Mirror Neurons And Motor Memory Formation Essay

Mirror Neurons and Motor Memory Formation Essay
WHAT ARE MIRROR NEURONS?
Mirror neurons have been hailed by scientists as the most significant finding in neurology in the past decade, the key to understanding the secrets of
human interaction and learning, and as significant to psychology as DNA is to biology. Mirror neurons are a newly–discovered structure of the brain
responsible for the firing of neurons during both physical movement and the observation of physical movement. It is these firings during observation of
movements that has scientists excited about their relation to learning and interaction. While mirror neurons have been found in both primates and
humans, their role in terms of learning and perfecting motor skills is still unclear.
The discovery of mirror neurons: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a research project monitoring the brain waves of a child observing a task and completing a task, it was found that the two sets of brain waves were
almost identical. However, when testing an autistic child, it was found that two different sets of brain waves were created. This research suggests that
autistic children have a lower number of mirror neurons, which would help explain their deficiency in social interaction, imitation, and empathy.
While it is believed that mirror neurons are imperative for monkeys to understand what other monkeys are doing, the believed function of mirror
neurons in human brains is much more extensive.
Function in terms of empathy:
It has been observed that mirror neurons are active when a person feels an emotion or witnesses another person expressing emotion, which could
explain the feeling of empathy.
Function in terms of language:
Mirror neurons can be found near the language area of our brains, and could prove to be a valuable component of language learning. This discovery
also supports the notion that language evolved from gesture understanding. Mirror neurons easily have the potential to aid in language acquisition,
based on their ability to help in imitation and learning through observation.
Function in terms of planning:
Neurons' firing while observing an action can be helpful in planning one's actions, as the consequences of those actions can also be observed.

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The Effect Of Riluzole On Treating Motor Neuron Disease...
6.10 Discussion
Neuroprotective activity of riluzole is already reported in the literature. At present, it is the only available successful drug for treating motor neuron
disease like ALS. But its poor aqueous solubility, short half life with some side effects at higher concentration (as it is recommended twice or thrice a
day for long time) restricted its use as a neuroprotective agent (Borderias–Clau, 2006; Cheah, 2010). In the present study, we have evaluated the
neuroprotective activity of nanoriluzole (NR) for treating one of the most severe brain diseases at a quite low dose using nanocarrier. MCAO is one the
best model for ischemic stroke as it mimic most of the feature of natural brain stroke (Longa, 1989; Heurteaux, 2006; Vaibhav, 2013). Ischemia was
induced in rats through MCAO model for 1 hr followed by a reperfusion period of 24 hrs and NR was given intraperitonally after 1 hr of ischemia
induction. Animals were evaluated for their behavior study and sacrificed to remove the brain for analysing various related parameters like infarct,
biochemical, histopathology and immunohistochemical study.
It is very well demonstrated that MCAO results in the injury to striatum, cortex and hippocampus region depending upon the time of occlusion of
MCA and reperfusion period (Longa, 1989; Nagasawa, 1989; Heurteaux, 2006). This can be clearly visualized using TTC staining. TTC which is
usually white in color is reduced by dehydogenases (especially succinate dehydrogenase) into

Amyotophic Lateral Sclerosis Case Study Essay
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Case Study
On December 1, 2012, a patient by the name of John Dough walks into the medical assistant's office. The patient is five foot 11 inches tall, currently
he is 70 years old and weighs approximately 211 pounds. The patient has no known allergies does not smoke and has a relatively clean health record.
After filling out the patient medical history forms, the patient is seen by the doctor. The patient explains to the doctor that lately he has had trouble
lifting object he would not normally have trouble with, as well as walking short distances, and being very fatigued. After further examination the
patient explains how he recently found a tick on his back and removed it, but now there is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A nerve conduction study measures the bodies electrical energy by assessing the nerves ability to send a signal. And as a final precaution, the
physician wants the patient to receive a 'MRI' . A 'MRI' or magnetic resonance imaging is a non–invasive imaging technique which uses a magnetic
field and radio waves to create an image of the brain and spinal cord.
Once the patient received all of his tests he met with his doctor to discuss the results. On the patients 'EMG', results showed Abnormal, spontaneous
activity,as well as fibrillations and fasciculations in the patient's tongue. An 'EMG' is used to investigate possible motor neurone disease and detect
widespread denervation and fasciculations. Fasciculations are not under voluntary control, so they can be easily distinguished from voluntary
movement. The patient's 'MRI' results showed that the patients corticospinal tracts were suffering from volume loss,as well as iron deposits in the
cortex which contributes to signal loss and neurodegenerative diseases. However Both of these features are present in varying degrees in normal
patients, so by itself these results wouldn't stand out. But as results from other tests are put together with these results, a diagnosis can become much
easier.
"The diagnosis of ALS is based primarily on clinical presentation, with supportive data from electrodiagnostic, imaging, and laboratory studies." Based
off of clinical presentation, ALS can be

Mitochondria Case Study
In relation to mitochondria, abnormality in appearance occurred during normal muscle weakness, and no mitochondria fragments left in a neuron
occurred a few weeks before paralysis (Kong and Xu 1998). Abnormalities in mitochondria were prominent in motor neurons before muscle weakness
began, and the link between mitochondria degeneration and motor neuron death is the mutant SOD1 gene. These results showed that mitochondria
deterioration is associated with the beginning of the disease, and SOD1 toxicity is the feature that damages the mitochondria; this is also related to
motor neuron death in the fact that this triggers the deterioration of motor neuron cells (Kong and Xu 1998). In other words, damage to mitochondria
is the center of motor neuron degeneration. This study explained the physiological steps to muscle weakness in patients with ... Show more content on
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2005). This is significant because the location of the gene could have different effects on the mitochondria and the neuron itself. The experiment used
Western blotting as the main method of completing the study, and used mice as subjects (in vitro and in vivo experiments). The findings were that
SOD1 localizes more in the brain mitochondria than in the liver, and the SOD1 are inside and on the surface of the mitochondria in the spinal cord
(Vijayvergiya et al. 2005). The results suggest that damage to mitochondria may trigger the start of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and this study could
provide an insight to the specificity of neuron degeneration. With the fact that SOD1 was more in the brain and spinal cord than anywhere else, the
central nervous system is affected and the activities of the body are at risk. This analysis intended to discover where mutant SOD1 combines in the
mitochondria of the brain and spinal cord, and how this might contribute to selective neuron death (Vijayvergiya et al.

What Is Neuromuscular Junction?
A neuromuscular junction is a chemical conjunction formed during the contact between motor neuron and a muscle fiber. Each branch of a
motoneuron forms a single junction with a muscle fiber (University of Minnesota, 2011). At the neuromuscular junction, the motor neuron is able to
send a signal to the muscle fiber which ultimately allows for muscle contraction. The operation, when the neurotransmitter, are released by a neuron
begins when the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal of the neuron, which then activates calcium channels allowing calcium ions to enter
the neurons. The calcium ions that entered the neuron then bind to a sensory protein like synaptotagmin, releasing vesicle fusion across the cell
membrane. Vesicles are... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As Lyn D. Weiss et al. (2016) states in Easy EMG: A Guide to Performing Nerve Conduction Studies and Electromyography, the neuromuscular junction
is the relay between the nerve terminal and the skeletal muscle fiber. The neuromuscular junction as a whole is the site where the neurons activate the
muscle to actually contract. The steps of the neuromuscular junction are supposed to happen quickly and accurately while ensuring voluntary
movement of the muscles. The reliability of transmission is aided by specialized architecture (multiple active zones, junctional folds), which has been
all studied more closely throughout the last century (Hong and Etherington, 2011). According to "Annual Review of Neuroscience," the NMJ forms in
a series of steps that involve the exchange of signals amid its three important cellular components–nerve terminal, muscle fiber, and Schwann cell
(Cowan, 1999). All three cells of the neuromuscular junction travel long distances to meet at the synapse(Cowan,

Different Types Of Nerve Cells
Nerve Cells
Nerve cells are crucial to all living organisms because they serve as a messenger in the different parts of the body. There are three different types of
nerve cells (neurons) sensory neurons, motor neurons, and association neurons. All three of these types come together in order to allow the body to
function properly. Without neurons the body wouldn't have the ability to know when there is illumination or warmth in or outside the body, know how
to perform functions in the other parts of the body (such as muscles),or have these two things work together to know what the other is doing.
Sensory neurons have importance because they allow your body to have the five physical senses, (smell,touch,taste,sight,and ... Show more content on
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One important sensory neuron that everyone is very familiar with is tastebuds. Tastebuds are extremely sensitive neurons that have a built in pH
detector. That is why the more acidic something is the more sour it taste and when sodium ions increase this is what makes food have a salty taste.
Sensory neurons are crucial to the body for maintaining homeostasis by providing organisms with skills that we need.
The second kind of neuron that is also very important to organisms is motor neurons. Motor neurons are responsible for the movement of organisms. If
our body didn't form motor neurons we wouldn't have the ability to talk, eat, life, drink,walk, and any other kind of simple movements. According to
Daniel Liden, a freelance journalist, motor neurons "directly or indirectly controls the contraction or relaxation of muscles" (Liden, para 1.) Motor
neurons are also sometimes referred to as efferent neurons. Motor neurons bring information made by the central nervous system to the different
muscles in the body.There are three different kinds of motor neurons. The three different kinds are somatic, specific visceral, and general visceral.
Somatic motor neurons are used for forming skeletal muscles and movement in the body. Specific visceral motor neurons are important in vertebrates
for the movement of neck muscles and facial muscles. Specific visceral neurons are important to sea animals for the movement of gills. The last kind
of motor neurons, general visceral, are

Types And Subconscious Response By Effector
1.Reflexes are automatic and subconscious response to a stimulus. A reflex arc, the neural pathway that a nerve impulse follows, orchestrates the
operation of reflexes. The following are parts of the reflex arc:
a)The arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor: The receptors located in a sensory neuron detect a stimulus and generate a graded potential. If the
strength of a stimulus is above the threshold, then an action potential is generated.
b)Activation of a sensory neuron: The generated action potential is then carried to the spinal cord by the sensory neuron.
c)Processing of information in the central nervous system (Interneuron or relay neuron): The sensory neuron synapse with the interneuron in the spinal
cord. In the central nervous system, the responses are again graded at the synaptic junction. Now the interneuron conducts nerve impulses from the
sensory neuron to a motor neuron.
d)Activation of a motor neuron: The motor neuron now transmits nerve impulse to an effector.
e)Response by effector: Effector is usually a muscle or gland. If the effector is smooth muscle, responses summate to produce action potentials in the
smooth muscle, however, if the effector is skeletal muscle, the graded response is enough to produce an action potential. Depending on the situation,
the effector generates an appropriate response.
2.Starling forces govern the exchange of fluids between capillaries and the interstitial space. The following are four forces in action

An Integration Center Of The Reflex Arc
An integration center in the reflex arc is a neuropathway that creates a reflex action to activating neurons to skip the spinal cord and protect your brain.
The nerve cells can be categorized by their connections, structure, and neurotransmitters. The structural classification is depending on shape and size of
the cell body, its dendritic tree, axon length, and the nature of the connections it makes. The neurons with one, two, or more than two neurites, are
unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar respectively. Most of neurons in vertebrate nervous systems are multipolar, but there are significant exceptions. For
illustration, bipolar neurons in the retina synapse with sensory neurons, and photoreceptors in the dorsal root ganglion are explained as
pseudo–unipolar as they begin life as bipolar cells but their two neurites fuse. The unipolar neurons dominate in invertebrates. Collaterals a small side
branch, as of a blood vessel or nerve. A neuronal pool is a group of interconnected neurons with specific functions. A pool may be diffuse, involving
neurons in several regions of the brain, or localized, with neurons restricted to one specific location in the brain or spinal cord. However, the proper
function of the circuit of the stretch reflex also relies on convergence and divergence. A single sensory has multiple branches that diverge and make
synaptic connections with many individual motor neurons. Therefore, when the muscle contracts as a result of the neurologist's tapper, it

Taking a Look at Spinal Shock
The term spinal shock was first defined by Whytt in 1750 as a 'loss of sensation accompanied by motor paralysis with the initial loss but gradual
recovery of reflexes following a spinal cord injury'. Spinal shock occurs due to there being a sudden loss of conductivity of electrical signals in the
spinal cord, since the potassium ions move from the intracellular space to the extracellular space. When this occurs the body cannot effectively send
nerve signal impulses to control automatic reflexes below the site of the spinal cord injury. The symptoms of spinal shock patients are that there are
complications such as hypotension because the sympathetic nervous system is unable to regulate vascular tone (contraction of the blood vessels). This
is usually the case when the injury is in the cervical spinal cord. Other symptoms include: flexor spasms, tetraplegia, and paraplegia, atonic paralysis
and many other symptoms such as a pounding headache and excessive sweating (Patient Education Institute). There are four main phases of spinal
shock. They are Hyporeflexia that is due to loss of descending facilitation which is the first phase that last for approximately a day. The second phase
initial reflex returns and denervation super sensitivity which occurs within 1–3 days of the spinal shock (Silver, 1970). The third phase takes up to four
weeks it's the initial Hyperreflexia with axon–supported synapse growth. The last phase is the Hyperreflexia and spasticity through

Broca's Hemorrhage Analysis
The haemorrhage occurred in the frontal lobe of the brain; the area closest to and impacted by the haemorrhage is the Broca's area. The Broca's area is
considered the motor speech area, which enables the body to coordinate muscles involved in speech production (Marieb, 2013). Damage to the Broca's
area may result in symptoms that impact the ability to communicate; damage to the area doesn't affect the ability to decipher language, but presents
difficulty for communicating, as it impacts the ability to speak, type and use sign language (Marieb, 2013). The symptoms experienced by damaging
the Broca's area reflect the symptoms experienced by John; Judy described John as having trouble communicating and forming fluent sentences after
the fall.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The peripheral motor division and the central nervous system are involved in voluntary movement. The motor division of the peripheral nervous
system that allows us to move our body, the somatic nervous system is the division of the motor division that enables voluntary movement. The
somatic nervous system conducts voluntary movements by distributing impulses to skeletal muscle from the central nervous system, allowing the
conscious control of skeletal muscle through somatic motor pathways. The information required to control skeletal muscle is generated in the brain by
the primary motor cortex, but the specific origin is dependent on the location of the skeletal muscle, the pathway used is efferent and involves two
motor neurons; the upper motor neuron exits the brain and is projected down the spinal cord in the descending white matter tract, then the cell body of
the lower motor neuron and the axon synapse. The lower motor neuron transmits the information to the skeletal muscle from the spinal cord; the axon
exits the ventral root and terminates at the effector. The primary motor cortex contains the cell bodies of the upper motor neuron, while the motor
nuclei of the ventral grey horn contains the cell bodies of the lower motor neuron. Motor neuron disease is a neuron degenerative

Sensory Division Research Paper
Sensory Input, Integration, and Motor Output Sensory receptors detect when a hot spoon touches your skin which is caused by the sensory input.
Once the receptors feel the input the nervous system decides what to do about it; this is integration. Motor output is what is done about the input,
whether you scream or jerk away from the hot spoon. So the response that you get from the integration is the motor output when is acts upon the body.
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is made of the brain and spinal cord, where the brain is the control center for integration and motor output.
Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS is all the nerves that come off of the brain and spine, acting as the communicator for the rest of the body. The PNS can work in both directions.
Sensory Division
The afferent division, picks up sensory stimuli; telling the brain that something is happening to your body. When the hot spoon touches your arm, the
sensory division sends a message through the PNS to the brain saying that's what's happening.
Motor Division
Also known as the efferent division, sends directions from your brain to the muscles and glands. So when the hot spoon touches you and your sensory
division sends the message of what's happening, the brain will send back a signal making you move your arm away or scream.
Somatic Nervous System ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Autonomic Nervous System
This is the involuntary nervous system, which keeps your heart beating and lungs breathing.
Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division mobilizes the body into action, so when the your brain sends the signal for you to move your arm away from the hot spoon it
makes in move by the sympathetic division.
Parasympathetic Division
This division calms the body down when you have something happen to it, as you scream and move your arm away after the hot spoon has touched
you, you think at least my arm isn't on fire.
The Nervous

3 Reflex Arcs Research Paper
A three–neuron reflex arc consists of a receptor, a sensory (afferent) neuron, and a motor (efferent) neuron. The reflex arc is designed to help keep the
body safe, and is the mechanism that permits immediate responses to danger related stimuli. A conduction pathway of a reflex arc consists of the motor
neuron innervation of the peripheral nervous system, and at least one association neuron from the central nervous system. After the conduction pathway,
an impulse follows. The reflex arc is composed of a sensory receptor, sensory nerve, integrating center, motor nerve, and effector organ.
The sensory receptor detects the presence of a stimulus in the skin, muscle, or other organ. The sensory neuron, which is also the afferent neuron,
carries sensory information to the central nervous system. The integrating center is found only in gray matter of the central nervous system in the brain
or spinal cord. This is where information is processed, and the motor command to stimulate the effector is initiated. The motor neuron, also called the
efferent neuron, carries the motor command to the effector organ. Finally, the effector organ carries out the response to the stimulus, which may be to
a muscle, gland or adipose tissue. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A simple reflex arc would be you touching a hot pan and automatically pulling your hand away, whereas a more complex reflex arc would be you
stepping on a sharp object, you might pull your foot away quickly after you step on the object, then you might fall over depending on what you other
leg is doing. Although, the interneuron also would synapse with motor neurons that control the muscles of your other leg to adjust your position so you
do not fall. Then the interneurons synapses with other neurons will carry information about what just happened to the cerebellum and the cerebrum so
you can become cautious of what happen and take the appropriate action that needs to be

Central Nervous System Research Paper
The central nervous system (CNS) controls the majority of function in the body and mind. It built up in two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The
brain is the centre of our thoughts, control our external environment, and the basis of control over body movement. Its takes information from our
eyes by looking , ears by sound, nose by smell , tongue by tasting, and skin by touch the object also its looks after our internal organs such as the
stomach. A reflex is the simplest, and easy way for activity in thenervous system. It is an automatic, involuntary, unthinking response to a stimulus.
The reflex arc are the neurons that form the path of the impulses of a reflex. Examples of reflex actions are breathing, eye blinking also moving away ...
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flame on that diagram. When we move our finger away from a flame we are taking out the reflex. These are the steps of this reflex are below:
1.The finger is the receptor by touching out the flame. It contains sensory neurons.
2.Sensory neurons carry response quickly to the sensory nerves in the dorsal root.
3.An interneuron carries the impulse through the spinal cord to the motor neurons in the ventral root. However, on the same time, another neuron takes
the impulse to the brain to solve the problem.
4.The motor neurons take the impulse to the effector which is muscle and then the finger got response to take the hand away from the flame. On the
same time, the impulse reaches the brain and we are alert of the pain.
The nervous system allows the animal to quickly detect, communicate information about its external and internal environment. There are two major
parts of our nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord.
The cranial nerves, spinal nerves and ganglia make up the PNS. The cranial nerves connect to the brain. The cranial and spinal nerves contain the
axons (fibres) of sensory and motor nerve

Spinal Muscular Atrophy : An Incurable Autosomal Recessive...
Spinal Muscular Atrophy, also referred to as SMA, is an incurable autosomal recessive disease caused by the mutation or deletion of the survival
motor neuron 1(SMN1) gene located on chromosome five. This illness is the number one cause of infant death from a genetic disease. The
disease is researched and studied heavily in the hopes to find an approved treatment and cure for the disease. With that being said, any discoveries
on the disease are very important. In ones research of SMA, key features of the disease must be discussed in great detail. The cause of SMA, the
symptoms, the diagnosis, the progression of the disease, impacts of being the victim of SMA , any possible treatments (if there are any), and the
support that is provided for families of the patient (if support is provided or not) are all important aspects of the research. Prior research on the topic
must also be considered when discussing the disease in order to understand SMA.
Moving into the explanation of the cause of SMA, it is important to understand the gene that has been deleted (95%–98% of cases) or mutated (2%–5%
of cases) and what all it affects. As mentioned in the first paragraph, SMA is a mutation of the SMN1 gene that is responsible for producing SMN
(spinal motor neuron) proteins for healthy individuals. However, in those affected by SMA, the SMN proteins aren't produced which disables the proper
functioning of the nerves that control muscles (motor neurons). This inability to properly

Essay on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) Case Study
Normal Anatomy and Physiology of Motor Function
The two components of the central nervous system (CNS) are the brain and the spinal cord. Communication between the brain and the spinal cord
happens through motor neurons, which are nerve cells that enable motor movement. Each motor neuron is made up of a cell body, which holds all the
cell components, dendrites which send information it receives to the cell body, and an axon which sends nerve impulses to the muscle (Porth & Matfin,
2009). As electrical impulses are sent through the motor neuron, it stimulates the muscle fibers in the body to move. This is the process in which motor
function happens. Therefore, the basic abilities to breathe, speak, swallow, walk and button a shirt are... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The manifestations of ALS are caused by the location of motor neuron death. When upper motor neurons die, the symptoms include problems
controlling fine movements, spasms, dysphagia, dysphonia and dysarthria (Porth & Matfin, 2009). "Manifestations of lower motor neuron destruction
include fasciculations, weakness, muscle atrophy, and hyporeflexia" (Porth & Matfin, 2009, p. 1284). Patients with early signs of ALS usually
complain of feeling weak on one side, which is due to the slowing of electrical impulses to that group of muscles (Ignatavicius & Workman, 2010).
Since the impulses are slowed, they are not receiving adequate electrical stimulation to move and the person feels weak. As the disease progresses, all
the motor neurons die and are not regenerated so, the patient is left paralyzed, losing the ability to speak, swallow and breathe (Ignatavicius &
Workman, 2010).
A distinctive characteristic of ALS is that although the motor neurons die, the brain, cognitive functions and sensory neurons stay intact (Porth &
Matfin, 2009). This makes the disease especially devastating because patients become trapped inside their dying body, with a fully alert mind, but are
unable to move. It is not known what causes the exact death of the motor neurons in the body, but "five percent to 10% of cases are familial; the
others are believed to be sporadic" (Porth & Matfin, 2009, p.

The Use Of Spinal Cord Neurons From Transgenic Sod1 Mice
Taking a closer look at the cerebrum, allows us to have a better understanding of the dying–forward cascade and its important role in initiating disease
onset (Thomsen, et al., 2014). The outer layer of this complex organ composed of gray matter is the cerebral cortex, region where the corticospinal
neurons related to ALS are located. These upper motor neurons responsible for collecting, integrating, translating, and transferring information to the
spinal cord reside in layer 5 of the motor cortex (Thomsen, et al., 2014), and are the most vulnerable to be injured by excitotoxicity initiating an
anterograde degeneration. In general, ALS research has devoted less attention to the UMN pathology primarily focusing on the LMN connectivity with
the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) (Thomsen, et al., 2014). In spite of this remark, recent studies continue to use spinal cord neurons from transgenic
SOD1 mice but their priority has switched to the UMN behavior. On a study using mutant SOD1G39A rats, (Thomsen, et al., 2014) wanted to establish
whether the upper motor neuron might still play a critical role in disease progression by knocking down mutant SOD1expression in only the motor
cortex. As a consequence of this assay, it was shown for the first time that suppression at the top of themotor neuron pathway results in significant delay
in ALS disease onset. Thus, further highlighting the importance of the upper motor neurons in ALS (Thomsen, et al., 2014).
This thorough understanding

Investigating The Relationship Between Motor Neurons And...
The purpose of this lab is to evaluate the relationship between motor neurons and their associated muscle's electrical activity via neuromuscular
junctions through: determining the correlation between EMG (electromyogram) activity and muscle force, observing muscle fatigue, as well as
calculating the conduction velocity associated with the Achilles tendon reflex arc. An additional purpose of this lab is to demonstrate the effects of
arm circumference and relative dominance on muscle fatigue.
Hypothesis In the first experiment, as muscle force increases as induced by the subject, it is expected that the EMG activity will elevate likewise due to
the directly proportional relationship between contraction strength and the muscle's amount of electrical impulses. Additionally, it is expected that
resistance to fatigue will increase with greater forearm circumference due to the greater amount of fatigue–resistant slow oxidative fibers. In the third
section of this lab, it is anticipated that as path length of a particular reflex arc (in this case, the Achilles tendon reflex) increases, the overall
conduction velocity will decrease due to the increased reflex time necessary for the impulse to be conducted up and down longer neurons.
Background For all aspects of this lab to be properly understood, the following principles and associated information of the following must be known:
the relationship between nerves and their associated muscle(s), how electrical activity is

Speech Amyotrophic Lateral Disease : Is A Chronic And...
This research paper is being written to address Amyotrophic lateral disease (ALS), which is a chronic and terminal disease that affects the lower and
upper motor neurons (Srivastava, 2014). ALS is usually fatal within a few years of inception and affects 2–5 per 100,000 people annually worldwide
(Donnelly, Grima, & Sattler, 2014). This disease usually affects the patient physically and emotionally and as well as their support system. As of
this year, no cure has been developed for this disease. The only drug that has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) thus far, is
a drug that goes by the name Riluzole (Srivastava, 2014). Although Riluzoles is not a cure, it has been effective of lengthening the patients' life
without successful improving the quality of their lives (Srivastava, 2014). While the cause of this disease is unknown, several researchers and clinical
drug trails has been conducted, and researchers has determined that this disease is a candidate for stem cells therapy (Srivastava, 2014). This research
paper goes in great detail in explaining the pathophysiology, assessments findings (both objectives and subjective), and the type of treatments that is
being used to slow down this disease.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis In The United States In this decade, there have been several fatal diseases that have affected many Americans in the
United States. Some of these diseases are easily curable, and others are terminal with no current

Essay about What Is Flaccid Dysarthria?
Flaccid dysarthria results from damage to the lower motor neurons (LMN) or the peripheral nervous system (Hageman, 1997). The characteristics of
flaccid dysarthria generally reflect damage to cranial nerves with motor speech functions (e.g., cranial nerves IX, X, XI and XII) (Seikel, King &
Drumright, 2010). Lower motor neurons connect the central nervous system to the muscle fibers; from the brainstem to the cranial nerves with motor
function, or from the anterior horns of grey matter to the spinal nerves (Murdoch, 1998). If there are lesions to spinal nerves and the cranial nerves
with motor speech functions, it is indicative of a lower motor neuron lesion and flaccid dysarthria. Damage to lower motor neurons that supply the
speech ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lower motor neuron damage can result in respiratory weakness, inability to coordinate respiration for speech, and insufficient ventilation (Hageman,
1997). Poor breath support is a characteristic of flaccid dysarthria that negatively impacts intelligibility. According to Brown et. al. (as cited in
Johansson, Nygren–Bonnier & Schalling, 2011), targeting respiratory support can improve characteristics of flaccid dysarthria such as short phrases,
loudness, phonatory disturbances, impaired prosody and imprecise comments. Thus, respiratory treatment for flaccid dysarthria can be implemented
using glossopharyngeal breathing. Originally, glossopharyngeal breathing was designed for post–polio patients to increase alveolar ventilation (Dail,
1951). Similar to post–polio patients, glossopharyngeal breathing can be used to optimize the speech and voice of a person with characteristics of
flaccid dysarthria (Johansson, Nygren–Bonnier & Schalling, 2012). Glossopharyngeal breathing can be used as an alternative method of respiration in
which air is insuffilated into the lungs (Johansson et. al., 2011). The maneuver is utilized as a strengthening exercise to increase vital capacity
(McKeever & Miller, 2002). Vital capacity is the amount of air that can be exhaled following maximum inhalation. If vital capacity is increased, then
expiration is more relaxed, which allows for sufficient breath support for speech (2011). Individuals with respiratory weakness have

Lou Gehrig's Disease Research Paper
Lou Gehrig's Disease or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a collection of rare neurological diseases that affect the motor neurons that control
the voluntary muscle movements. ALS is a progressive neurodegenerative illness that affects the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. ALS is a
disease that belongs to a wider group of disorders that are known as motor neuron diseases. This is caused by gradual deterioration and the death of
motor neurons. 'Amyotrophic' comes from the Greek roots that mean 'without nourishment to muscles'. 'Lateral' means 'to the side' and refers to the
position of the destruction in the spinal cord. 'Sclerosis' means the hardening of the spinal cord.
ALS was founded in 1869 by Jean–Martin Charcot and ALS is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ALS can also cause slurred and nasal speech and difficulty swallowing or chewing. ALS may appear in the arm or the hand as they might have
trouble performing simple tasks such as buttoning a shirt, writing or turning a key in a lock. Sometimes, the symptoms may affect a leg and
people may suffer awkwardness in walking and running or find that they are stumbling more often. The symptoms of ALS may affect facial
muscles, swallowing and speech. ALS is not usually considered painful. If motor neurons in the lower spinal cord are involved, movement in the
torso, neck and limbs may become affected or lost. ALS is a disease that eventually taking away the ability to walk, dress, write, speak, swallow and
breathe. The life expectancy for a person with ALS is about two to five years, however some people can live for five or more years as ALS is a
variable disease. Supportive care and advanced technology in nutrition and breathing can prolong life. Patients with ALS can experience muscle
weakening and can sometimes have trouble with breathing. Treatment like non–invasive ventilation can

Ryan's Gross Sensorimotor Development
Ryan exhibits primitive postural and movement strategies through the use of the tonic labyrinthine reflex in both prone and supine position. He also
displays an ATNR reflex when he turns his head to the left; if this persists it can inhibit the development of his hand eye coordination along with grasp
and reaching difficulties. Since Ryan's head control is beginning to be voluntary and muscles necessary for neck control are being activated. This could
be considered late primitive stage moving into the early transitional stage. The development of Ryan's neck control can help his postural control. Ryan
displays weight bearing through his leg when positioned into the standing position. This occurs based on his positive standing reflex, not the activation
of lower extremity muscles. Even though Ryan's strategies for purposeful movements are based on reflexes, this will make it difficult for him to do
activities as a typically developing child that does not rely on reflexive movement.
2.Compare and contrast Ryan's gross sensorimotor development with that of a typical 15–month–old child. Include the gross sensorimotor
development level (in months) that you feel Ryan has achieved and give a rationale for the level ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ryan's mother should first roll Ryan onto his side while she is semi–flexing his hip, bringing his arm forward by having her hands supporting his
scapula, and then Ryan can be raised into a sitting position. Ryan's mother can use her forearms to keep Ryan's legs apart and turned out. This will
allow for Ryan's mother to use her hands to control Ryan's shoulders, bringing the shoulders forward and in. Ryan's mother can hold him close to her
body where Ryan is positioned with his hips and knees flexed, shoulders are forward and hands are in midline. This will help Ryan's mother maintain
good posture for Ryan and control the extension

Multiple Sclerosis Case Study
Pathophysiology
Multiple sclerosis is a disease where your immune system attacks the protective barrier around your nerves, called myelin sheaths (Mayo Clinic Staff,
2014). Your immune system falsely recognizes these sheaths as being intruders in the body causing it to attack them leading to nerve damage (this is
called an autoimmune disease). With this nerve damage, there is disruption of the signals being sent from your brain and travelling to the rest of the
body impairing movements, causing pain or numbness and a variety of other symptoms. Over time, the actual nerves begin to lose function and
disintegrate (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014).
Two other characteristics are involved in the disease process: inflammation and the formation of lesions or plaques in the centralnervous system – or
CNS (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). Lesions are formed when oligodendrocytes – myelin–building cells – are lost causing the myelin sheath to thin or even
completely breakdown leaving the nerve axon exposed and unable to send effective signals to your muscles (Huether and McCance, 2008). The
oligodendrocytes attempt to remyelinate the axons but with multiple attacks, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What most clinicians say regarding "attacks" is that a patient may have them months or even years apart (Medscape, 2014). A patient may complain of
leg pain and several months later have visual disturbances (Medscape, 2014). The most common symptoms seen in MS patients are as follows: sensory
loss, muscle cramping and spasms, bladder/bowel/sexual dysfunction, optic neuritis (loss of vision, muscle movements impaired), tremor, trigeminal
neuralgia (facial weakness, typically bilateral), facial myokymia (twitching of facial muscles), eye symptoms, heat intolerance, fatigue, dizziness, sleep
disturbance, pain, cognitive impairments (concentration, memory, attention span and judgment), depression, and seizures (Medscape,

Motor Neuron Disease
Motor neuron disease This week I chose an article about motor neuron disease because this disease is not a common disease. However, it can severely
affect the well–being of our bodies. A motor neuron disease is the deterioration of motor neurons. This disease can be occasional or hereditary; it can
affect two types of motors, the Upper motor neurons the Lower motor neurons located in our brain. Moreover, the signs and the symptoms of a motor
neuron disease depend on the kind of motor neuron disease a person has. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is one of the most contracted types of neurons
disease. Furthermore, there are three types of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis including Sporadic, Familial, and Western Pacific. Among these three types

Model Neurons
Have you ever wondered why we're able to flex our muscles? Or maybe, how to we have the ability to memorize information? These questions can be
answered simply, neurons. Neurons are special cells that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscles or gland cells. Neurons take up, process, and
transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. The basic neuron is made up of three parts, the cell body, axons, and dendrites. The cell
body contains the nucleus in which all genetic material and organelles (golgi body, mitochondria, etc.) is carried. Dendrites are short branched
extensions that come out from the cell body. Theses branches bring in electrical signals into the body. Axons are long and thread like, they take info
away ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A group of neurological disorders that destroy motor neurons are called Motor Neuron Diseases (MND). One MND you might recognize is
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease). ALS is caused by the death of neurons; the nerve cells break down which
reduces the ability to function. Because the motor neuron has died, the brain cannot initiate and control the muscles. With voluntary muscle action
progressively affected, people may lose the ability to speak, eat, move and breathe. There are many more MNDs like primary lateral sclerosis,
progressive muscular atrophy, progressive bulbar palsy, and pseudobulbar

Destruction Of The Neurons Responsible For Involuntary...
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also called Lou Gehrig's disease, is a neurodegenerative motor disease that results in the
destruction of the neurons responsible for involuntary muscle movement (NINDS 2014). Patients are determined to have ALS if they have both upper
motor neuron disease and lower motor neuron disease (Gordon 2011). Many people that have been diagnosed with ALS are seen in wheelchairs or if
the person is in the early onset of ALS, using other walking devices. This is because in 65% of patients, ALS begins with weakness in the arms, legs,
and body, therefore this results in the loss of capability to walk (Gordon 2011, A.D.A.M. 2012). Most patients live for approximately three to five years
after symptom onset and usually die when the muscles in the chest stop working, which causes their heart and lungs to stop functioning as well
(Gordon PH 2011, A.D.A.M. 2012). This is caused by muscles weakening until atrophy and fasciculations occur, leading to the brain being unable to
control voluntary movement (NINDS). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is classified as a motor neuron disease (NINDS).
The nervous system is made up of neurons that take in information through our senses and then processes it to the rest of the body(IQWig 2012). After
this, motor neurons send a signal from the nerve cell in the brain, to the brain stem, down the spinal cord, and cause a reaction in the muscular system
(NINDS 2014). An example of this would be

ALS Research Papers
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a motor neuron disease that has been known to physicians since the late 1860's. ALS was first discovered in
1869 by French neurologist Jean–Martin Charcot, but it was not until 1939 when a famous baseball player, Lou Gehrig, brought national and
international attention to the disease. Lou Gerhig, a New York Yankee baseball player, was known as the Iron Horse for his tremendous achievement
of playing 2,130 consecutive games. Gerhig developed ALS at the age of 35, and passed away in 1941 from the disease. Since it was so difficult for
people to pronounce the proper name, the disease became commonly known as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What is Lou Gehrig disease? (1–2). The diagnosis of ALS can be a difficult one. In the early stages of the disease, many of the ALS symptoms mimic
similar diseases that are considered treatable. Since there is no one clinical or laboratory test to fully identify ALS, the diagnosis is made primarily
through careful assessment of the patient through their medical history and neurological testing. ALS patients are sent from a general or family doctor
to a neurologist who specializes in the nervous system for further evaluation. Neurologists will commonly order the following tests to look for any
abnormalities:
Blood and Urine tests – looking for any indicator of Creatinine kinase which the body produces when muscle breaks down.
An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – a scan using radio waves and a powerful magnetic field to rule out other causes of symptoms like strokes,
Parkinson's or any abnormalities in the brain or spinal cord.
An EMG (electromyography) – this is fine needles are inserted into a patients muscle and the electrical activity is recorded. This test will help identify
the affected muscles from the healthy

Motor Unit Of A Single Motor Neuron
Motor unit consists of a single motor neuron together with skeletal muscle fibres that are innervated by the motor neuron. Alpha motor neurons are the
lower motor neurons of the brainstem and spinal cord that predominate within motor pools and innervate muscle fibres that cause muscle contraction. A
single alpha motor neuron can innervate a large number of skeletal muscle fibres since motor neuron (approximately 420,000) are outnumbered by
muscle fibres (approximately 200 million). This is achieved by the branching of a single motor axon in the muscle to synapse on numerous distinct
fibres that are well spread over a large area within the muscle so the contractile force would scatter uniformly.
Motor units are sorted according to speed of contractions, amount of tension generated and fatigue resistance. In human, there is one slow–twitch fibre
and two types of fast–twitch fibres. Therefore, the three principal types of motor units are slow (S, type–I) motor units, fast fatigable (FF, type–IIB)
motor units and fast fatigue–resistant (FR, type–IIA) motor units.
'Red' muscles are innervated by small motor neuron of the S type and the muscles slowly contract producing fairly minute force compared to the
fast–twitch fibres because S has small and few contractile filaments. S motor unit has large amount of mitochondria and sufficient blood supply to
maintain aerobic metabolism because of extensive network of capillaries. Moreover, they are rich of myoglobin that stores oxygen

How Different Gender Will Affect The Reaction Rate Of 13
YR 12
INVESTIGATION: REACTION TIMES.
BY CAITLIN DAWSON
TITLE: How different gender will affect the reaction rate of 13 to 17 years olds.
ABSTRACT: This investigation entailed the study of wether gender will affect the reaction times when tested. The average visualreaction time for a
human is 0.25 seconds (250 milliseconds) and the average touch reception is 0.15 seconds (150 milliseconds), adding both these figures gives and
estimated group time of 0.40 seconds (400 milliseconds). The average reaction speed for the boys was 342 and the average reaction speed for the
girls was 392, in relation to average reaction speed these results are quite accurate as the age bracket was younger and smaller than the expected
averages for humans.This investigation is well related to society as the measurement of visual reaction time has been used to evaluate the processing
speed of Central Nervous System and the co–ordination between the sensory and motor systems, when shown a visual stimulus.
Stimulus > Sensory Neuron > Spinal Cord/Brain > Motor Neuron = Response.
INTRODUCTION: Reaction time plays a very important role in our lives as it determines our every day life, factors that can affect the average human
reaction time including age, gender, exercise/ health, distractions, height etc. Reaction time is a measure of how quick organisms can respond to types
of stimulus, e.g visual or auditory. A reflex is a rapid, automatic response to a change in the external or

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a generic, lethal...
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a generic, lethal condition characterized by an inability to will voluntary muscles as desired. The motor neurons
responsible for exciting muscular contractions are deficient and loss of usage in voluntary muscles results in their atrophy. Characterized early in life,
children with SMA exhibit difficulty in early voluntary muscular activities such as crawling, sucking, imitation of facial expressions, and breathing.
Three stage of SMA exist: SMA I for children younger than six months, SMA II for children between 6–18 months of age, and SMA III for all
remaining children. For many affected individuals, life expectancy depends upon the time in which symptoms began. The longer it takes for SMA...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Genetics of Spinal Muscular Atrophy
In 1995 a French group of researchers discovered that SMA is autosomal recessive disorder due to loss of the survival motor neuron protein gene
(SMN) (Lefebvre et al., 1995). Through experimentation the researchers discovered two copies of the SMN gene in chromosome five [chr 5q13.2]:
telomeric and centromeric SMN copies. Experimentation proved that loss of the telomeric SMN (today known as SMN1) and not loss of its
centromeric counterpart, SMN2, resulted in SMA. It took an additional six years for researchers to glimpse at the functions provided by SMN1.
Meister et al. categorized the SMN1 protein an essential to promote correct assembly of U12 small ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). In genetics, snRNPs
are nucleic proteins responsible for the splicing of premature ribonucleic acid chains (pre–mRNA) derived from genes. Without correct splicing, mature
ribonucleic acid chains (mRNAs) produce dysfunctional proteins when translated. In this case, splicing functionality of U12 – intron containing
transcripts is lost, and because the transcript is wrongly coded, its translation will produce a functionless protein. Hence, loss of SMN1 results in an
inability form U12 snRNPs splicing complexes, and reduced splicing functionality results in loss of U12 – intron splicing functionality (Patel and
Steitz, 2003). Only recently (2012) did researchers

The Lateral Sclerosis ( Als ) Is A Neurodegenerative...
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes loss of motor neurons and progressive weakness including loss of
speech(Wijesekera & Leigh, 2009). Its onset typically occurs in the sixth decade of life but rare instances can happen earlier. It can begin as
bulbar onset which affects the voice, breathing and speech patterns or limb onset which can begin in the arms or legs (Wijesekera & Leigh,
2009). Roughly 90% of cases of ALS are sporadic and not linked to familial history of the disease(Wijesekera & Leigh, 2009). Once ALS starts it
almost always progresses, eventually taking away the ability to walk, dress, write, speak, swallow, and breathe and shortening the life span. There is
no treatment or cure for ALS, however there are a few drugs which have been able to slow the progression of the disease in some patients. As a result
affected individuals become "locked in" and unable to communicate. These patients can benefit greatly from the use of a brain computer interface
(BCI)(Birbaumer, 2006; Coyle, Ward, Markham, & McDarby, 2004).
BCI can help individuals communicate without relying on muscular control, which is critical for clinical populations of neuromuscular disease
patients, such ALS (Wolpaw, 2002). The use of BCI can enable communication and increase quality of life but to date the effects of mental fatigue
have been ignored. However, the current state of BCI technology and overall usability is not advanced enough to replace more

Somatic Motor Neurons
The human body can relate to many items that are used everybody by many. One of those items can be a vending machine. Yes, it is indeed true that a
vending machine can in fact be related to the human body, especially motor neurons. When one wants to buy a snack, and have the convenience of a
vending machine it acts in the way just as a motor neuron. A motor neuron is a type of neuron that transfers impulses from the centralnervous system
(CNS) to either a muscle or gland. There are three types of motor neurons, one of them being somatic motor neurons, special visceral motor neurons,
and general visceral motor neurons. In our case, we are dealing with somatic motor neurons because the neuron not only begins from the central nervous
system, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Billy loves skittles and has his mind set on them, the second he sees them. As soon as Billy finds out which number is for skittles he presses the
button, and before you know it, he is devouring them. Motor neurons play into this very well. When little Billy presses the button to select the skittles
he is sending an impulse throughout the machine that not only the item being selected is skittles, but the impulse goes all the way to the skittles
section specifically. That impulse is sent all the way to the prong or "muscle" that then pushes the candy all the way out so it falls down to the bottom
of the machine. The message the motor neuron is carrying is to get a pack of skittles to fall to the bottom of the vending machine. This whole process
starts with the dollar that soon sets the rest of the process off.
In the end, many everyday objects can be used to describe somatic motor neurons, some may say a kid picking up a baseball and throwing it, but
none of them will get the overall concept like a vending machine. A vending machine will clearly display not only how the motor neuron sends an
impulse, but also when the impulse's reaction reaches the muscle, or prong. As well as being a great example, you can get even better

How Does Voltage Gated Sodium Ions Move Into Sodium Channels
The way a signal starts in the motor neuron is by way of a stimulus activating sensory neurons. This signal travels by way of the axon that contains
schwann cells. The signal continues to move into the CNS, which causes signal to be sent to interneurons. The interneurons can send the signal through
the peripheral system or to the brain via the spinal cord.
When a skeletal muscle fires it is caused by a signal in a motor neuron. Voltage gated sodium channels open up after a threshold stimulus of–55mV is
reached. Next, Sodium ions move into the cell membrane, thus depolarizing the cell at +30mV, which is itsaction potential. Sodium channels close and
Potassium channels open. Potassium moves out, which repolarizes the cell. Hyperpolarization

Amyotrophic Parallel Sclerosis: Lou Gehrig's Disease
Overview
Amyotrophic parallel sclerosis (ALS) is dangerous issue. It influences the piece of the sensory system that controls voluntary movements. ALS is
some of the time called Lou Gehrig's sickness, after the well known baseball player who died because of the disease.In this disease the muscles
gradually become weaker that leads to paralysis and even sometimes death. ALS can also be known as motor neuron disease. In motor neuron disease
people eventually loses control on muscles and become paralyzed. The effects of motor neuron disease cannot be reversed and cured. Most of the
people die within 5 years of appearance of symptoms.
Causes
We don't recognize what causes frontal projection dementia in individuals with ALS. A couple individuals... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The careful way of this change fluctuates from individual to individual.
The accompanying indications are basic:
1. Unresponsiveness (absence of interest, withdrawal)
2. Absence of feeling
3. Diminished suddenness
4. Loss of hindrance
5. Anxiety or over activity
6. Social impropriety
7. Mood swings
Treatment
In later stage when ALS progresses it becomes difficult to digest food and breathe. Riluzole is considered first approved drug by Food and Drug
Administration(FDA) to cure ALS. Riluzole decreases the release of glutamate and thus reduces the damage to motor neurons.
When clinical trials of riluzole were done on ALS patients, they showed that their survival rate gets extended by several months, mainly in those with
difficulty swallowing. The patient taking riluzole must be monitored for possible side eefects like liver damage.Although the drug cannot reverse the
destruction done to motor neurons but can extend the time before a patient needs ventilation

Effects Of Motor Neuron Disease
Motor Neuron Disease MND is a disease that has no medical cure yet but there are medications that you can take to try and help the symptoms.
Motor Neuron Disease doesn't damage the senses of eyesight, hearing, taste and smell. When diagnosed with MND you only have around 1 to 5
years to live. One of the side effects of MND is the movement of your limbs, which will be restricted and eventually will cease, along with you and
your voice. Then you will be confined to a motorised wheelchair. MND will also affect the repertory system making you increasingly disabled and
also making you unable to walk, run, jog and drive. MND will also affect your emotions and actions rapidly Motor Neuron Disease has affected many
people from Neale Daniher, whose

Motor Neuron Disease Research Paper
Clinical Feature Motor neuron disease (MND) is a serious and incorrigible form of progressive neurodegeneration – over time the nerves in the spine
and brain gradually lose function. In the case of motor neuron disease, motor neurons – varieties of nerve cells – are affected. They are a group of
progressive neurological disorders that terminate cells that control essential muscle activity such as speaking, walking, breathing and swallowing.
MNDs transpire more commonly in males than in females, and symptoms might appear after age 40. Types of MNDs ALS (amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis) is the most common form and accounts for roughly 60% to 70% of all cases. PBP (progressive bulbar palsy) represents about 20% of all
cases. PMA (progressive... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In most nations, when a patient is diagnosed they will be familiarized with a team of health–care specialists who will be keenly involved in their care.
There is no treatment or standard cure for MNDs. Symptomatic and supportive treatment can help patients be more comfy while maintaining their
quality of life. The drug riluzole (RilutekВ®), which as of this date is the solitary drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat
ALS, extends life by 2–3 months but does not relieve symptoms. Other medications that might help lessen symptoms include muscle relaxants such as
baclofen, tizanidine and the benzodiazepines for spasticity; glycopyrrolate and atropine to treat unwarranted saliva and anticonvulsants and
nonsteroidal anti–inflammatory medications to relieve pain. Panic attacks can be treated with benzodiazepines. Long–term Outcomes Outcomes differ
contingent on the kind of MND and the age of onset. Some MNDs, such as primary lateral sclerosis and Kennedy disease, are not deadly and progress
gradually. Patients with spinal muscular atrophy might appear to be stable for lengthy periods, but improvement should not be

Skeletal Muscle Contractions
The nervous system of the human body is an organized network of nerve cells and fibers that receive, transport, and respond to stimuli. Skeletal muscle
movement involves components of the nervous system. The nervous system is an organized network of nerve cells and fibers that is subdivided into
the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consist of the brain and the spinal cord. This system is considered to
be the information processing center of the body. On the other hand the peripheral system (PNS) is made up of the nerves and ganglia. The peripheral
system is considered to be the communicator between the central nervous system and body parts. This system is then further subdivided into somatic
and autonomic components. The somatic component is associated with skeletal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Neurons are responsible for receiving, interpreting, and responding to stimuli. Neurons are classified into three groups: sensory neurons, interneurons,
and motor neurons. Sensory neurons are responsible for detecting stimuli from the body's internal and external environment.Think of sensory neurons
as the input. Interneurons also called association neurons and are responsible for the distribution of sensory input and the coordination of motor output
(Bartholomew and Martini 2007). Motor neurons carry the information received from the central nervous system and carry the information to organs.
These organs that receive the information are also classified as effectors which are the bodily responses to a stimulant (BBC 2014). Examples of
effectors include muscles, glands, and even adipose tissue (Bartholomew and Martini 2007). The target effector in this case study would be skeletal
muscle. The interneurons and the motor neurons are the only two neurons involved in the transfer of impulses from the central nervous system to the
peripheral nervous

Mirror Neurons And Motor Memory Formation Essay

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