4. 1- The Solar Wind
Because of the high temperature of the Sun's corona,
solar protons and electrons acquire velocities in excess of
the escape velocity from the sun. The result is that there is
a continuous outward flow of charged particles in all
directions from the sun. This flow of particles is called the
solar wind
The velocity and density of the solar wind vary with
sunspot activity.
The solar wind causes a radiation pressure on satellites in
orbit around the Earth
5. 2- Solar Flares
A solar flare is a sudden brightening observed over the
Sun's surface, which is interpreted as a large energy
release
The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions, and atoms
through the corona of the sun into space.
High speed solar protons emitted by a solar flare are
probably the most potent of the radiation hazards to
space flight.
6. 3- Cosmic Rays
Cosmic rays originate from two sources:
The Sun (solar cosmic rays),
Other stars throughout the universe (galactic cosmic rays).
This radiation is primarily high velocity protons and electrons.
The galactic cosmic rays are extremely energetic, but do not pose a
serious threat, due to the low flux, the rate at which they enter the
atmosphere.
Cosmic rays have the most impact on polar and geosynchronous
orbits. This is due to the fact that they are outside or near the edge
of the protective shielding provided by Earth's magnetic field
Cosmic ray particles can also cause direct damage to internal
components through collision. Shielding is not feasible due to the
high energy of the particles and the weight of the shielding
required.
7. 4- Trapped radiation belt particles.
The Earth’s magnetic field concentrates large fluxes
of high-energy, ionizing particles including
electrons, protons, and heavier ions. The Earth’s
magnetic field provides the mechanism that traps
these charged particles within specific regions,
called the Van Allen belts.
Earth’s Magnetic Field traps charged particles
Inner Van Allen Belt holds mainly protons (10-100’s of MeV)
Outer Van Allen Belt holds mainly electrons (up to ~7 MeV)
Heavy ions also get trapped Galactic Cosmic Rays
Solar Protons
&
Heavier Ions Trapped Particles
8.
9. Radiation Effects on Electronics
Total ionizing dose (TID) effects
Accumulation of ionizing dose deposition over a long time.
Displacement damage (DD)
Accumulation of crystal lattice defects caused by high energy radiation.
Single event effects (SEE)
A high ionizing dose deposition, from a single high energy particle,
occurring in a sensitive region of the device.
10. 1- Total Ionizing Dose (TID)
o Mainly caused by trapped particles in the Van Allen belts.
o Ionization creates charges (electron-hole pairs).
oAccumulated positive charge buildups in insulators/oxides.
o Problems:
» Threshold Shifts
» Leakage Current
» Timing Changes
» Circuit parameters are changed
» Ultimately, the circuit ceases to function properly
11. Hole trapping slowly “dopes” field
oxides to become conductive
This is the dominant failure mechanism
for commercial processes
Total Ionizing Dose (TID) Cont…
12. 2- Displacement Damage
Cumulative long term damage to protons, electrons, and neutrons
Not an ionizing effect but rather collision damage
Energetic particles (protons/ions) displace Si-atoms from their proper crystal
lattice locations.
Minority Carrier Degradation
Reduced gain & switching speed
Particularly damaging for optoelectronic & linear circuits
13. 3- Single Event Effects (SEE)
Electron/hole pairs created by a single particle passing through
semiconductor
Primarily due to heavy ions and high energy protons
Excess charge carriers cause current pulses
Creates a variety of destructive and non-destructive damage
“Critical Charge” = the amount of charge deposited to change the state of a gate
14. Single Event Effects (SEE) - Non-Destructive (e.g., soft
faults)
Single Event Transients (SET)
- An induced pulse that can flip a gate
- Temporary glitches in combinational logic
Single Event Upsets (SEU)
- The pulse is captured by a storage device resulting
in a state change
15. Single Event Effects (SEE) - – Destructive (e.g., hard faults)
Single Event Latchup (SEL)
- Parasitic NPN/PNP transistors are put
into positive feedback condition (PNPN).
- Runaway current damages device
- Due to heavy ions, protons, neutrons.
Single Event Burnout (SEB)
- Localized current in body of device turns
on parasitic bipolar transistors.
- Runaway current causes heat.
- Due primarily to heavy ions.
16. Clementine
Launched on January 25 1994, in order to qualify component
technologies and make scientific observations of the Moon and a
near-Earth asteroid.
On May 7 1994 its main on-board computer sent out an
unintentional command that caused one of the attitude-control
thruster to fire, before the computer crashed. By the time the ground
control had rebooted the computer the attitude control fuel tanks
were empty, and the spacecraft was spinning very fast.
This made it impossible to continue the mission.
This failure was probably caused by a SEU.
A single bit flip could have no consequences at all or, if unlucky with
when and where it happens, could completely destroy a spacecraft.
17. Mitigation Techniques
By Shielding
Shielding helps for protons and electrons <30MeV
Shielding to lower the radiation dose level (using e.g. Al,
Cu)
Unable to deal with high-energy particles.
18. Radiation Hardened by Design (RHBD)
Uses commercial fabrication process
Circuit layout techniques are implemented which help mitigate
effects
Enclosed Layout Transistors
- Eliminates edge of drain terminal
- This eliminates any leakage current
between source & drain due near edge
of gate (STI Region 1)
Guard Rings
- Reduces leakage between NMOS & PMOS
devices due to hole trapping in Field Oxide
(STI Region 2)
- Separation of device + body contacts
- Adds ~20% increase in area
Thin Gate Oxide
- This oxide reduces probability of hold trapping.
- Process nodes <0.5um typically are immune to Vgs
shift in the gate.
19. Radiation Hardened Process (RHBP)
An insulating layer is used beneath the channels
This significantly reduces the ion trail length and in turn the
electron/hole pairs created
The bulk can also be doped to be more conductive so as to
resist hole trapping
20. By Architectural
1. Triple Module Redundancy
Triplicate each circuit
Use a majority voter to produces output
Advantages
Able to address faults in real-time
Simple
Disadvantages
Takes >3x the area
Voter needs to be triplicated also to
avoid single-point-of-failure
21. By Architectural Cont…
2. Scrubbing
Compare contents of a memory device to a “Golden Copy”
Golden Copy is contained in a radiation immune technology
(fuse-based memory, MROM, etc…)
Advantages
Simple & Effective
Disadvantages
Sequential searching pattern can have latency between fault & repair
22. By Architectural Cont…
3. Error Correction Codes
A variety of error detection & correction codes exist (CRC, Hamming, Parity…)
CRCs can be included as part of memory system
Advantages
Quick Handling of Errors
Disadvantages
Faults in a configuration memory can alter circuitry momentarily before error codes
performs correction
23. Latest new approaches using FPGA
FPGAs are Uniquely Susceptible
1. Total Ionizing Dose
All gates and memory cells are susceptible to TID due to high energy protons
2. Single Event Effects
SETs/SEUs in the logic blocks
SETs in the routing
23
Radiation Strikes
in the
Circuit Fabric
(Logic + Routing)
Radiation Strikes
in the
Configuration Memory
(Logic + Routing)
24. What is needed for FPGA-Based Reconfigurable Computing
1. SRAM-based FPGAs
To support fast reconfiguration
2. A TID hardened fabric
Thin Gate Oxides to avoid hole trapping and threshold shifting (inherent in all processes)
Radiation Hardened by Design to provide SEL immunity (rings, layout, etc…
Does This Exist?
Yes, Xilinx Virtex-QV Space Grade FPGA Family
TID Immunity > 1Mrad
RHBD for SEL immunity
CRC
The Final Piece is SEE Fault Mitigation due to Heavy Ions
SEU will happen due to heavy ions, nothing can stop this.
A computer architecture that expects and response to faults is needed.
25. Fault Tolerance approaches:
1. TMR + Spares
2. Spatial Avoidance of Background Repair
3. Scrubbing
25
1. TMR + Spares
3 Tiles run in TMR with the rest reserved as spares.
In the event of a fault, the damaged tile is replaced
with a spare and foreground operation continues.
2. Spatial Avoidance & Repair
The damaged Tile is “repaired” in the background via
Partial Reconfiguration.
The repaired tile is reintroduced into the system as an
available spare.
3. Scrubbing
A traditional scrubber runs in the background.
Either blind or read-back.
PR is technically a “blind scrub”, but of a particular
region of the FPGA.
Shuttle Flight
Computer
(TMR + Spare)
26. CONCLUSION
Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energy or
waves travel through a medium or space
Radiation hardening is a method of designing and testing
electronic components and systems to make them resistant to
damage or malfunctions caused by ionizing radiation
Radiation hardening requires electronic chip manufacturers to
create both Physical and logical shields to protect the hardware
Radiation hardened chips are made by two methods: -
• Radiation hardening by process (RHBP)
• Radiation hardening by design (RHBD).