Ap Psychology Module 6

Ap Psychology Module 6
1. A hypothesis is an explanation that can be tested based on observation. A statistical hypothesis is
testable explanation based on observation and different variables. A null hypothesis explains what
the results of the experiment will be if the original hypothesis is wrong. An alternate hypothesis is
the opposite result if there is or isn't a null hypothesis. Semmelweis hypothesized that bacteria/virus
filled extremities resulted in higher death rates.
2. A hypothesis is tested through an experiment. To have effective testing, the experiment must have
controlled variables, one control (without independent variable), and an experimental group.
3. Semmelweis could have tested his hypothesis another way by making the doctors wear something
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Replication, external review, and data recording and sharing, are important to the scientific method
because it helps support the hypothesis even more. By replicating the experiment and sharing the
data, it increases the validity of the experiment. Semmelweis included these concepts in his
experiment by repeating the experiment multiple times, he showed a third party (other scientists) his
experiment, and he shared his data and results to multiple sources, but scientists dismissed it.
5. The types of scientific bias are confirmation bias, appeal to novelty, and appeal to tradition.
Confirmation bias is when data is interpreted based on your own beliefs. Appeal to novelty is when
data is interpreted correct based on solely being new. Appeal to tradition is the opposite in which
data is interpreted because it's based in tradition. Confirmation bias and appeal to novelty is present
in Semmelweis' story.
6. The miasma theory of disease stated "diseases were caused by the presence in the air of a miasma,
a poisonous vapour in which were suspended particles of decaying matter that was characterised by
its foul smell." (http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk) He also hypothesized that the infection was in
the air, and when breathed in it caused the fever. He tested this and realized his hypothesis was
wrong because one wing had a higher percentage of cases with the fever than the other wing. And if
the infection was air–born than the percentage of cases with the fever would have been the same in
each
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Ideas To Blame In Soho London's Cholera Outbreak
In the late summer of 1854, Cholera violently seized the largest metropolitan city in the world, Soho
London, in a mass outbreak that resulted in thousands of deaths. Physician John Snow walked the
streets of Soho trying determine what was causing the cholera outbreak, which was a leaking
cesspool into the Broad Street pump. Moreover, Snow concluded Cholera was water born and made
a map to prove his findings, but the miasma theory prevented his theory from being accepted. The
miasma theory shows how faulty ideas are accepted in society simply because they seem reasonable
answers. Being apart of the Whitehead group, I saw how Vicar of St.Lukes church, Henry
Whitehead, tried to disprove Snow's theory because he believed Cholera was the result ... Show
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For example, Whitehead and Snow came from different backgrounds and would not have been
friends if Cholera did not exist. Additionally, Snow's map would not have existed if London did not
exist. Snow's map lead to geographical based information systems (GIS) because it took a city and
mapped out the number of deaths. GIS allows citizens to view a place and overlay data to find
answers. An example of a GIS system is Google Maps because the program takes a map, and
overlays data, such as traffic levels, to visually show results. However, the accuracy of the results
depends on how frequently the data is

Persuasive Speech On Conformity In Science
How bizarre would it be to live in a world where people still believed the Earth was flat? Or if
doctors were drilling holes into their patient's heads for 'migraine relief'? Luckily, we exist on a
planet where curios forefathers have already paved the scientific highway to innovation. If
renowned scientist such as Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein had followed the scientific norms of
their time, rather challenge accepted beliefs; they would have never made crucial discoveries that
impact our world today. Furthermore, people should understand that scientific creativity is vital for
progression. Resisting conformity is important within the scientific community; it is said that in
science people must question everything, and provide evidence to support their discoveries. Proving
or disproving beliefs have an impact on our daily lives, and the most critical discoveries were made
by creative minds.
Despite the advice of peers being highly valued, one should refrain from succumbing to the
scientific beliefs of others without question. In science, conformity could be described as a parasite
draining intelligence from humanity. In order to learn and grow, we must cultivate our minds by
thoroughly understanding the principles of a subject. However, most pupils have become
accustomed to taking their teacher's lessons at face value, and tend to memorize subjects in contrast
to than learning them. This problematic pathway to education results in students who don't know
how to make

John Snow Cholelera Outbreak Case Study
John Snow attempted and found the source of the Cholera outbreak, using several tools that
narrowed in on the here and now. For instance, he in short looked at the commonalities and
differences with who and who did not fall sick with the disease, where did they live, where did they
work, and what pump supplied the water that they drank. He retrieved this information by going
door–to–door, then mapped the data which produced a spatial distribution of the disease. The map
then gave him a visual analyzation of who was sick and died, and the proximity they were to the
Broad Street pump. He titled the work, "Topography of the outbreak" (Shiode, 2012). He might have
also concluded who was at risk for contracting Cholera by using the spatial sphere of the outbreak
relative to those who had not contracted the disease (Anamzui–Ya, 2012).
(Question 1: Why here and why now?)
John Snow, not knowing germ theory of disease, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In Epidemiology, it is useful to find the source of the disease you can take action to rid or treat the
source, thus eradicating transmission of future disease cases. John looked at the relationships
between the biological, social, and environmental factors, such as (Goldstein, 2012):
1. Who got sick?
2. Where did they live or work?
3. What was their source for water / was it from Broad Street?
4. What water pump did they use?
5. What environmental toxins were near the pumps?
6. Will the number of Cholera cases decrease if the pumps are removed?
(Question 2: What was the hypothesis and how was it tested?)
In summary, John Snow established a foundation for locating the source of disease, using
inferences, cause and effect, mapping the distribution of disease, and proving that Cholera was a
waterborne disease rather than airborne as once

Galen's Miasma Theory
This theory suggests that micro–organisms cause disease, before this was discovered it was believe
that miasmas (bad smells) were the cause of disease. The theory of germs was first suggested by
Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546 but as scientific evidence to support this was slow, people didn't
believe in things they couldn't see to be the cause of an illness. As public health was very poor, it
wasn't seen as an issue. Galen's miasma theory continued to be believe by doctors and scientists;
which was more educated than what was previously thought. In earlier years it was believed that
being ill was a punishment from God and to cure themselves would either try to punish themselves
so God wouldn't have to; give offerings to God (including prayer);

Throughout Our History, Infectious Diseases Have Posed
Throughout our history, infectious diseases have posed the biggest challenge on human survival. It's
hard to believe that people once assumed that foul odors caused diseases or that one becomes ill due
to the presence of "evil spirits". It's also hard to imagine that there was a time in which it was
seldom that a parent would see all of their children grows up into adulthood. The fight against
disease developed with the consolidation of the germ theory, which also offered a massive
forewarning for most individuals. The germ theory, alone, played a massive role in the entire
revolution of medicine. The theory acquainted people of the reality of germs and the magnitude of
hygiene. This revolution was eternal and the most crucial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Medicine men or priests represented healers due to the fact that they were believed to have special
relationships to the supernatural realm. Exorcisms, spells, and divination were common practices to
cure those infected by disease, or "evil spirits". Modern vocabulary still reflects these beliefs
through phrases such as being "attacked" by an illness, or to "fight off" infections. The beliefs of the
supernatural controlling the health of individuals was unanimous all throughout the ancient world
and confirmed by medical writings from Egypt, China, India, and Mesopotamia.
The history behind the evolution of the germ theory of disease can be traced back to speculations in
300 BC. Hippocrates of Cos, Greek physician known as the father of western medicine, attributed
disease to vapors that arose from decomposing material or swampland. Hippocrates believed
infectious diseases formed through atmospheric–miasmatic theory of disease, which was that
diseases were caused by miasma, which was a noxious form of "bad air". Hippocrates's theory was
influential up until the late nineteenth century; the time when the relationship between disease and
microbes was confirmed.
The contagiousness of leprosy, beginning in the early centuries of the Christian era, played a major
roll in the study of disease transmission. The book of Leviticus, in the Old Testament, is one of the
earliest writings to notice a system in controlling

The Breath Of Other People Killed Them
Throughout the eighteenth–century great strides were being made in the medical field regarding the
understanding of disease, biology, and public health. With the contributions of scientists, doctors,
and researchers the overall health of the ever–growing population in the eighteenth–century began
to improve dramatically. By the early nineteen hundreds, life expectancy had risen to about 55 years.
The introduction and understanding of antiseptics, sterilization, and etiology and discoveries of
Pasteur, Lister, and Koch invoked a rise against disease which lead to a rise in life expectancy. All
throughout history humans have had to face disease in all of its many different forms. This forced
them to develop many different ways of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the greatest breakthroughs in medicine occurred in the late eighteenth with the discovery of
Louis Pasteur and his experiments regarding the growth of bacteria and their ability to travel from
place to place. After countless years of research and analyzation, Pasteur used his findings to
develop pasteurization (Haigh). Pasteurization is a process which involves heating certain liquids to
kill bacteria and prevent fermentation. Pasteur also developed an anthrax vaccine along with a way
to weaken the effects of the rabies virus. Using the work of Pasteur another scientist by the name of
Joseph Lister developed antisepsis, a way of killing disease–causing germs. In 1865 before an
operation, Lister cleaned a leg wound with carbolic acid and performed the surgical procedure with
heated instruments, heating the instruments sterilized them (Gieson). The patient in question would
have needed an amputation if it was not for Lister sterilizing medical instruments and the surgical
field. Eventually, Lister incorporated the use of sterilization in all of his surgical procedures,
decreasing the amount of postoperative mortality. The use of antiseptics did not just reduce
postoperative mortality it also helped out in the treatment of wounds and making childbirth a less
risky process for both women and their children.
Another scientist that lead to great reform in the medical community, science, and public health was
Robert

Summary Of Cholera
Valerie Montague Reading Response 6
Aberth
He begins by describing the identification of cholera by Koch and some of the epidemiology.
Cholera is a gastrointestinal disease marked by excessive defecation and vomiting at alarming rates.
This along with a toxin in the small intestines causes dehydration and wearing down of the GI tract.
The first known pandemic of cholera began in 1817 and persisted in various parts of the world
throughout the 19th century. The disease presents an interesting way to look at social ideologies and
imperialism in 19th century Europe with some people accusing others of poison as the cause of the
disease. Also those who died of cholera were often given dishonorable burials and designated for
dissection. Aberth finishes the chapter by talking about John Snow, a British surgeon who traced
cholera back to sewage contaminated with feces decades before germ theory was recognized.
Bynum
Bynum focuses this chapter on public health measures against disease. ... Show more content on
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Evans argues that cholera played a large role in political change and medicalization. To analyze this,
he looked at the psychological impact of cholera, the extent of political upheaval, and scapegoats for
the epidemic as a mode for policy change. For the first point, Evan stated that the symptoms of
cholera went against feelings of 'Victorian prudery' as the disease is degrading. He continues by
pointing out the idea that the poor are most vulnerable to the epidemic. For his second point, Evans
links the outbreaks of cholera to political revolutions and upheavals. Continuing on with this point,
he says that mass movement of people by war and trade played a large role in the spread of the
disease. For his third point, he shows various scapegoats such as the government with the 'cordons
sanitares'. He says that riots against government quarantine caused the governments to back

Underdeveloped Medical Practices
The medical practices used today are called barbaric and underdeveloped, causing people in this
state to think that the doctors we have use no sense of logic when treating patients. But, there are a
great deal of people who beg to differ. Also, there are people who agree with the other critics and
furious families who blame the doctors for losing their loved ones. Medical practices, and medicine
in general, have helped the soldiers out on the battlefield in many ways, ranging from the lives that
the people save for quick and efficient surgeries, like amputation, to the sanitation of hospitals and
recovery stations, and the dietary regimes that help the soldiers, and even innocent bystanders, get
back to their former shape, even with a lost ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Well, in hospitals, of course. These hospitals, makeshift and actual hospitals, are very resourceful in
a way that our men fighting in the War don't have to lay around on threadbare blankets and have
very low food supply while they're healing. Makeshift hospitals right now are made out of old
churches, with volunteers to help the wounded, both men and women. They are installed with beds,
and washrooms where the wounded can clean up independently or with help from the nurses or their
assigned doctors. They have even installed a dietary regime to help the men heal faster! But, there
are still some questionable methods as to what the hospitals do. Our readers ask, "What about the
mobile hospitals?" and others, "What about the training?". Sadly, the nurses in these hospitals aren't
really trained, especially the women. But, who says a woman needs to be trained to help men in
need? Wouldn't anyone help them in any way they can? Also, the mobile hospitals are used for
transporting wounded soldiers to the nearest hospital, while doing what they can to keep the patients
stable ("Civil War" (Gale)). They may not be the requested mode of transportation, but they still
help our men in the best way they can. If the people of West Virginia donated resources and money,
the female nurses and male nurses could get training and the mode of transportation will be updated,
and work

Ghost Map Analysis
Alyssa Douglas
NS 350
Ghost Map
In 1854 the city London was the most populated in the world. In just ninety square miles there was
over two million currently living there. During this time period having so many people in such a
tight place was unknown. With the constant population growth it caused a number of problems. The
main problem that was faced was the mass amount of waste and where to put it. Families used water
closets, but even with the water closets their waste was emptied into cesspools. It wasn't uncommon
for these cesspools to over fill often, even with night– soil men continuously emptying them. The
streets of London were fifthly. With the constant mass amounts of waste the London government
came to a decision to dump of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The miasma theory was the thought that the terrible smells must be able to carry disease, therefore
cause illness. For a long time a practicing physician by the name of John snow theorized that the
miasma theory was false and that instead disease was spread by water contamination. He used his
theory of disease transmission and started investigating. For about four or five years John Snow
theorized that cholera came from contaminated water. This was a very taboo theory and confused
the citizens who believed in the miasma theory. He experimented over and over again On august
28th 1854, a baby contracted cholera at the broad street pump in So ho. The broad street pump was
known for the best water in all of so ho and it was widely used. The baby contaminated the broad
street pump and 2–3 days later one of London's biggest outbreaks of cholera broke out. Literally
10% of the neighborhood died in seven days. Entire family's were dying after 48 hours of being
contaminated with it. Snow heard about this huge outbreak and was brave enough to dive in and
look into this situation because it might just be enough to convince people to go against the miasma
theory. John Snow was able to pin point a single point source on the source of so many illnesses, the
broad street pump. This was easy to identify because it was so widely used. It was killing so many
people in one area, one area tends to have the same water

Harmful Causes Of Lifestyle Diseases
Lifestyle diseases refer to diseases that are associated to the daily routines of the people. Lifestyle
diseases have been pervaded to the population globally due to poor lifestyle choices. Lifestyle
diseases must be taken seriously because several deaths are caused by lifestyle diseases. Too much
smoking, consumption of alcohol, physical inactivity, inadequate sleep, and unhealthy diet
contributed to the development of lifestyle diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, chronic
diseases including obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and various kinds of cancers. It
was stated that many patients lack preparations to start to maintain healthy habits despite being
encouraged by doctors. (Golubic 2013)
Non–communicable diseases or chronic diseases such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, chronic
respiratory diseases , and asthma are the results of behavioural, environmental, genetical, and
physiological factors. The risk factors that were stated are modifiable behavioural risk factors and
metabolic risk factors. (World Health Organization 2017)
Modifiable risk factors include:
Use of tobacco
Physical inactivity
Unhealthy diet
Harmful effects of Alcohol
Metabolic factors include:
Increased of blood pressure
Overweight or Obesity
Hyperglycemia (high blood glucose levels)
Hyperlipidemia (high levels of fat in blood)
In a global status report about Noncommunicable Diseases, Dr. Margaret Chan, the Director–
General of WHO, stated a message about the

Essay on Blue Death Questions
PART I QUESTIONS
1. Models are analogies that allow us to clarify hypotheses–proposed explanations of relationships
between causes and effects. What roles do models play in testing hypotheses?
Models provide the physical testing and proof of a hypothesis by exploring the extent to which the
two factors relate within the given hypothesis. It puts a theory into action, to see if the theory is
correct.
2. What did the humoral model of disease propose as the cause for cholera?
The humoral model of disease said that disease was caused by an imbalance in one or more of four
"humors" or fluids in the body: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Physicians would decide
on a treatment based on what they thought was the cause of the ... Show more content on
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7. When was the germ theory of disease proposed, and on what basis?
The germ theory was proposed by Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur in the 1870s, on the basis that
microorganisms were the cause of many diseases.
PART III
1. Why was it useful to be able to verify the source of the water?
Verifying the source of water was the only way to prevent its spread. Since it is an epidemic, it
affects many people at the same time, and it is very important to stop the spreading into more
communities to prevent further death and the expansion of the disease. Verification allowed
companies using that source to change where they obtained their water, and allowed water treatment
to take place.
2. Why would a neighborhood served by two different water companies be more useful for testing
Snow's hypothesis than two neighborhoods each with their own source?
A reviewer in the London Medical Gazette suggested that Snow find people living side by side with
lifestyles similar in all aspects except of their water source. He made this suggestion because this
would ensure that the neighbors breathe the same air and resemble each other more in variables
other than the water source. This would guarantee that the water is the source, and not other factors
that is causing the cholera.
3. Epidemiologists often draw causal webs to illustrate the

Cholera In The Ghost Map
The Ghost Map Steven Johnson provides a thought–provoking observation of the bacterial disease
cholera in his book The Ghost Map. He explores the means by which the deadly Vibrio Cholorae
was able to devastate a developing section of London in only a week's time at the start of September
in 1854. Johnson offers details on the development of cities, which supplied the perfect environment
for the bacterium to thrive and kill off thousands of people in weeks. Before the 1854 epidemic,
Cholera was an unidentifiable mystery to the scientists and thinkers of London. Theories of how the
illness spread and how it was to be cured varied extensively, each concept with its own unwavering
supporters eager to spread their ideas while debunking others. In The Ghost Map, Johnson tells the
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The conditions described by Johnson were unavoidably accompanied by an elevated death rate. The
first huge disease that coursed through the filthy city was the Black Death; outbreaks of the bubonic
plague occurred until 1655. In 1832 the first outbreak of Cholera occurred in Britain. It would not be
the last. Cholera most likely originated in India as many as 1,000 years ago. The earliest
documentation of recorded symptoms is from a medical report written in 1563. Later, the first
cholera pandemic initiated in 1817 when the bacterium spread from India to Southeast Asia, Central
Asia, Russia, the East African coast and the Middle East and lasted until 1823. Modernization
eventually increased the extent of the illness through providing means by which the bacteria could
spread. On its own, Cholera would have remained separated from the rest of the world by miles of
land and sea, but technological innovations connected the continents, and it did not take long for the
bacteria to infect the precise human beings who would provide them safe travel. In 1826,
unknowing merchants inadvertently carried the disease over trade

What Are The Causes Of Victorian Disease
World History II
Draft Paper 1/2/16
Jack Budsworth
A block
Despite Victorian England being an era of great prosperity and industrialization, the Victorians were
stubborn to accept medical advancements in cleanliness and health. In fact, the Victorians were so
set on industrialization that child labor was abundant in many of the lower and middle classes.
Children from the age of twelve to fourteen would begin their work in the mines where they would
have to weave their way through narrow mine shafts with little illumination. By the age of forty,
most of these miners would contract lung disease and arthritis from the result of their long eleven to
twelve hour days. Yet, mining wasn't the beginning, the Victorian factories were also notorious ...
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One disease divided the country over how this disease was transferred, cholera. Cholera is a
bacterial disease in the small intestine that usually leads to diarrhea and vomiting. There were the
Contagonists and the Miamatists. Contagnists believed that cholera was transferred from person to
person, similar to the flu (through sneezing, coughing and talking). Miamatists believed that cholera
had to do with the foul air. In the 1830's the Contagion theory was more popular (when the disease
first arrived on the shores of England), yet in the 1840's the miasma theory became more popular,
mainly under the guise that many influential figures supported the theory such as Edwin Chadwick
(London's main demographer at the time), William Farr and many public officials and parliament.
However, it turns out that neither of those theories accurately describe the cause of cholera. In
reality, John Snow discovered that cholera was a water transmitted disease. John Snow first came
into contact with cholera when he was an apprentice under William Hardcastle when a there was a
cholera outbreak in Killingworth in 1832. After studying the patients, John Snow hypothesized in a
pamphlet, that cholera was a digestive disease and that it left through the oral–fece route. Yet, his
most profound research took place in Soho, where England's most devastating cholera outbreak took
place; killing 500 people in a matter of days. John Snow began by marking each death on a map
with a small black mark. John Snow soon noticed the deaths surrounded the Broad street

Medieval Medicine In The Middle Ages
The first example of how important medieval medicine was in the Middle Ages is one of the most
well–known explanations for how plague was spread: the balance of the four humours. The four
humours were the four body fluids – yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm (which usually
contains mucus with virus and bacteria) – used in ancient times to analyse and describe people's
state of health. It was thought that if all of the liquids were balanced, the body would be free of
diseases. Since the majority believed that the cause of plague was due to an imbalance in the body,
many of their cures involved balancing the 'humours overflowing'. This included forced vomiting,
bleeding and putting leeches onto the skin. Further balancing methods included ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Plague tracts were very important sources which told us about how medieval people saw plague
from a medical view. Plague tracts were mostly written by people who were medically trained. The
majority of all plague tracts were written in Latin. An example of a plague tract is one written by
Jacme d'Agramont (a Catalan physician). Jacme, too, wrote in his native language. D'Agramont
suggested that people should use poultices (moist materials, which are usually made of herbs,
pastes, and other fillers, that are applied to a sore or inflamed part of the body in order to provide
relief). He said that people should 'pluck the rump of a cock or a hen and hold it on the swelling to
draw out the poisonous matter'. Of course, methods like these wouldn't be effective, but at least it
gave the medieval people something to

The Spread Of Yellow Fever In America
For most of time Yellow Fever was an endemic specific to Africa, however, when world started to
become more globalize the disease spread to America through infected mosquitos a broad ships.
Because the mosquitos like the warm weather and lay their eggs in standing water, the souther
climate of America was an ideal environment for them to thrive, during the summer months. One
outbreak of Yellow Fever, in Memphis, had a great impact on the city. Although the Yellow Fever
was prominent in the port cities rail roads carried it further inland. Yellow Fever was an awful
disease that caused, miserable symptoms and the panic of the people. Yellow Fever caused great
suffering. The first sign of the disease was a fever and fast heart rate. Then you ... Show more
We know today that the virus is spread by mosquitos, however, during the outbreaks some blamed it
on the Miasma theory. The symptoms of Yellow Fever consisted of a fever, black vomit, and a
yellowing of the skin. It is a quick killer, which lead to many deaths. This caused people in afflicted
cites to panic. Like in other outbreaks in our history most peopled, if they could afford it, fled the
city. Which in the end may have lead to the disease spreading. With the advancements of medicine
the use of hospitals increased. The Yellow Fever outbreaks brought many deaths to early

The Plague Of The Bubonic Plague
The Bubonic Plague killed over twenty–five million people during the Elizabethan Era (David
Perlin, PhD and Ann Cohen). "The origins of the Black Death can be traced back to the Gobi Desert
of Mongolia in the 1320's (Ed. Geoffrey J. et al)." The Bubonic Plague has picked up many
nicknames. For example, it has been called "The Black Death," and "one of the four horsemen of the
apocalypse" (Ed. Geoffrey J. et al). The Bubonic Plague was very prominent during its time with
many people's lives being affected by the treatments, preventions, and twisted theories that occurred.
The reason why the Bubonic Plague was called the Black Death is because of the black patches on
the victim 's skin, hence 'The Black Plague.' The symptoms of the Black Death started as just being
uncomfortable. First, it began with a headache, fever, severe pain in the joints, and chills. Next, it
became more severe and the victim will suffer from painful swelling in the neck, arms, and inner
thighs until they begin to ooze blood and pus. Finally, the victim would end up dying (The Medieval
Combat Society). Some important people affected by the Plague were Shakespeare 's son (The
Children of William Shakespeare), Hamnet and King Edward III of England 's daughter, Joan
(Plantagenet). Hamnet was one of three children, and the twin of his sister, Judith. Sadly, he died at
the age of eleven with a severe case of the Bubonic Plague (The Children of William Shakespeare).
Princess Joan died of the Bubonic

The Ghost Map Summary
The Ghost Map, by Steven Johnson, is a narrative that portrayed the determination of a man who
wants to prove his theory. This narrative reveals the spread of a strange disease called cholera, and
how people viewed science in 1854. Dr. John Snow used his integrative thinking to figure out how
the disease was spreading so rapidly. John's ability to make a connection and get to the source of the
spreading epidemic was marvelous, as he strived to save as many lives as he could. It is, therefore,
important to have an open mind when learning why he did the things he did.
This narrative took place in London, summer of 1854. London was a city on the rise at the time and
it they had a rapid spread of cholera disease. In eight days, over a tenth of ... Show more content on
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Everyone doubting him made him more determined to figure out the source of the outbreak. Snow
questioned everything, which allowed him to become one of the greatest. The community saw the
outbreak as a cause from air pollution, he would prove that it was not true. The determination of
Snow lead him to the infamous Broad Street water pump, where many people were opposed to
taking it down, although, it was the cause to the cholera outbreak. Many people tried to have it
installed again because it was their source of water. However, removing the pump saved many many

The Era Of The 19th Century
Europe faced an era of revolutions at the wake of the nineteenth century. Long–standing empires,
which had traditionally controlled most of the world –including the Spanish, Chinese, French, and
Holy Roman Empires –, collapsed at the beginning of the century, allowing the British Empire to
rise to power and establish dominance over a fifth of the Earth's surface. This political revolution
was coupled with the industrial revolution. New manufacturing processes called for large industrial
factories to replace domestic production. Technological gains were made in textile manufacturing,
steam power, and iron making. The standard of living and literacy rates increased due to new
advances in technology and industrial printing. The nineteenth century, with the invention of the
microscope, became a period of scientific discoveries and debate. This era of scientific upheaval
was fueled by the challenges to Genesis and the Scala Naturae and the emergence of secularism.
Naturalists focused on macrobiological concepts, such as Lamarck and Cuvier who debated the
fixity (or lack there of) of species, as well as microbiological concepts, such as Schleiden and
Schwann and the development of the Cell Theory.
One such naturalist was Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to take advantage of the microscope and
formulate the Germ Theory of Disease in 1861, which states that microorganisms are the cause of
disease. As all theories at the time, Pasteur's work faced significant contention from his

Research Paper On Cholelera
This day in age, contracting cholera is not something people worry about in the United States. The
United States was able to escape this worry because of effective public health measures and other
resources. However, in third world countries such as Haiti, a cholera outbreak is a frequent worry.
Cholera is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, found in contaminated waters. Symptoms of
cholera include diarrhea, dehydration, increased heart rate, muscle cramps, low blood pressure, and
dry mouth, throat, nose and eyelids (WebMD 2014). In industrialized countries, the implementation
of water treatment facilities and sewage has eradicated cholera. Cholera is easily treated, by simply
following rehydration methods. Cholera was a seemingly easy ... Show more content on
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Cholera, transmitted by contaminated food and water. When the disease arrived in New York City in
summer 1832, after traveling over trade routes from India through Russia and Europe across the
Atlantic to Canada and down the Hudson River Valley, thousand of citizens died within weeks.
Cholera struck again in 1849 and 1866 before New Yorkers learned how to contain the disease.
Measuring the reaction of New Yorkers to these increasingly traumatic public health disasters shows
how understandings of disease were filtered through contemporary ideas about class and social
relations, conceptions of immigrants, and thinking about the responsibilities of the city's government
in issues of public health in mid–nineteenth century New York. The first documented case of cholera
was on June 24, 1832 in NYC (McNamara 2015). In the 1830s immigrants began to flood New York
City, they often lived in poor conditions with compacted living areas. Along with immigrants, there
was a small free black community in Manhattan ("History of Cholera in NYC" 2012). So the city
was packed with different people from all over, many were living in poverty and horses and pigs ran
freely in the streets. The environment became crowded and dirty, the perfect breeding ground for
disease. Without a proper sewage system, human waste found its way into the City's water supply.
As the population of the City grew denser, several outbreaks of cholera occurred. Nearly 100,00
people fled to the countryside, when cholera hit the NYC (McNamara 2015). Many wealthy New
Yorkers and those more well off, fled the city during cholera outbreaks in search of more
"hospitable" environment. Those who owned buildings throughout the city refused to lease their
spaces for hospitals, in fear of contamination. Most doctors worked to reduce the suffering of
cholera victims. During that time, medical knowledge was limited and so were

The Ghost Map By Steven Johnson
The Ghost Map by Steven Johnson is a very detailed account of Dr. John Snow's remarkable
discovery of how Cholera was spread in the 19th century. Johnson chronicles the everyday life of
the average english man and woman, and in doing so, reveals the intricacies of changing the way a
society thinks and responds to change. The Ghost Map reflects the correlation of the spread of
Cholera and social status in 19th century England. It also shows prevailing scientific beliefs at the
time and their effect on medicine, accounts Dr. John Snow's early involvement in Epidemiology and
finally, it proves that the perception of diseases were forever changed, due to the work of John Snow
and Reverend Henry Whitehead. In the very first chapter, Steven Johnson begins to set the scene of
how the overpopulation of London coupled with extreme levels of poverty created the perfect
opportunity for Cholera to spread in the rapid manner that it did. On page one it states; "These were
the London underclasses, at least a hundred thousand strong. So immense were their numbers that
had the scavengers broken off and formed their own city, it would have been the fifth–largest in all
of England." Johnson mentions that the city of London had become a city of Scavengers, consisting
of; bone–pickers, pure–finders, dredgermen, sewer–hunters and night–soil men. However, the
harshest reflection of the Cholera epidemic of 1854 is conveyed by John Snow himself. On page 59
it states; "The young Snow observed

Ghost Map The Ghost Map Analysis
Patrick Cooney 10/2/2017 Seminar: Ghost Map The Ghost Map by Steven Johnson examines
London's spread of cholera. The big theme that connects to this semester would be the idea of class
and the options people had during the 1840s–50s. In the story, it is shown right away that the living
conditions for the lower classes were not a sanctuary at all. The lower class had to make ways for
themselves to provide, so people like the night soil men would recycle and sell this to the urban
workers. The gap between the rich and the poor is shown when the people were doubting the water
theory and accepting the Miasma theory. People wanted to accept the fact that it was easier for the
disease to spread through the living conditions of people since they

Islamic Response To Black Death Essay
The responses of Islam and Christianity to the Black Death were vastly different. They both had
some of the same ways to treat the Black Plague. Although they treated the Black Plague similar;
their religion influenced how they looked upon it. The Christians looked at the Black Death as a sin
for all the sins you have done. There was a one third of the population that died. The Christians did
not take the plague as humble as the Muslims did. They were looking for something to blame so
they blamed the Jews. Evidence shows they took the Black Plague more as a punishment rather than
a blessing. The way the Christians reacted to the Black Plague was harsher than the Muslims. The
Christians had three theories on how the Black Plague ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ideas to prevent the Black death was "Consume pickled onions, pumpkin seeds, and sour juices,
build fires and fumigate, Drink Armenian clay, Pass severe laws against alcohol and prostitution,
stay indoors, use letter magic, and to avoid sad talk". The Muslims took the Black Plague as a
blessing from God because anything from god is a blessing whether it was good or bad. One could
think that the Muslims were more humble about the Black Plague.
The Muslims and the Christians had similar approaches when it came to the causes and preventions
of the Black Plague. Some of the Causes included "the stars and the planets, and the winds from the
south". The preventions included "The drinking of liquefied Armenian clay, and building of fires".
Although the Muslims and Christians were both truly devastated by the disease, their responses
were totally different. The Muslims were taking the Black Death as a blessing from god while the
Christians were taking the Black Death as a

The Ghost Map
The Ghost Map
During mid–1850s, cholera was one of very common diseases in London. Cholera spreads across
very quickly and it affects both children and adults and can kill the patients within hours. "The
technical name for the cholera bacterium is Vibrio cholera." (Johnson 36) The contamination of
drinking water had become the transmission factor for people living in Golden Square
neighborhood. London's water supply system was a big issue back in eighteenth century; people did
not have running water in their house. People need to pump their water from the pump at Broad
Street and carry home for their daily use such as drinking, cooking and washing. John Snow actually
lived near Soho district, and when the cholera outbreak happened, he immediately ... Show more
However, with Whitehead's local knowledge, his survey was able to track down hundreds of
residents who had fled out after the weeks after outbreak. Snow in other hand; his survey had
focused only on the Soho residents with majority had consumed with Board Street water before
getting ill. Authorities at that time, they thought it was caused all because the "smell". John's theory
convinced nobody at first. It had taken many years made public health authorities to believe that
cholera is a waterborne disease. The map itself had debunked the theory of miasma and it made the
city removed the pump handle in the end and stopped spread out more disease. Despite all the
negative influence with John Snow's theory and his misconception with the case, the author still
names his book after the map is because the map actually helped control the outbreak. John Snow
used thick black bar to represent each death, pointed out all the details include pumps and houses
near different streets. It can easily shows that major death around the Board Street pump. The
original first map did not revolve around the decision to an epidemic level. With adding Whitehead's
local knowledge, the map turned out a genius work for epidemiology and clearly showed the attack
on that

Adam Gopnik's Influence On Modern Society
A new exhibition on the sciences and their impact is opening. These exhibits will range from the
very beginnings of modern science up to the modern day. But five star exhibits will be displayed in
prominence for their impact shaped the course of science. First is John Snow who revolutionized the
way medicine was conducted. Secondly there is Isaac Newton, who is dubbed the father of the
scientific revolution. Next is Albert Einstein's famous equation E=mc² which in many ways shaped
not only science but military and politics. Rachel Carson is the next prominent exhibit for her
influence on agriculture and her influence on the historical perspective of science. Lastly we have
Adam Gopnik, though not a scientist himself, he has given great insight ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
He is a Canadian American who published a sociological work concerning the internet in 2011. His
article that was published in the New Yorker was titled "The Information: How the Internet Gets
Inside Us" where he explains the influences the internet has had on modern society. He tackles the
issue of how the mass of information has altered the way people interact with each other. In this
manner he has proposed 3 kinds of people who view the new digital age: Never–Better who believe
we are closer to a utopia, Better–Nevers who believe that the digital age was a mistake, and the
Ever–Waser who believe that the debate is what makes the digital age so good. In this vein he
recounts how this is similar to when books and other printed media first became accessible to the
masses. This new printed media for the people was hailed as the new great thing to uplift people
from the heap. But recounts that just as reformations could come from print, then so could counter
reformations. Counter to the benefits Gopnik recounts articles where the new digital age is robbing
us of our creativity, focus, and connection. But again Gopnik counters this claim by suggesting that
others have foretold the downfall of society from whatever technological advancement was made
and yet society still exists. As such the internet's alterations and feelings are in the little bits of us
that usually go unnoticed

Why I Order Medical Institutions Under Germ Theory
1. Dissection ( anatomy and physiology)
I think dissection is the most significant because it helps understand how the body works. For
example, If Andrea Vesalius had not performed dissection by looking at the human body closely, and
identify every bone in the body, we would never know that Galen's theory about dissection was
incorrect.
Autopsy helps students collect information from death body and applies it to live human body.
2. The germ theory of disease
Germ theory is also important in history because this theory included microorganisms and how
difficult it is to view them with naked eye. It is very important that we avoid bringing germ from
somewhere else into the operation room where babies are being born.
I think this is the second most significant in history of medicine because it involved grouping
diseases and learning more about microorganisms. Doctors operate on so many people every day,
germs can flow from place to another without them realizing it since they cannot be seen with naked
eye, the only way to prevent contamination is to wash hand with antibacterial soap after every
surgery, and also sterile tools that were used in the operation room.
3. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Medical institutions
I order medical institutions under germ theory because I think they both go together. More germs are
being spread in hospital and lab more the any other place because disinfected and antiseptics were
not being performed after surgery.
In the 19th century, midwives became popular because many people preferred to give birth at home
to avoid hospital's disease and miasma. It was safe for them to give birth at home than in hospital.
This was such an important event due to sanitization problem mortality rate went up.
4. The professionalization of medical

Essay about Cholera Project
1. Models are analogies that allow us to clarify hypotheses–proposed explanation of relationships
between. What roles do models play in testing hypotheses?
Models provide the physical testing and proof of a hypothesis by exploring the extent to which the
two factors relate within the given hypothesis. It puts a theory into action, to see if the theory is
corrected causes and effects.
2. What did the humoral model of disease propose as the cause for cholea?
The humoral model of disease said that disease was caused by an imbalance in one or more of four
"humors" or fluids in the body: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Physicians would decide
on a treatment based on what they thought was the cause of the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
2. Why weren't Snows ideas about cholera accepted at this early date? 3. Explain why cholera
outbreaks are more consistent with contamination of water than air. 4. Given that cholera outbreaks
are more consistent with contamination of water that air, why did the miasma model persist? 5. How
did Snow's experimental research on anesthesia help him design a new model for the cause of
cholera? 6. Why would evidence of cholera in people living side by side, differing only in water
supply, provide critical evidence? 7. When was the germ theory of disease proposed, and on what
basis?
Part three:
1. Why was it useful to be able to verify the source of the water? 2. Why would a neighborhood
served by two different water companies be more useful for testing Snow's hypothesis than two
neighborhoods each with their own source? 3. Epidemiologists often draw causal webs to illustrate
the interrelationships among biological, social, and environmental variables that contribute to
disease outbreak. Based on what you have learned so far, what variables should be included in a
causal web for cholera? 4. Snow considered his conclusions about cholera to be inferences from
observations whereas the reviewer from the medical journal considered these to be conjectures.
What is the difference between inference and conjecture?
Part four:
1. The basic questions of epidemiology focus on the

The Ghost Map by Steven Johnson
Steven Johnson is an accomplished author who tells a compelling, well written and informative
book, The Ghost Map, which tells an intriguing story of the 1854 cholera outbreak in London while
at the same time provides a wide array of information surrounding the thoughts and beliefs of the
majority of the current society.
This book follows an esteemed doctor and a local clergyman who, together, are the heart of an
investigation to solve the mystery of the cholera epidemic. In 1854 London was ravaged by a
terrible outbreak of cholera, where within the span of mere weeks over five hundred people in the
Soho district died. London, at the time, was a city of around two and a half million people, all
crammed into a small area with no system ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
...Veritable herds [livestock] would stream through the city...." Pg27
Johnson chronicles the journeys and the lives of Dr. John Snow, Henry Whitehead, William Farr,
Benjamin Hall, and Edwin Chadwick, all of whom play pivotal roles in the decisions around
sanitation in the city. These characters provide a depth of different perspectives on the outbreak and
the conflict between them helps drive the story.
Snow, a man from the modest home of a labourer, uncommon roots for the men in his profession,
made exceptional discoveries which were found by using the most novel thinking and common
surveyor's techniques. He was the first to consider the waterborne theory of cholera and looked at
the outbreak from a street and a birds–eye view which in the end allowed him to see the patterns of
the outbreak. Whitehead was the local curate who had a first–hand look at the lives of those who
were affected by this deadly pathogen. It was he who, spurred on by disprove Snow's claims, found
the crucial evidence that in the end solidified Snow's theory. Farr was a man with a similar
background to Snow, who collected much of the raw statistical data used by Snow to develop and
then support his theory. Farr's information also lead Snow to map out patterns of cholera deaths in
the St. James region, creating the "Ghost Map", an instrumental tool in the defense of his theory.
Johnson writes of the conflict that arises between

The Conditions Of The Nineteenth Century And Why It Was...
The aim of this essay is to understand the conditions of the Nineteenth century and why it was
described as the sanitary era.
During the nineteenth century Britain was facing a Public Health crisis and was in dire need of new
sanitary reforms. There was a problem with Britain's vast rise in population, diseases, housing
conditions and governmental issues all being faced during this era. Living conditions through the
nineteenth century was unimaginable (Clark, G. 2005). This was the era of the big industrial
revolution.
It is important to remember that nineteenth century was the era in which Britain's Public Health was
introduced (Clark, G. 2005). The impact of the industrial revolution era generated a source of
income for the government and the people, which resulted to an increase in the British and European
economy (Allen, R. C. 2007). This meant that people were moving into the cities to be closer to
factories for jobs; it also meant that new buildings were being built closely to each other with poor
sanitary conditions. The building conditions were poor and damp, which then led to overcrowding
and spreading of diseases (Ashton. R.J.2015)
The cities population was rapidly increasing due to the migration of people into cities for work and
better way of living. The growth in population was also a cry out for better sustainable sanitation
implementations. The soaring population saw the roads of Britain becoming slums and people were
living in squalor. The houses that

The Principles Of Empirical Science
One of the key principles in empirical science is distinguishing whether incoming novel theories are
actually scientific or non–scientific. This is referred to as the problem of demarcation. Many
different ideas have been proposed in response to this problem in order to demarcate theories and
amongst some of the most well–known ones are those of Rudolph Carnap and Karl Popper. Carnap
proposes that theories be declared scientific based on whether they can be tested, at least in
principle, and labels this his verification criteria. Popper's method is based on whether a theory has
empirical content which is the set of all possible excluded events proposed by a theory. The question
is, is it possible to agree with both of these criteria? This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Let us examine a logical case where Carnap and Popper would disagree. Consider the statement,
'The sun will either rise or not rise tomorrow.' According to Carnap, this is a scientific theory since it
can be tested quite easily. While according to Popper, this theory does not forbid anything from
happening, that is to say that it has no empirical content, so it is deemed unscientific. The sun could
not rise and be replaced with another celestial body and the theory would still be scientific according
to Carnap's criteria. Now, let us consider an example from history. The Miasma theory of disease
was the prevalent theory explaining the spread of disease in much of the 19th century until it was
superseded by the Germ theory of disease [1]. The theory states that disease is spread from a
poisonous miasma emanating from various sources such as rotting corpses and from general
impurities in the atmosphere [1]. The theory had seemed to take hold in lieu of a more satisfying
explanation [1]. One of the major problems with the theory was the lack of supporting experimental
evidence due to a lack of a testing method [1]. This theory violates Carnap's criteria while Popper
would consider the theory scientific as it possess empirical content, it excludes an individual from
acquiring certain diseases in the absence of miasma. Let us consider a case where both Carnap and
Popper would agree. Compare the Miasma theory to

The Black Death: The Bubonic Plague
The Black Death, also known as the Bubonic Plague, was the most infamous plague in the world. It
started in China and rapidly spread to Asia and Europe. Between the years thirteen forty–eight and
thirteen fifty, it killed about twenty–five to fifty million people, roughly thirty percent of Europe's
population. There are several beliefs for the cause of this horrible plague, including: the idea of God
punishing the people, the Miasma Theory, and the concept of rats carrying the disease. Many people
believed that the Black Death was God's punishment for their sins. They would try various ways to
gain His forgiveness. People thought that if they would get rid of troublesome others that God
would forgive them and make the plague go away. Because

The Dangers Of Correlational Data
The Dangers of Correlational Data Throughout history conclusions have been drawn, many as a
result of quality research, others as a result of correlations drawn on incomplete (or inadequate)
observations. When it comes to research, the importance of quality methods and gathering statistical
data in order to show causality cannot be underestimated or overlooked. Throughout the last few
hundred years of our American medical history, increasing importance has been given to research
method and gathering quality data. When Zabdiel Boylston began inoculating against smallpox he
gathered data such as how many it made sick and how sick it made them, how many died after
receiving the inoculation, and other information such as sex, age, social ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
106–108). A correlation existed to be sure, between disease and warm humid areas, however the
diseases in question wouldn't have been unique to the South because it was warm, it gets warm
throughout the United States. However, in an area with more warm standing water there would be a
larger breeding ground for mosquitos to hatch, therefore there could be increased numbers of those
infected by diseases carried by mosquitos, such as yellow fever and malaria. This is a prime
example of how a particular correlation did not equal causality. An additional example, would be the
notorious miasma. Many believed that disease was at least in part caused by these fumes, the
miasma, that would arise at summertime and infect the masses with an airborne disease (Warner &
Tighe, 2001, pg. 97–98). Again, a correlation existed between summer time and disease, but not
between the miasma and disease. Regardless of the sometimes misguided assumptions made on
incomplete data (sometimes incomplete due to lack of resources at the time), correlations can
provide valuable insight into all areas of research. It is, after all, the initial observations of comorbid
factors that can indicate relationships between an event and it's precursors. Correlational data
however, can be incredibly misguided, or even purposefully skewed, and even when research is

John Snow : A Medical Physician Responsible For...
One of the first pioneers of epidemiology was John Snow, a British physician responsible for
discrediting the predominant theory of disease transmission in the early to mid–nineteenth century
called the "Miasma theory". It referred to the idea that many contagious diseases such as cholera,
chlamydia and the black death were spread by miasma or "bad air" coming from suspended particles
of organic decaying matter thought by sanitary reformers to arise from sewers, bogs, trash pits, open
graves, and other foul–smelling sites. Cholera, a widely feared disease's origin of transmission was
largely debated during this time period. It wasn't until John Snow's research studies furthering
Fillipo Pacinis' discovery of Vibrio cholera bacteria by reasoning on pathological evidence and
disease pattern surveillance was Cholera exposed as a water–borne illness spread throughout local
areas from contaminated water sources. John Snow's research lead him to theorize that cholera was
causing digestive problems from drinking polluted water and eating contaminated foods with the
Vibrio cholera bacterium which could spread very easily from contaminated public water supplies.
As first symptoms appeared upon examination to have been found to harm a person's digestive tract
causing the extreme diarrhea that characterized the disease and not first effecting a person's nose or
lungs as it would if cholera was absorbed from breathing in "bad airs", as was though with the
miasma theory. Although John

Bubonic Plague Dbq
The bubonic plague was not only a time of death and great suffering in Medieval Europe, but it was
also a time of great religious turmoil. Limited medical knowledge caused people to see the bubonic
plague as a punishment sent from God himself. It led people to beg for God's forgiveness, caused
tensions between the Christians and the Jews, and overall caused people to lose their faith and trust
in the Church's authority. The bubonic plague shook the entire structure of medieval religion and
was the most important catalyst for many centuries of religious reform. During the Middle Ages,
medical knowledge was severely limited. People did not understand things like germs and how
diseases are spread from person to person. To the Medieval man,

Cholelera Research Paper
Cholera is a disease characterized by "diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and dehydration" (MayoClinic,
2017). An outbreak of the disease was seen in England in the early 1800's. The system for treating
all ailments was based off of humoral pathology. Doctors analyzed patients "based on the idea that
our bodies have four important fluids or humors––blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile."
(O'Neil, 2007). If one is out of balance, they would try to counteract it. The lack of knowledge and
equipment allowed cholera to remain a mystery to the people of England. Another lack of
knowledge was how disease spreads. At the time, the Miasma Theory was accepted, this stated that
diseases were gotten by taking in 'toxic air'. This simply was not logical. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Things change with new technology and findings. It is important for scientists to take current
theories and build off of them, or refute them with something that is more true than the last. Some
things science might never be able to fully understand, and scientists need to accept this and use it to
their advantage. John Snow understood that the Miasma Theory, while accepted by all at the time,
might not be necessarily true. He investigated and with the introduction of anesthesia he was able to
further understand the mode of communication of diseases. The Miasma Theory is partially true, but
for ways other than intended. Instead of 'toxic air' diseases can be spread through the air if the
microorganism that causes it is airborne. Cholera, is a microorganism that is communicable through
feces, moreso the microorganisms in

Essay on The Ever Changing Concept of Health
With the dominance of medicine over the past two hundred years many historical health concepts
have gone through various changes. The definition of health is dependent on one's perspective, be it
lay, professional or from influences of specific cultures or social ideals and health policies of a
particular time or place (Fleming & Parker 2012, p.30, Naidoo & Wills 2000).
An exploration through history will reflect on the health philosophies of the ancient Greeks and
Romans, the Middle Age's concept of quarantine and isolation and the religious theories of disease
including a brief insight into the renaissance. Subsequently, a discussion of health concepts of the
past two centuries including 19th century sanitary reform, the dominance in ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The Greek scholar Hippocrates' (c.460BC–c.370BC), defined the humoral conception of health, [the
Four Humours], with the balance of these being responsible for health, interacting together with
lifestyle and environment, including individual constitution, clean air, diet and clean water. He noted
in his writings, regarding the workers and slaves, that neglect of diet affected their health, yet, work
was not considered an influencing factor on humoral balance (Tountas 2009, p.186–187, Fleming &
Parker 2012, p.28, Turner 2000, p.13, Krieger, pp.43–44, Noviik and morrow, 2008, p.5). Others
such as Empedocles, Aristotle and later Galen extended Hippocratic humoral theory to link other
elements (Hays 2009, pp.9–13). No matter which variation, these theories were an attempt to
rationalise individual incidents of sickness and the differences in health status in the populace in
relation to 'underlying principles and environmental exposures' (Krieger, p.46). According to
Krieger (2011, p.47) Greek politics had influence stating 'not only nature but politics informed the
conceptualization of "balance" in Greek humoral theory'.
Tountas (2009, p.187) noted that ancient Greek physicians were itinerant craftsmen, earning their
reputation for skill from the successes of previous visits (Veith 1980, p.532). The diversity of their
practice included leech craft, magic and what is known today as allied health professions including
dietetics, nutrition, occupational therapy,

British Leaders: John Snow, Edwin Chadwick and William...
John Snow
John Snow born on the 15th March 1813 – 16th June 1858 grew up in the poorest region of York
and subsequently specialised his life establishing the link between the cholera infection he had first
encountered in 1831 in Newcastle and water as its vector. Snow's most famous attribute was his
research relating to the cholera outbreak in the London Epidemic of 1854. 'On proceeding to the
spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the [Broad Street]
pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street–pump. In
five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the
pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Chadwick believed that using scientific reasoning and justification as a means for social
improvement would work and in 1832 he was asked to investigate the effectiveness of the Poor
Laws – A system of social welfare put in place by Elizabeth I in 1601. Chadwick along with a
commission of nine passed the new Poor law Amendment Act of 1834 governed by two overarching
principles; less eligibility and the workhouse test. Whilst carrying out his investigations into the
living conditions in which the poor live Chadwick became concerned about sanitation conditions.
Edwin Chadwick believed in the ancient miasma theory dating back to before 1AD, The theory
stated that disease was caused by miasma (Ancient Greek 'Pollution') because of his beliefs he was
convinced that measures such as cleaning, drainage and proper ventilation would help people's
health and put less strain on welfare. In 1842 Chadwick publicised his findings of the influenza and
typhoid epidemics in The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population. In his publication
Chadwick used methods to show the direct link between disease, illness and life expectancy and the
poor living conditions the individual was exposed to. Sponsored by the Poor Law Commission the
Movement sold over 30,000 copies but as it was published in

Cholera Is An Infectious Bacterial Disease Of The Small...
Cholera is an infectious bacterial disease of the small intestine. This bacterium has spread through
the world covering about 50 countries that came about through 7 pandemics. This disease is a
worldwide public health concern affecting 3–5 million people each year, killing 120,000. Before, it
was thought that cholera spread through a sort of fog known as a miasma however now we know the
whole mechanism for the cholera toxin. It was discovered that cholera is transmitted through fecal–
oral transmission and is thus a waterborne bacterium. Although a very deadly and disturbing disease,
even without medical education, this disease can be managed and usually even treated.
Before science was as far advanced as it is today, people were unsure how cholera was spread or
transmitted from person to person. The Europeans and Americans believed it was spread through a
miasma (like dirty fog) and got breathed in. Many people also believed it was brought from various
immigrant populations or was a disease of the poor. John Snow at the time was one of the few
people skeptic of the popular belief that cholera was spread through Miasma. He was a believer
instead in a theory put forth by Girolamo Fracastoro known as the germ theory. The germ theory of
disease states that some diseases are caused by microorganisms and that reproduction within their
hosts can cause a disease. It wasn't until the work performed by Louis Pasteur came about to
validate the germ theory of disease and disprove

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