in common
with most sea pearls, the oyster can only be nucleated with one pearl at a time,
while freshwater mussels are capable of multiple pearl implants. Before the
days of cultured pearls, black pearls were rare and highly valued for the
simple reason that white pearl oysters rarely produced naturally black pearls,
and black pearl oysters rarely produced any natural pearls at all.
Since the development of pearl culture technology, the black pearl oysters
Pinctada margaritifera found in Tahiti and many other Pacific islands
including the Cook Islands and Fiji are being extensively used for producing
cultured pearls. The rarity of the black cultured pearl is now a "comparative"
issue. The black cultured pearl is rare when compared to Chinese freshwater
cultured pearls, and Japanese and Chinese akoya cultured pearls, and is more
valuable than these pearls. However, it is more abundant than the South Sea
pearl, which is more valuable than the black cultured pearl. This is simply because the black pearl oyster Pinctada
margaritifera is far more abundant than the elusive, rare, and larger south sea pearl oyster Pinctada maxima, which
cannot be found in lagoons, but which must be dived for in a rare number of deep ocean habitats or grown in hatcheries.
Black pearls are very rarely black: they are usually shades of green, purple, aubergine, blue, grey, silver or peacock (a mix
of several shades, like a peacock's feather).
Black cultured pearls from the black pearl oyster – Pinctada margaritifera – are not South Sea pearls, although they are
often mistakenly described as black South Sea pearls. In the absence of an official definition for the pearl from the black
oyster, these pearls are usually referred to as "black pearls".
The correct definition of a South Sea pearl – as described by CIBJO and GIA – is a pearl produced by the Pinctada
maxima[16] pearl oyster. South Sea pearls are the color of their host Pinctada maxima oyster – and can be white, silver,
pink, gold, cream, and any combination of these basic colors, including overtones of the various colors of the rainbow
displayed in the pearl nacre of the oyster shell itself.
South Sea pearls are the largest and rarest of the cultured pearls – making them the most valuable.[17][18] Prized for their
exquisitely beautiful 'orient' or lustre, South Sea pearls are now farmed in various parts of the world where the Pinctada
maxima oysters can be found, with the finest South Sea pearls being produced by Paspaley along the remote coastline of
North-Western Australia.[18][19] White and silver colored South Sea pearls tend to come from the Broome area of
Australia, while golden colored ones are more prevalent in the Philippines and Indonesia.
A farm in the Gulf of California, Mexico, is culturing pearls from the black lipped Pinctada mazatlanica oysters and the
rainbow lipped Pteria sterna oysters.[20] Also called Concha Nácar, the pearls from these rainbow lipped oysters fluoresce
red under ultraviolet light.
Biologically speaking, under the right set of circumstances, almost any shelled mollusk can produce some kind of pearl.
However, most of these molluskan pearls have no luster or iridescence. The great majority of mollusk species produce
pearls which are not attractive, and are sometimes not even very durable, such that they usually have no value at all,
except perhaps to a scientist or collector, or as a curiosity. These objects used to be referred to as "calcareous concretions"
by some gemologists, even though a malacologist would still consider them to be pearls. Valueless pearls of this type are
A blister pearl, a half-sphere,
formed flush against the shell of the
pearl oyster.
From other species

sometimes found in edible mussels, edible oysters, escargot snails, and so on.
The GIA and CIBJO now simply use the term 'pearl' (or, where appropriate,
the more descriptive term 'non-nacreous pearl') when referring to such
items[21][22] and, under Federal Trade Commission rules, various mollusk
pearls may be referred to as 'pearls', without qualification.[4]
A few species produce pearls that can be of interest as gemstones. These
species include the bailer shell Melo, the giant clam Tridacna, various scallop
species, Pen shells Pinna, and the Haliotis iris species of abalone. Pearls of
abalone, or pāua, are mabe pearls, or blister pearls, unique to New Zealand
waters and are commonly referred to as 'blue pearls'. They are admired for
their incredible luster and naturally bright vibrant colors that are often
compared to opal. Another example is the conch pearl (sometimes referred to
simply as the 'pink pearl'), which is found very rarely growing between the
mantle and the shell of the queen conch or pink conch, Strombus gigas, a
large sea snail or marine gastropod from the Caribbean Sea. These pearls,
which are often pink in color, are a by-product of the conch fishing industry,
and the best of them display a shimmering optical effect related to chatoyance
known as 'flame structure'.
Somewhat similar gastropod pearls, this time more orange in hue, are (again
very rarely) found in the horse conch Triplofusus papillosus.
The second largest pearl known was found in the Philippines in 1934 and is
known as the Pearl of Lao Tzu. It is a naturally occurring, non-nacreous,
calcareous concretion (pearl) from a giant clam. Because it did not grow in a
pearl oyster it is not pearly; instead the surface is glossy like porcelain. Other
pearls from giant clams are known to exist, but this is a particularly large one
weighing 14 lb (6.4 kg).
The largest known pearl (also from a giant clam) was found in the Philippines
as well by a fisherman from Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island. The enormous pearl is 30 cm wide (1 ft), 67 cm long (2.2 ft)
and weighs 75 lb (34 kg).[23]
The ancient chronicle Mahavamsa mentions the thriving pearl industry in the port of Oruwella in the Gulf of Mannar in
Sri Lanka. It also records that eight varieties of pearls accompanied Prince Vijaya's embassy to the Pandyan king as well as
king Devanampiya Tissa's embassy to Emperor Ashoka.[24][25] Pliny the Elder (23–79AD) praised the pearl fishery of the
Gulf as most productive in the world.[26][27][28]
For thousands of years, seawater pearls were retrieved by divers in the Indian Ocean in areas such as the Persian Gulf, the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Mannar.[29][30][31] Evidence also suggest a prehistoric origin to pearl diving in these
regions.[30][31] Starting in the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), the Chinese hunted extensively for seawater pearls in the
South China Sea. In the 14th-century Arabian Sea, the traveller Ibn Battuta provided the earliest known description of
pearl diving by means of attaching a cord to the diver's waist.
A shell of the Indian volute, Melo
melo, surrounded by a number of
pearls from this species
Conch pearl pendant
History
Pearl hunting

When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Western Hemisphere, they
discovered that around the islands of Cubagua and Margarita, some 200 km
north of the Venezuelan coast, was an extensive pearl bed (a bed of pearl
oysters). One discovered and named pearl, La Peregrina pearl, was offered to
the Spanish queen. According to Garcilasso de la Vega, who says that he saw
La Peregrina at Seville in 1607,[32] this was found at Panama in 1560 by a
slave worker who was rewarded with his liberty, and his owner with the office
of alcalde of Panama.
Margarita pearls are extremely difficult to find today and are known for their
unique yellowish color. The most famous Margarita necklace that anyone can
see today is the one that then Venezuelan President Romulo Betancourt gave
to Jacqueline Kennedy when she and her husband, President John F.
Kennedy paid an official visit to Venezuela.
Before the beginning of the 20th century, pearl hunting was the most
common way of harvesting pearls. Divers manually pulled oysters from ocean
floors and river bottoms and checked them individually for pearls. Not all
mussels and oysters produce pearls. In a haul of three tons, only three or four
oysters will produce perfect pearls.
Pearls were one of the attractions which drew Julius Caesar to Britain.[33]
They are, for the most part, freshwater pearls from mussels. Pearling was
banned in the U.K. in 1998 due to the endangered status of river mussels.[34]
Discovery and publicity about the sale for a substantial sum of the Abernethy
pearl in the River Tay had resulted in heavy exploitation of mussel colonies
during the 1970s and 80s by weekend warriors.[35] When it was permitted it
was carried on mainly by Scottish Travellers[36] who found pearls varied from
river to river with the River Oykel in the Highlands being noted for the finest
rose-pink pearls.[37] There are two firms in Scotland that are licensed to sell
pre-1998 freshwater pearls.[38]
Today, the cultured pearls on the market can be divided into two categories.
The first category covers the beaded cultured pearls, including Akoya, South
Sea and Tahiti. These pearls are gonad grown, and usually one pearl is grown
at a time. This limits the number of pearls at a harvest period. The pearls are usually harvested after one year for akoya, 2–
4 years for Tahitian and South Sea, and 2–7 years for freshwater. This perliculture process was first developed by the
British biologist William Saville-Kent who passed the information along to Tatsuhei Mise and Tokichi Nishikawa from
Japan. The second category includes the non-beaded freshwater cultured pearls, like the Biwa or Chinese pearls. As they
grow in the mantle, where on each wing up to 25 grafts can be implanted, these pearls are much more frequent and
saturate the market completely. An impressive improvement in quality has taken place in the last ten years when the
former rice-grain-shaped pebbles are compared with the near round pearls of today. In the last two years large near
perfect round bead nucleated pearls up to 15mm in diameter have been produced with metallic luster.
A 14th-century piece of clothing
used by Kuwaiti divers searching for
pearls in the Persian Gulf
Catching of pearls, Bern Physiologus
(9th century)
British Isles
Pearl farming

The nucleus bead in a beaded cultured pearl is generally a polished sphere
made from freshwater mussel shell. Along with a small piece of mantle tissue
from another mollusk (donor shell) to serve as a catalyst for the pearl sac, it is
surgically implanted into the gonad (reproductive organ) of a saltwater
mollusk. In freshwater perliculture, only the piece of tissue is used in most
cases, and is inserted into the fleshy mantle of the host mussel. South Sea and
Tahitian pearl oysters, also known as Pinctada maxima and Pinctada
margaritifera, which survive the subsequent surgery to remove the finished
pearl, are often implanted with a new, larger beads as part of the same
procedure and then returned to the water for another 2–3 years of growth.
Despite the common misperception, Mikimoto did not discover the process of
pearl culture. The accepted process of pearl culture was developed by the
British Biologist William Saville-Kent in Australia and brought to Japan by Tokichi Nishikawa and Tatsuhei Mise.
Nishikawa was granted the patent in 1916, and married the daughter of Mikimoto. Mikimoto was able to use Nishikawa's
technology. After the patent was granted in 1916, the technology was immediately commercially applied to akoya pearl
oysters in Japan in 1916. Mise's brother was the first to produce a commercial crop of pearls in the akoya oyster.
Mitsubishi's Baron Iwasaki immediately applied the technology to the south sea pearl oyster in 1917 in the Philippines,
and later in Buton, and Palau. Mitsubishi was the first to produce a cultured south sea pearl – although it was not until
1928 that the first small commercial crop of pearls was successfully produced.
The original Japanese cultured pearls, known as akoya pearls, are produced by a species of small pearl oyster, Pinctada
fucata martensii, which is no bigger than 6 to 8 cm (2.4 to 3.1 in) in size, hence akoya pearls larger than 10 mm in
diameter are extremely rare and highly priced. Today, a hybrid mollusk is used in both Japan and China in the production
of akoya pearls.
Cultured Pearls were sold in cans for the export market. These were packed in Japan by the I.C.P. Canning Factory
(International Pearl Company L.T.D.) in Nagasaki Pref. Japan.
Mitsubishi commenced pearl culture with the South Sea pearl oyster in 1916, as soon as the technology patent was
commercialized. By 1931 this project was showing signs of success, but was upset by the death of Tatsuhei Mise. Although
the project was recommenced after Tatsuhei's death, the project was discontinued at the beginning of WWII before
significant productions of pearls were achieved.
After WWII, new south sea pearl projects were commenced in the early 1950s at Kuri Bay and Port Essington in Australia,
and Burma. Japanese companies were involved in all projects using technicians from the original Mitsubishi South Sea
pre-war projects. Kuri Bay is now the location of one of the largest and most well-known pearl farms owned by Paspaley,
the biggest producer of South Sea pearls in the world.[39]
In 2010, China overtook Japan in akoya pearl production.[40] Japan has all but ceased its production of akoya pearls
smaller than 8 mm.[40] Japan maintains its status as a pearl processing center, however, and imports the majority of
Chinese akoya pearl production. These pearls are then processed (often simply matched and sorted), relabeled as product
of Japan, and exported.[41]
In the past two decades, cultured pearls have been produced using larger oysters in the south Pacific and Indian Ocean.
The largest pearl oyster is the Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. South Sea pearls are
characterized by their large size and warm luster. Sizes up to 14 mm in diameter are not uncommon. In 2013, Indonesia
A pearl being extracted from an
akoya pearl oyster.
Timeline of pearl production

Pearl[42] supplied 43 percent of South Sea Pearls international market.[43] The other significant producers are Australia,
Philippines, Myanmar and Malaysia.[44]
In 1914, pearl farmers began growing cultured freshwater pearls using the pearl mussels native to Lake Biwa. This lake,
the largest and most ancient in Japan, lies near the city of Kyoto. The extensive and successful use of the Biwa Pearl
Mussel is reflected in the name Biwa pearls, a phrase which was at one time nearly synonymous with freshwater pearls in
general. Since the time of peak production in 1971, when Biwa pearl farmers produced six tons of cultured pearls, pollution
has caused the virtual extinction of the industry. Japanese pearl farmers recently cultured a hybrid pearl mussel – a cross
between Biwa Pearl Mussels and a closely related species from China, Hyriopsis cumingi, in Lake Kasumigaura. This
industry has also nearly ceased production, due to pollution.
Japanese pearl producers also invested in producing cultured pearls with freshwater mussels in the region of Shanghai,
China. China has since become the world's largest producer of freshwater pearls, producing more than 1,500 metric tons
per year (in addition to metric measurements, Japanese units of measurement such as the kan and momme are sometimes
encountered in the pearl industry).
Led by pearl pioneer John Latendresse and his wife Chessy, the United States began farming cultured freshwater pearls in
the mid-1960s. National Geographic magazine introduced the American cultured pearl as a commercial product in their
August 1985 issue. The Tennessee pearl farm has emerged as a tourist destination in recent years, but commercial
production of freshwater pearls has ceased.
For many cultured pearl dealers and wholesalers, the preferred weight measure used for loose pearls and pearl strands is
the momme. Momme is a weight measure used by the Japanese for centuries. Today, momme weight is still the standard
unit of measure used by most pearl dealers to communicate with pearl producers and wholesalers. One momme
corresponds to 1/1000 kan. Reluctant to give up tradition, the Japanese government formalized the kan measure in 1891
as being exactly 3.75 kilograms or 8.28 pounds. Hence, 1 momme = 3.75 grams or 3750 milligrams.
In the United States, during the 19th and 20th centuries, through trade with Japan in silk cloth the momme became a unit
indicating the quality of silk cloth.
Though millimeter size range is typically the first factor in determining a cultured pearl necklace's value, the momme
weight of pearl necklace will allow the buyer to quickly determine if the necklace is properly proportioned. This is
especially true when comparing the larger south sea and Tahitian pearl necklaces.
The value of the pearls in jewelry is determined by a combination of the luster, color, size, lack of surface flaw and
symmetry that are appropriate for the type of pearl under consideration. Among those attributes, luster is the most
important differentiator of pearl quality according to jewelers.
All factors being equal, however, the larger the pearl the more valuable it is. Large, perfectly round pearls are rare and
highly valued. Teardrop-shaped pearls are often used in pendants.
Freshwater pearl farming
Momme weight
In jewelry
Gallery

A necklace of white
pearls
George Villiers, 1st Duke
of Buckingham wearing
white pearls
Queen of Italy,
Margherita of Savoy,
owned one of the most
famous collections of
natural pearls. She is
wearing a multi-strand
choker and a rope of
pearls
Pearl bracelet from the
1840s
Pearl earrings
Pearls come in eight basic shapes: round, semi-round, button, drop, pear, oval, baroque, circled and double bouldered.
Perfectly round pearls are the rarest and most valuable shape. Semi-rounds are also used in necklaces or in pieces where
the shape of the pearl can be disguised to look like it is a perfectly round pearl. Button pearls are like a slightly flattened
round pearl and can also make a necklace, but are more often used in single pendants or earrings where the back half of
the pearl is covered, making it look like a larger, rounder pearl.
Drop and pear shaped pearls are sometimes referred to as teardrop pearls and are most often seen in earrings, pendants,
or as a center pearl in a necklace. Baroque pearls have a different appeal; they are often highly irregular with unique and
interesting shapes. They are also commonly seen in necklaces. Circled pearls are characterized by concentric ridges, or
rings, around the body of the pearl.
In general, cultured pearls are less valuable than natural pearls, whereas imitation pearls have almost no value. One way
that jewelers can determine whether a pearl is cultured or natural is to have a gemlab perform an X-ray examination of the
pearl. If X-rays reveals a nucleus, the pearl is likely a bead-nucleated saltwater pearl. If no nucleus is present, but irregular
and small dark inner spots indicating a cavity are visible, combined with concentric rings of organic substance, the pearl is
Shapes

likely a cultured freshwater. Cultured freshwater pearls can often be confused for natural pearls which present as
homogeneous pictures which continuously darken toward the surface of the pearl. Natural pearls will often show larger
cavities where organic matter has dried out and decomposed.
There is a special vocabulary used to describe the length of pearl necklaces. While most other necklaces are simply
referred to by their physical measurement, pearl necklaces are named by how low they hang when worn around the neck.
A collar, measuring 10 to 13 inches or 25 to 33 cm in length, sits directly against the throat and does not hang down the
neck at all; collars are often made up of multiple strands of pearls. Pearl chokers, measuring 14 to 16 inches or 35 to 41 cm
in length, nestle just at the base of the neck. A strand called a princess length, measuring 17 to 19 inches or 43 to 48 cm in
length, comes down to or just below the collarbone. A matinee length, measuring 20 to 24 inches or 50 to 60 cm in length,
falls just above the breasts. An opera length, measuring 28 to 35 inches or 70 to 90 cm in length, will be long enough to
reach the breastbone or sternum of the wearer; and longer still, a pearl rope, measuring more than 45 inches or 115 cm in
length, is any length that falls down farther than an opera.
Necklaces can also be classified as uniform, or graduated. In a uniform strand of pearls, all pearls are classified as the
same size, but actually fall in a range. A uniform strand of akoya pearls, for example, will measure within 0.5 mm. So a
strand will never be 7 mm, but will be 6.5–7 mm. Freshwater pearls, Tahitian pearls, and South Sea pearls all measure to a
full millimeter when considered uniform.
A graduated strand of pearls most often has at least 3 mm of differentiation from the ends to the center of the necklace.
Popularized in the United States during the 1950s by the GIs bringing strands of cultured akoya pearls home from Japan,
a 3.5 momme, 3 mm to 7 mm graduated strand was much more affordable than a uniform strand because most of the
pearls were small.
Earrings and necklaces can also be classified on the grade of the color of the pearl: saltwater and freshwater pearls come in
many different colors. While white, and more recently black, saltwater pearls are by far the most popular, other color tints
can be found on pearls from the oceans. Pink, blue, champagne, green, black and even purple saltwater pearls can be
encountered, but to collect enough of these rare colors to form a complete string of the same size and same shade can take
years.
The Hindu tradition describes the sacred Nine Pearls which were first documented in the Garuda Purana, one of the books
of the Hindu mythology. Ayurveda contains references to pearl powder as a stimulant of digestion and to treat mental
ailments. According to Marco Polo, the kings of Malabar wore a necklace of 104 rubies and pearls which was given from
one generation of kings to the next. The reason was that every king had to say 104 prayers every morning and every
evening.[45] At least until the beginning of the 20th century it was a Hindu custom to present a completely new, undrilled
pearl and pierce it during the wedding ceremony.[46]
The Pearl, which can be transliterated to "Moti", a type of "Mani" from Sanskrit, is also associated with many Hindu
deities, the most famous being the Kaustubha that Lord Vishnu wears on his chest.
Lengths of pearl necklaces
Colors
Religious references
Hindu scriptures

According to Rebbenu Bachya, the word Yahalom in the verse Exodus 28:18 means "pearl" and was the stone on the
Hoshen representing the tribe of Zebulun. This is generally disputed among scholars, particularly since the word in
question in most manuscripts is actually Yasepheh – the word from which jasper derives; scholars think that refers to
green jasper (the rarest and most prized form in early times) rather than red jasper (the most common form). Yahalom is
usually translated by the Septuagint as an "onyx", but sometimes as "beryl" or as "jasper"; onyx only started being mined
after the Septuagint was written, so the Septuagint's term "onyx" probably does not mean onyx – onyx is originally an
Assyrian word meaning ring, and so could refer to anything used for making rings. Yahalom is similar to a Hebrew word
meaning hit hard, so some people think that it means diamond. The variation in possibilities of meaning for this sixth
stone in the Hoshen is reflected in different translations of the Bible – the King James Version translates the sixth stone as
diamond, the New International Version translates it as emerald, and the Vulgate translates it as jaspis – meaning jasper.
There is a wide range of views among traditional sources about which tribe the stone refers to.
In a Christian New Testament parable (Matthew 13:45–46), Jesus compared the
Kingdom of Heaven to a "pearl of great price". "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like
unto a merchant man, seeking goodly (fine) pearls: Who, when he had found one pearl
of great price, went and sold all that he had, and bought it."
The twelve gates of the New Jerusalem are reportedly each made of a single pearl in
Revelation 21:21, that is, the Pearly Gates. "And the twelve gates were twelve pearls;
every gate was of one pearl: and the streets of the city were pure gold, as if transparent
glass."
Holy things are compared to pearls in Matthew 7:6: "Do not give dogs what is holy,
and do not throw your pearls before pigs, lest they trample them underfoot and turn to
attack you."
Pearls are also found in numerous references showing the wickedness and pride of a
people, as in Revelation 18:16. "And saying, Alas, alas, that great city, that was clothed
in fine linen, in purple and scarlet, and decked with gold, and precious stones, and
pearls!"
The Qur'an often mentions that dwellers of paradise will be adorned with pearls:
22:23 God will admit those who believe and work righteous deeds, to Gardens beneath which rivers flow: they shall be
adorned therein with bracelets of gold and pearls; and their garments there will be of silk.
35:33 Gardens of Eternity will they enter: therein will they be adorned with bracelets of gold and pearls; and their
garments there will be of silk.
52:24 Round about them will serve, [devoted] to them, youths [handsome] as pearls well-guarded.
Hebrew scriptures
New Testament scriptures
Religious pendant showing
Christ blessing, framed with
rubies and pearls, from the
Byzantine empire, 12th or
13th century
Islamic scriptures
Additional references

The metaphor of a pearl appears in the longer Hymn of the Pearl, a poem respected for its high literary quality, and use of
layered theological metaphor, found within one of the texts of Gnosticism.
The Pearl of Great Price is a book of scripture in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and some
other Latter Day Saint denominations.
Amber
Ammolite – another organic gemstone formed primarily of fossil aragonite mollusk shells
Bahrain Pearling Trail, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Muharraq, Bahrain
Broome, Western Australia, a pearling town
Cave pearl
La Pelegrina pearl
Les pêcheurs de perles, The Pearl Fishers, an opera by Georges Bizet
Mary Tudor pearl
Oriental Pride
Pearl Maxima, one of the largest nacreous pearls ever found
Pearl of Lao Tzu
Pearl of Puerto, largest pearl in the world
Pearl powder, used in Traditional Chinese Medicine
Precious coral
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2. Lazzarelli, Herve Nicolas (2010). Blue Chart Gem Identification (http://www.gembluechart.com). p. 8. Archived (http
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43518/https://www.gemdat.org/gem-42674.html) from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2017.
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7. Neil H. Landman, et al. (2001) Pearls: A Natural History, Harry Abrams, Inc., ISBN 0-8109-4495-2
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See also
References

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most valuable." Finlay, Victoria. Jewels: A Secret History (Kindle Location 1341). Random House Publishing Group.
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External links

6/26/2018 Natural Pearl from Burma
http://www.karipearls.com/natural-pearl-from-burma.html 1/5
Natural Pearl from Burma
by Kate
Natural Pearl from Burma (more photos below)
Hello everyone,
I'm not good in English. I use Google translation help. This is the Story.
14-15 years ago, a male Burmese traveled from Burma, to visit my father
at our home. He brought "Natural Pearl" to trade with. My father saw it
much less interesting. But my mother loves it. My mother decided to buy
them. And Burmese sold them to my mother, the price is not expensive.
At that time, my family did not know the true value of them. Because we
had no knowledge at first, many of them I have sold to others at the price
not too expensive.
4-5 years ago, my family just knows the true value of them. My mother
and I decided to break it, just one. It is not pretty as other pieces. We saw
the layers of nacre, its similar onion cleaves. So we are sure it is genuine,
Natural Pearl.
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Now I sent you these images. I scale the size of them. They are larger
than 5 mm, size range 6 to 9 mm, or more. They are the Natural Pearl
from Burma. Look at it. You can see the shiny, overtones of the various
colors of the rainbow. Some pieces, you’ll see the rainbow on the pearl.
Thank you.
Sincerely,
Dara
-----------------
PS. - This is my Cousin’s letter.
*Kate
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Comments for Natural Pearl from Burma
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Apr 04, 2017
Rating
Hi Burma Pearls
by: Amit Srivastava
I am interested in buying the pearl if they are
absolutely natural.kindly get in touch with me.
Apr 01, 2009
Rating
GIA certificates
by: Kari
Hello Dara,
Thanks for sharing your gorgeous pearl photo
and story with us. It's always a treat to get such
nice things at good prices as you said they were
not expensive when purchased.
I also think that getting GIA certificates for
these is a good idea. Having them certified will
help you get a price worthy of them and also
give confidence to potential buyers.
Ship What You Love
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Here is a link to the GIA website to get you
started if you decide to get them certified.
www.gia.edu/
If you want to add more photos to this page you
can email them to me at
karipearls(at)gmail(dot)com and I can easily
add them for you.
Thanks again.
Click here to add your own comments
Join in and write your own page! It's easy to do. How? Simply click
here to return to Finding a Pearl.

SPC Pearl Oyster Information Bulletin #12 – December 1998
3
Introduction
Myanmar cultured South Sea pearls (SSP) have
been put on sale at successive emporiums held in
Yangon, Myanmar, and they were praised as
among the worldÕs finest. Three decades after
starting pearl cultivation, it is sad to hear different
views expressed on Myanmar pearlingÑÔBurma
(Myanmar): pearling hits rock bottomÕ,ÑÔBurma
(Myanmar) is almost zero factor in South Sea
pearlsÕ. Has Myanmar pearling really hit rock bot-
tom? It is an interesting question.
Myanmar has valuable mother-of-pearl shells,
ideal places for pearl cultivation, strong and spe-
cial technology developed by Myanmar for its
pearl oyster, prestigious gem emporiums and
sound economic reform. Nowadays, pearl cultiva-
tion in Myanmar is conducted by not only the
state-run enterprise but also joint ventures
between foreign and local companies. If Myanmar
pearling has hit rock bottom now, it will float
again and will prove to be a strong swimmer in the
course of time.
Pearl culture in Myanmar
Pearl culture in Myanmar commenced in 1954 after
the establishment of a private JapaneseÐMyanmar
joint-venture farm. The joint-venture farm, Burma
Pearl Fishing and Culture Syndicate, started pearl
cultivation at Domel Island. Then, about two years
later, they moved from Domel to Sir J. Malcolm
Island (later, it was named Pearl Island) which has
more favourable conditions for pearl culture.
These two islands in the Myeik (Mergui) archipel-
ago which is located in Taninthayi (Tenasserim)
Division, off the coast of southern Myanmar, about
400 miles (644 kilometres) away from Yangon
(Rangoon). Divers equipped with the most modern
diving gear of that time collected pearl oysters,
and joint-venture could successfully cultivate
Myanmar pearls. Seeding technicians were, of
course, Japanese. Since they were operating a
socialist economy system, the Revolutionary
Government nationalised the joint-venture farm on
16 August 1963.
After nationalisation, the Syndicate, PeopleÕs Pearl
and Fishery Board tried to produce pearls using
Myanmar citizens. It became the PeopleÕs Pearl
and Fishery Corporation under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests and later, under the
Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries. Pearl cultiva-
tion was undertaken by the pearl culture branch of
the corporation. At that time, the pearl culture
branch was temporarily attached to the Salt
Industry, and it was finally transformed into a sep-
arate enterprise in 1989, Myanmar Pearl Enterprise
(MPE), under the Ministry of Mines.
In 1988, Myanmar reformed its socialist economy
to become a market-oriented economy, and a total
of three joint-venture companies, both local and
foreign, are now undertaking Myanmar white
South Sea Pearls production. Pearl Island became
the main station, as pearl cultivation has been
expanding to some other islands of Myeik
(Mergui) archipelago, conducted by state-run and
joint-venture pearl companies.
RESEARCH NOTES
AND REPORTS
RESEARCH NOTES
AND REPORTS
Myanmar pearling: past, present and future
by Tint Tun1
1. No. 69, Room 3, Sanchaung Street, Sanchaung, Yangon, Myanmar

4
Current cash budgets of the Myanmar Pearl
Enterprise (MPE) are described in the table below.
Gold-lipped pearl oysters, Pinctada maxima , have
been used as mother shells in pearl production and
were collected from the seabed by divers in heavy,
massive helmeted diving suits. Small diving boats
equipped with much the lighter hookah diving
gear are now used in pearl oyster collection by a
joint venture.
Hatchery trials on Pinctada maxima have been con-
ducted since 1987, but satisfactory results have not
yet been obtained to get the desired size and quan-
tity for seeding. Experimental freshwater pearl cul-
ture was started in about 1978 at the Kandawgyi
(Royal Lake) in Yangon by the PeopleÕs Pearl and
Fishery Corporation, but later it was terminated as
it could only produce small seed pearl (keshi).
Joint ventures
The significant fact is that the PeopleÕs Pearl and
Fishery Corporation or Myanmar Pearl Enterprise
(MPE) was the one and only pearl producer in
Myanmar since 1963. Foreign interest and invest-
ments have been flowing into various sectors of
the Myanmar economy since Myanmar reformed
its system to become a market-oriented economy.
Both local and overseas (Japanese, Australian,
Tahitian, Thai) companies have made enquiries to
invest in Myanmar for South Sea pearl cultivation.
With the covetous glances from investors, the pearl
culture section is also expanding by forming joint
ventures between MPE and both local and over-
seas companies.
Nowadays a total of four companies, the state-run
MPE and three joint ventures, are undertaking
Myanmar cultured pearl production. MPE is the
main partner in all those three joint ventures: two
foreign and one local.
The first venture was established in August 1993,
with Niino International Corporation of Japan
forming the MyanmarÐNiino Joint Venture
Company Limited. In January 1994, the second
joint venture was formed between Ocean Pearl
Company Ltd of Myanmar and MPE. The latest
partner is a giant Japanese pearl company, Tasaki
Shinju, with which they formed a joint venture in
March 1997.
Except at Tasaki, seeding is done by Myanmar
technicians at all companies. At first, the
MyanmarÐNiino joint venture used a Japanese
technician, but later Myanmar technicians for MPE
have been seeding there on loan.
A proposal to form a joint venture between MPE
and an Australian company, Atlantis, was submit-
ted to the Ministry and Commission concerned.
This latest joint venture is waiting to take part in
Myanmar cultured-pearl production.
The Andaman Club, which runs a big resort hotel
at Thahtay Island in the southern Myeik (Megui)
archipelago, has also prepared a proposal for a
permit to cultivate pearls at a nearby island using
Myanmar technicians. Overseas interests are wit-
nessing steady improvement in the pearl culture
sector, with reforms initiated in accord with the
new economic policy.
Technology
When the Japanese started a joint venture in 1954
with Myanmar, it was agreed on both sides that,
under what had been called the ÔDiamond PolicyÕ,
the entire know-how of pearl cultivation was not
to be given to Myanmar. Seeding was done by
Japanese only, and they concealed their seeding
technology very carefully. Even windows were
curtained off. However, after nationalisation, the
Japanese asked to be allowed to take away the cul-
Year Receipts Expenditures
(Kyat millions) (Kyat millions)
1989Ð90 10.2 13.2 Ð 3.0
1990Ð91 30.9 27.3 + 3.6
1991Ð92 21.5 16.0 + 5.5
1992Ð93 5.5 17.8 Ð 12.3
1993Ð94 9.2 21.2 Ð 12.0
1994Ð95 15.5 29.7 Ð 14.2
Surplus (+)
or deficit (-)
1 US$ = 6 kyats (approx.)
Cash budgets of the Myanmar Pearl Enterprise (MPE)

5
tured pearls, and lieutenant Commander Maung
Aye of the Burma Navy was allowed to be with
the Japanese when the oysters were opened for
pearls. Seaman Hla Win of the Burma Navy was
also present there and, for the first time, Myanmar
citizens had a chance to see how Japanese harvest
cultured pearls.
The Union of Myanmar takes pride in having
developed seeding techniques and successful pearl
cultivation conducted exclusively by Myanmar cit-
izens. It should also be recognised that the whole
process of pearl cultivation could be undertaken
successfully by Myanmar citizens. For decades, it
was probably the only country that could produce
pearls without assistance from any foreigners.
Myanmar seeding techniques were developed by
university teachers in biology. After nationalisa-
tion, four teaching staff, U (=Mr) Hia Aung, U
Myint Tun, U Htia Aung and U Khin Nyunt from
the Rangoon (Yangon) University were transferred
voluntarily to Pearl Island to produce pearls suc-
cessfully. They were the first Myanmar technicians
in the history of Myanmar pearl cultivation.
It would seem ridiculous to use a sauce in seeding,
but it was tried then. Since the Japanese had not
disclosed seeding techniques, the Myanmar techni-
cians made every effort to succeed in seeding.
They found some left-over Japanese sauce bottles
in the operating (seeding) theatre, but they did not
understand the Japanese language. So they
thought those bottles were chemical bottles, and
that the Japanese may have used them in the seed-
ing operation. They worked out how to use them,
and they tried. Then they realised what kind of
bottles they were: sauce bottles!
The Myanmar seeding technique is indigenous and
can assure the quality of pearls but it is not quanti-
tative. Therefore, it can be called metaphorically,
the ÔRolls RoyceÕ technique. The Myanmar tech-
nique is applied at MPE, Myanmar ÐNiino and
Ocean Pearl, but Tasaki Shinju still uses its own
technicians in both hatchery and seeding carried
out in Myanmar.
Production
The British showed interest in exploiting Myanmar
pearls and pearl oysters after the first
BritishÐMyanmar war in 1824. Reference to this
can be found in correspondence in the office of the
Commissioner for the Provinces of Tavoy and
Mergui (Myeik) in the 1820s. Pearl oysters were
not fished under any organised system and
pearling grounds were not particularly known till
the late 1800s, but oysters containing the pearls
were obtained at low water during the spring
tides. Mergui and Mergui archipelago became
prominent in 1890 as they produced, mostly due to
adventurous Australians, consistent quantities of
pearls and mother-of-pearl shell. Before 1912,
about 1400 viss (2286 kg) of pearl oysters were
fished in a diving season between September to
April. There was the chance of finding pearls of
priceÑsome worth several thousand dollars had
been discovered.
No statistics on pearls and MOP shell production
by Burma Pearl Fishing and Culture Syndicate are
available. However, it was found that the
Syndicate collected 29 347 pearl oysters in the
1957Ð58 fiscal year; 34 124 in 1958Ð59; 29 231 in
1959Ð60; 43 495 in 1960Ð61; and 35 340 in 1961Ð62
from Myanmar waters.
A peculiar mass mortality of pearl oysters has been
observed in some stations since it broke out in 1983
and, consequently, it has undoubtedly affected
both the quality and quantity of Myanmar cul-
tured pearls. MyanmarÕs production of mother-of-
pearl oyster shells (MOP) and cultured pearls are
shown in Figures 1 and 2 (see next page).
World production of South Sea pearls in 1995 was
estimated at 2025 kg (540 Kan). 1995 production of
South Sea pearls by the strong producers,
Australia and Indonesia, was estimated at 1125 kg
(300 Kan) and 562.5 kg (150 Kan) respectively.
MyanmarÕs production of pearl in 1995/96 was
3.446 Kan. 1983Ð84 was the most productive year
for the Myanmar pearl culture industry with 17.84
Kan produced.
Myanma Gems Emporium
During the era of British colonisation, pearls were
put on sale at some jewellersÕ show rooms in
Yangon (Rangoon), such as Combes Co. Before the
introduction of the gems emporium to the world in
Yangon (Rangoon) in 1964, Myanmar gems, jade
and pearls entered the international market
through various channels and their Myanmar
identity became lost, hidden or neglected.
As in other parts of the pearl world, the Japanese
partners practised ÔDiamond PolicyÕ and Myanmar
pearls cultured by the joint venture, Burma Pearl
Fishing and Culture Syndicate, were introduced
deliberately to the market as South Sea Pearls.
The first Myanma (Burma) Gems, Jade and Pearl
Emporium was held in 1964, with the aim of prop-
erly channelling the previously loose trade and
putting Myanmar and Myanmar gems, jade and
pearl squarely on the map of the world gems trade.
The emporia were held once a year until 1991 but
since 1992, they have been held twice a year as the

6
able to extend gems trade at the
emporium hall in addition to
holding two emporia each year.
Mr Salvador J. AssaelÕs comments
on the first Myanmar Gems
Emporium reflected very well the
quality of Myanmar pearls at their
first appearance in the internation-
al market identified by their coun-
try of origin (in 1963). He recalled,
ÔThe goods were extraordinary in
quality. They were, without a
doubt, the finest goods that had
ever been produced anywhere in
the world, and even today, the
finest of Australian or Indonesian
goods cannot compare with what
was shown in 1963.Õ
A comment on the quality of the
Myanmar pearls was also made by
a very regular Swiss customer of
the Emporia, Mr B. Zaleman of
Samourai S.A., Switzerland. He
told journalists in an interview at
an emporium in 1990, Ô. . . You
have got the most attractive and
beautiful pearls. You are the best
in the world. In fact, everything
you have got is the best. The best
jade, the best ruby, the best sap-
phire, the best pearls, . . . Your
quality is the best. Very often peo-
ple show me the Australian pearls
and Myanmar pearls and ask me
ÒDo you see any difference?Ó I say
yes, a little. I want to tell you this.
The Australian pearl is like a beau-
tiful lady but she is sad. The
Myanmar pearl is like a beautiful
lady with a smiling face.Õ
Sales of pearls at the Thirtieth
Emporium held in February 1993,
showed a sharp decline. Other
comments highlighted the mar-
keting of pearls at the Emporium.
They said, Ô. . . Pearl lots were of
mixed quality and we couldnÕt
find what we wanted. Floor
prices fixed were high . . . Low
quality pearls were mixed in lots
with good quality pearls and it was very difficult
for us to make our selections. . . It will be difficult
for us to come again if sales are going to be in
mixed lots of different qualities.Õ
The 23rd Emporium was designated as Pearl
Special Year but the biggest amount of earnings
Figure 1: MyanmarÕs production of MOP shells
Figure 2: MyanmarÕs production of cultured South Sea Pearls
Figure 3: Sale proceeds from Myanma Gems Emporia and Pearls
annual and mid-year emporia. The emporia made
Myanmar pearls well-known in the world. The
newly built, three-storey Myanma Gems
Emporium Hall was commissioned in September
1993. The aims for construction of the hall were: to
be able to hold gems emporia in a separate modern
building instead of at Inya Lake Hotel, and to be

7
from pearls was observed in 1990 at the 27th
EmporiumÑUS$ 5 159 195. Sale proceeds from the
successive emporia are described in Figure 3.
Research
Myanmar has an advantage over the others in
terms of pearl seeding technicians because all are
graduates in zoology or marine biology. Their edu-
cational backgrounds can, more or less, help in fur-
ther attempts to develop the technology at hand.
However, systematic research on pearl oysters and
pearl culture has not been conducted for many
years. Just monitoring some oceanographic para-
meters such as temperature and salinity of seawa-
ter, and weather conditions, is not enough for
development of the industry. Basic and applied
research are essential to develop not only cultiva-
tion but also hatchery technology. Here is an
expertÕs opinion concerning research: ÔProfessional
research done by experts on pearl shells is to be
encouraged as it often benefits the industry by
helping to improve the product qualityÕ.
Future outlook
Myanmar has a long coastline of more than 1,700
miles (2,734 kilometres) stretching from north to
south and it can be divided into three main areas:
the Rakhine, Ayeyarwaddy and Taninthayi coasts.
All kinds of pearl oysters are in cultured produc-
tionÑPinctada maxima, Pinctada margaritifera,
Pinctada fucata and mabe, Pteria penguin are present
in Myanmar waters. Rakhine and Taninthayi are
candidates for pearl culture, as they can provide
some suitable places for expanding the Myanmar
pearl culture industry. Myeik (Mergui) archipelago
is situated on the Taninthayi coast, and has some
geographic advantages over Rakhine. As it can
provide a number of ideal places for pearl oysters
and pearl cultivation, many of its member islands
will become pearl culture stations.
The expansion of MyanmarÕs South Sea pearl culti-
vation created many new farms on the Mergui
archipelago. A large number of matured pearl oys-
ters are cultured in close proximity of farms, and
this can increase the reproductive efficiency of the
pearl oysters. Synchronised spawnings on the
farms can maximise the fertilisation rates of eggs
resulting in more oyster recruitment in the wild.
Therefore, establishment of new pearl farms is vir-
tually providing natural hatcheries for oyster
repopulating. Systematic studies on the stock
assessments and natural spat collection of pearl
oyster are also essential for conservation.
Research and development are inseparable, and
they are the only way to keep the Ôsmiling faceÕ of
Myanmar pearls. The Pearls Sub-Committee
Director of the Thirtieth Myanma Gems Emporium
said in an interview with journalists in 1993, Ôwe
must try to improve our production methods.Õ
In the future, more and more pearl oysters can be
provided from hatcheries by developing proper
grow-out techniques. In line with expanding pearl
cultivation in Myanmar, a new generation of cul-
ture technicians have been trained to meet the
future developments in the pearl culture sector.
Production figures of pearls and MOP shells indi-
cate improvement in both pearl and MOP shells
production. Sale proceeds of pearls at emporia also
indicate that sales of Myanmar pearls will revive in
the world pearl market again. It should be noted
that Japan has been producing tons of cultured
pearls using P. fucata as mother shells for many
decades. Pinctada fucata can be collected from oys-
ter cages as natureÕs gift or they can also be collect-
ed easily by spat collectors in the Myanmar waters.
Myanmar has a vast amount of freshwater
resources, many rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
Freshwater pearl culture is also a potential indus-
try in Myanmar. By searching suitable freshwater
bivalve mollusc species or introducing exotic
species already used in world freshwater pearl
production, it is possible that Myanmar can
become a producer of freshwater pearls.
Endowed with natural resources and equipped with
traditional skills and intelligence, Myanmar has
proved that it is a land of many attractions. In line
with the new economy, Myanmar still has much
room for both fresh and sea water pearl production.
John Dryden, a famous British poet and writer said
ÔHe who wishes pearls must dive deepÕ. Myanmar
starts deep-diving again.
Acknowledgements
Heartfelt thanks are due to Mr Khin Nyunt,
General Manager of Myanma Pearl Enterprise; Mr
Martin E. Coeroli, Director of GIE Perles de Tahiti;
Mr C. Richard Fassler, Economic Development
Specialist of the Aquaculture Development
Programme of Hawaii, Department of Land and
Natural Resources, USA; and Mr Neil A. Sims,
Vice President and Research Director of Black
Pearls Inc., USA, for their information, references
and encouragement.
References for this article are available from the SPC
Fisheries Information Section (see contact on cover page).

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Lore and myth. The Greeks and Romans
associated the birth of Aphrodite, the Greek
goddess of love, with the birth of the pearl. In
the first century AD Pliny the Elder wrote that
Cleopatra dissolved a fine pearl earring in
her wine and drank it as a testament of her
love for Antony. He also wrote that among all
prized items, the topmost rank is held by
pearls. Arabs believed pearls to be "tears of
the gods" and other civilizations have paid
tribute to pearls, which have been cherished
over the centuries as symbols of purity,
wealth, perfection and love.
The Burmese pearl industry began in the
early 1960s, started by the Japanese, in the
islands of the Mergui Archipelago. On March
12, 1969, the Burmese Ministry of Mines
nationalized all industries. After the
Japanese left, the Burmese government took
control of the pearl operations, leading to a
decline in production. On April 1, 1976, the
Myanma Gems Enterprise was founded to
revive Burma's ailing gem industry. Several
pearl farms were established and a very
limited production appeared in the
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Pearl History
government-sponsored Burma Gems, Jade
and Pearl Emporiums.
Now that's all changed. After a two decade
absence, pearl farming in the Mergui
Archipelago is back and ready to make an
impact on the top echelons of cultured pearl
production. Recent government reforms in
the gem mining and pearling industries have
led to joint ventures between the Burmese
government and private Australian,
Japanese, Thai and local concerns. The
Burmese pearl industry is ready to emerge
as a serious player in the international pearl
industry.
The journey to the Burmese pearl islands
begins at Myeik, (pronounced Beik), or
simply Mergui, its anglicized name. The town
dates from antiquity and it is mentioned as a
great trading seaport in the Chinese annals
of the Liang Dynasty (502-506 AD). Early in
the 15th century, Mergui was visited by
Venetian Nicol? di Conti, and Portugese
traveller Duarte Barbosa. It was also noted
by Ceasar Fredericke in 1568 and other
early European traveler-traders. For
centuries, Mergui was the gateway to the
Spice Islands and the battleground between
the Burmese and Siamese kingdoms.
Mergui was annexed by the East India
Company after the first Anglo-Burmese war
(1824-1826), establishing the town as a
major port the company used to pursue its
monopolistic trade practices. It remained
under British rule until Burmese
independence in 1948. Today, Merqui is a
bustling trading and fishing town of mixed
ethnic population, predominately Chinese
settlers, who virtually control the trade of the
region. The Tenasserim Coast and the

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Mergui Archipelago islands are completely
off limits to foreigners.
At Last the Journey begins. Our company, a
clutch of veteran divers and pearl experts,
armed with insect repellents and special
government permits, boarded a double-
decker, 40-foot pearl boat and accompanied
by armed Burmese Navy officers, weighed
anchor at Mergui and headed south.
Islands of all sizes slowly emerge on the sea
horizon as the journey gets underway.
Some of these islands are rich in flora and
fauna, fringed with mangrove swamps and
sharp spiked bamboo forests that make
them virtually inaccessible. Occasionally, the
lush vegetation is interrupted by virgin white
sand beaches. The beach sand in some of
these islands is so pure, it is used as a raw
material to make glass in Rangoon. It is a
wild jungle habitat -- home to poisonous
snakes, deadly scorpions, wild pigs, bats,
insects and bloodthirsty malarial mosquitoes.
On board, we eat ka-tha-baung (king fish),
and nga-pon-na (mango-fish), seafood
dishes accompanied by the locally produced
ngapi, a gamey paste made from salted,
pounded and fermented shrimp. Afterwards,
the sailors light up cheroots -- Burmese
hand-made cigars -- the shrimp logo on the
package a reminder that we are indeed in
"shrimp country."
Sliding comfortably into a post-meal
chattiness, the sailors talk of the exotic
Salon people, the local sea-gypsies, who
wander the 804 islands scattered throughout
the Archipelago. The Salons are probably
descendants of Malays from Sumatra who
found refuge in Burmese waters. They
spend most of their lives with their families in

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small wooden boats roofed with low,
hemispherical bamboo-woven mats. The
Salon are a timid, simple, semi-aboriginal
people with little in the way of pecuniary
thoughts. They are also expert divers,
swimmers, fishermen, hunters, navigators
and boat-builders.
The Salons fashion their boats from long
tree trunks hollowed out over a slow-burning
fire, shaping them with primitive tools. Some
Salons domesticate dogs, which often live
aboard their boats and are used to hunt wild-
pigs when ashore in the islands. The Salons
trade fish, sea slugs and bamboo mats for
rice, firewood and other provisions, including
opium to which many are heavily addicted.
They continue to live restless, floating lives -
as they have for centuries.
Stunning vertical limestone cliffs jut into the
sea several hundred feet above the water
level - mute evidence of the extensive
geological activity and plate tectonics that
took place in the region more than 200
million years ago. These phenomena are
connected with the mountain-building
process of the Himalayas, passing through
Mogok - fabled home of rubies and
sapphires in Upper Burma.
The remarkable fortress-like rocks of these
islands form undersea caves and natural
tunnels leading to lagoons that are
accessible only at low tide.
As we approached the Bird Nest Islands
(Nyet tiak kyun), we transferred to a small
dinghy and cautiously enter a natural cave
studded with sharp stalactites. A 100-meter
long tunnel, expertly navigated by our local
guide opened onto a beautiful lagoon,
surrounded by huge vertical limestone rock.
Inside these crags, at the high-ceilinged

Guide to Buying
Diamonds,
Colored Gems,
Pearls, Gold and
Platinum
Jewelry
by Renee
Newman
pockets of the dark caves and rock fissures
are the famous swift bird nests. These birds
fashion their nests from their saliva and
mature nests are collected by licensed
natives who sell them for about $3,000 per
kilo. The bird nests are considered an edible
and exotic delicacy by the Chinese and
served on esteemed occasions in Hong
Kong restaurants for $150 a bowl.
The licenses are auctioned by the
government, with hundreds of thousands of
dollars changing hands. The nests are
accessed via elaborate bamboo scaffolds,
constructed without using nails. We are told
that some of the ladders have been booby-
trapped to break apart, plunging unwitting
thieves to their deaths.
As the journey continues south, more
islands emerge from the sea horizon. Great
stories are told by the native sailors,
involving sea-spirits and other superstitious
beliefs as we navigate past the dark
shadows of the islands. The numerous nats
(spirits) residing in the waters of the
archipelago are intrinsically involved in the
daily affairs of the islanders.
At nightfall, we spotted patrolling Burmese
navy gunboats, keeping the passages clear
of pirates and smugglers. These modern
buccaneers ply the waters in 70-kilometer-
per-hour speedboats, hunting for victims.
There are several types of pirates: The
"good", who just rob the travelers; the "bad",
who steal the cargo and rob the passengers.
And the "ugly", who seize the vessel, kill all
the passengers, then take control of the
vessel by repainting, changing its name,
forging all marine documents and heading to
a new destination.
Then of course there are the smugglers.

These "unlicensed traders", as they called
themselves, use high-speed boats, trading
raw materials from Burma with their Thai
partners for luxury items, computers and
other manufactured goods.
And it's not just pearls and shrimps in these
waters - some of the islands also contain
gold. In fact, in the bubble years when the
price of gold in New York hit the $1,000 per
ounce mark, the gold mines at the Mergui
Islands were being thoroughly prospected.
We anchor at Russell Island and visit the
gold mine, climbing a treacherous 45-degree
hillside, about a hundred feet above sea
level. The gold mine consists of several
horizontal tunnels blasted out of solid rock.
From 1977 to 1985, the island bustled with
the gold rush activity of about 200 miners,
but with the current recovery rate of only 4
ppm (parts per million) the low price of gold,
the mine has been abandoned.
We cross the tombolo (a natural flat bridge
connecting two islets) and follow the Navy
officers as they cut a path through the dense
jungle. Suddenly, a beautiful sandy beach
rolls out before us. It is a pearl farm! The
gold mine on the hill with a pearl farm in the
sea below makes a bizarre and unique
combination, not found anywhere else in the
world.
The Russell Island pearl farm is under
rehabilitation. Small huts built on stilts near
the seashore provide basic protection
against rain and the beating sun. But there is
no effective protection against the insects in
these islands, as the unstoppable malaria
carrying mosquitoes penetrate the delicate
woven nets. Poorly managed by the
government's Myanmar Pearl Enterprise,
most of the buildings are neglected,
decayed, and infested with termites. Wire

baskets and discarded oyster shells are
evidence of the once booming camp with its
200 or so pearl workers. As we sip juice from
emperor-coconuts the size of California
watermelons, the farm superintendent
recalls the golden years at Russell, when
16mm pinkish round pearls, (though
admittedly very few), were harvested.
Along the route, we anchored near the
picturesque village of Thit-Chaung, at Dornel
Island (Letsok-aw-kyaun) - a small town built
entirely on wooden stilts. Ascending the
wooden ladders to the bamboo deck that
serves as the main street, flocks of villagers
came to meet us. School activities came to a
halt as throngs of pupils ran out over to see
their first Western visitors.
We paid the customary respects to the local
head monk at a magnificent monastery
studded with dozens of statues of "Walking
Monks" lined up in a row, praising Buddha.
Elements of the modern lifestyle were
reflected in a large sign that read: "Welcome
Y2K for Happy New Year". The television
age also reared its head with an invitation to
watch the morning Larry King Live show --
an offer that we could not refuse without
gravely insulting our host. The entire
atmosphere creates an unforgettable,
exhilarating feeling of joy and memories.
The journey continued south. Near midnight
a dim light blinked in the distance through
the darkness. Pirates? Smugglers? Salons?
Burmese Navy patrol? Our radio operator
was already in touch with the other end and
intense conversation took place in a tongue
spoken only in these islands, not even
understood by the Burmese. That's typical
for Burma, considering that more than a
hundred languages are spoken by the more

than the 130 or so ethnic groups who live in
the country. As we approach, the dark
shadow of a landscape emerged. Suddenly,
the boat took a sharp turn and a sandy
beach appears. We have arrived at the
Ravenshaw Island base camp.
At Ravenshaw island, or Zinyaw kyun as the
Burmese call it, we had the rare opportunity
to look at a typical Burmese pearl farm. We
also observed the activities of its 250
workers, divers and technicians who live and
work at the base camp. Here, the situation is
completely different from Russell island. The
base farm at Ravenshaw is alive, bustling
with activity. It is the 90-day inspection
period and everybody is busy. Workers carry
truckloads of oysters to the inspection
house, where the delicate surgical operation-
inspection is taking place.
The farm site of Orient Pearl Company has
been carefully selected. It sits in a natural
bay with a beautiful sandy beach facing east,
fully protected from the monsoons and high
tides. The shallow waters near the shore are
deceiving, as chasms 200 feet or more deep
are found just a short distance from shore.
The farm is unmarked, without buoys, as
security measure to prevent theft. Oysters
are placed at depths ranging from 60 to 90
feet in unpolluted waters. This unspoiled
water is the natural habitat of more than
36,000 pinctada maxima wild oysters
originating from the same waters.
Intricately tattooed Burmese divers plunge
into warm 75-foot waters in antiquated diving
gear to place the oysters, packed in wire
baskets, on the sea floor. Each basket holds
10 oysters positioned vertically in individual
compartments. Groups of 130-150 baskets

are connected in line and firmly anchored
The oyster positioning differs in other farms;
Tasaki Sinju use a "surface-lining" method,
while the "long-line" method is used by the
Atlantic Pearl Company.
One of the two pearl boats on the bay, a
dilapidated Japanese steel vessel is a
remnant of the Second World War,
maneuvers with its roaring diesel engine to
coordinate the positioning of the oyster
baskets. The other vessel is a Thai shrimp
fishing boat that sank during a typhoon, and
was pulled from depths, cleaned and
outfitted with a "new" Chinese engine. On
board, a dozen workers appear busy. The
scene is like construction workers in New
York City with one man actually working and
five supervising him - each making thirty
bucks an hour. Except here an experienced
worker makes thirty dollars per month!
The waters of the bay maintain a nearly
constant pH and temperature, except during
the monsoon season, when heavy rains
dilute the salinity of the sea. To keep the
oysters in the same conditions, the baskets
are moved to deeper waters. Constant
currents flowing at a continuous rate and the
abundance of plankton organisms create
ideal living conditions for the sensitive pearl-
bearing oysters.
They say only nature can make a pearl. This
is true, at least in the final stages, but it
takes a lotof human intervention to help
nature do it consistently.
The newest kid on the block is actually a
veteran of the pearl wars. Although the
Burmese pearls cannot be classified as
South Seas pearls, according to the U.S.
Federal Trade Commission, they are

comparable in quality and size with their
Australian, Indonesian and Filipino
counterparts. But, with less than 1 percent of
the world's cultured pearl production, the
limited production of the Burmese pearls in
the world market should continue being
swiftly absorbed by eager customers.
Besides the proper natural breeding habitat,
in pearl cultivation, each farm employs
different methods, depending upon the
quality, condition and type of the following
ingredient-parameters: oyster, nuclei,
mantle. Also, the nuclei and mantle insertion
methods, inspection and correction
procedures, as well as other parameters
play important role in the pearl cultivation
process.
Oyster: The Burmese use oysters of the
pinctada maxima species, ranging from 6" to
12" in diameter. The interior of the shell is
iridescent producing the "orient" (rainbow
iridescent), characteristic of the Burmese
pearl. The color of the lip (periphery of the
animal's body in the shell) is gold and/or
silver, like the ones used in Australia,
Indonesia and Philippines. But the major
difference between the Burmese and other
pearl farms is that the Burmese oysters used
for pearl cultivation are 100 percent wild,
while the Australian farms use 75-80 percent
wild; the Filipinos 25 percent and the
Indonesians 1 percent. The term "wild" refers
to a natural oyster, as opposed to a
"hatchery-bred" oyster. A distinct bright
orient contributes greatly to the beautiful
luster of Burmese pearls.
Nuclei: The nuclei used in the Burmese
farms, as in most other farms, are supplied
mainly from numerous fresh-water

MYANMAR PEARLS SUSTAINABLE MARKET

MYANMAR PEARLS SUSTAINABLE MARKET

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