1. The document discusses moral dilemmas, where a choice will result in a moral wrong. It provides the example of repaying debts versus protecting others from harm. 2. Kohlberg's theory of moral development is summarized, involving three levels of reasoning - pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two stages involving perspectives like obedience, self-interest, conformity, law and order, and universal ethical principles. 3. The moral dilemmas of Heinz considering stealing medicine for his wife and Socrates facing death are discussed in relation to Kohlberg's stages, showing how reasoning may differ at each stage.

1. Moral DilemmasMoral Dilemmas

2. Moral dilemmasMoral dilemmas
A situation in which, whatever choice is made,A situation in which, whatever choice is made,
the agent commits a moral wrongthe agent commits a moral wrong

3. Moral DilemmasMoral Dilemmas
 Example from Book I of Plato'sExample from Book I of Plato's RepublicRepublic
Cephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truthCephalus defines ‘justice’ as speaking the truth
and paying one's debts.and paying one's debts.
Socrates quickly refutes this account bySocrates quickly refutes this account by
suggesting that it would be wrong to repaysuggesting that it would be wrong to repay
certain debts (weapon)certain debts (weapon)

4. Moral dilemmasMoral dilemmas
Socrates' point is not that repaying debts isSocrates' point is not that repaying debts is
without moral import; rather, he wants to showwithout moral import; rather, he wants to show
that it is not always right to repay one'sthat it is not always right to repay one's
debts….debts….

5. Moral DilemmasMoral Dilemmas
There is a conflict between two moral norms:There is a conflict between two moral norms:
repaying one's debts and protecting othersrepaying one's debts and protecting others
from harm.from harm.

6. Moral DilemmasMoral Dilemmas
The agent regards herself as having moralThe agent regards herself as having moral
reasons to do each of two actions, but doingreasons to do each of two actions, but doing
both is not possibleboth is not possible

7. Moral DilemmasMoral Dilemmas
When one of the conflicting requirementsWhen one of the conflicting requirements
overrides the other, we do not have a genuineoverrides the other, we do not have a genuine
moral dilemma.moral dilemma.
In theIn the CritoCrito, Does Socrates confront a moral, Does Socrates confront a moral
dilemma?dilemma?

8. Moral DilemmasMoral Dilemmas
1.1. Something morallySomething morally
rightright
2.2. Something morallySomething morally
wrongwrong
Bad outcomeBad outcome
Good or betterGood or better
outcomeoutcome

9. Moral DilemmaMoral Dilemma
A woman was near death from a unique kind ofA woman was near death from a unique kind of
cancer. There is a drug that might save her. The drugcancer. There is a drug that might save her. The drug
costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband,costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband,
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow theHeinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money and tried every legal means, but he could onlymoney and tried every legal means, but he could only
get together about $2,000. He asked the doctorget together about $2,000. He asked the doctor
scientist who discovered the drug for a discount orscientist who discovered the drug for a discount or
that he let him pay later. But the doctor scientistthat he let him pay later. But the doctor scientist
refused.refused.

10. Moral DilemmaMoral Dilemma
Should Heinz break into the laboratory to stealShould Heinz break into the laboratory to steal
the drug for his wife?the drug for his wife?
(Why or why not?)(Why or why not?)

11. Moral StagesMoral Stages
 Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-87)Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-87)

12. KohlbergKohlberg
Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning,Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning,
which he thought to be the basis for ethicalwhich he thought to be the basis for ethical
behavior, develops through stages.behavior, develops through stages.

13. Moral StagesMoral Stages
Level 1: PRE-CONVENTIONALLevel 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Level 2: CONVENTIONALLevel 2: CONVENTIONAL
Level 3: POST-CONVENTIONALLevel 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL

14. Kohlberg’s StagesKohlberg’s Stages
Level 1 (Pre-conventional)Level 1 (Pre-conventional)
Reasoners judge the morality of an action by itsReasoners judge the morality of an action by its
direct consequencesdirect consequences
Stage One: Obedience and PunishmentStage One: Obedience and Punishment
Stage Two: Individualism, Instrumentalism, andStage Two: Individualism, Instrumentalism, and
ExchangeExchange

15. Heinz DilemmaHeinz Dilemma
Stage One (Stage One (obedienceobedience): Heinz should not steal): Heinz should not steal
the medicine, because otherwise he will be putthe medicine, because otherwise he will be put
in prison.in prison.

16. Pre-conventional levelPre-conventional level
Stage One (Stage One (obedience orientationobedience orientation))
Individuals focus on the direct consequencesIndividuals focus on the direct consequences
that their actions will have for themselves.that their actions will have for themselves.

17. Socrates’ DilemmaSocrates’ Dilemma
 From the point of view of Stage One, SocratesFrom the point of view of Stage One, Socrates
should not die because…should not die because…

18. Heinz Moral DilemmaHeinz Moral Dilemma
 Pre-conventional LevelPre-conventional Level
Stage Two (Stage Two (self-interestself-interest): Heinz should steal): Heinz should steal
the medicine, because he will be much happierthe medicine, because he will be much happier
if he saves his wife, even if he will have toif he saves his wife, even if he will have to
serve a prison sentence.serve a prison sentence.

19. Kohlberg’s StagesKohlberg’s Stages
Stage Two (Stage Two (self-interest orientationself-interest orientation):):
what's in it for mewhat's in it for me position. Right behavior isposition. Right behavior is
defined by what is in one's own best interest.defined by what is in one's own best interest.

20. Socrates’ DilemmaSocrates’ Dilemma
 From a level two perspective, Socrates shouldFrom a level two perspective, Socrates should
not die because…not die because…

21. Kohlberg’s StagesKohlberg’s Stages
Level 2 (Conventional)Level 2 (Conventional)
People who reason in a conventional way judge thePeople who reason in a conventional way judge the
morality of actions by comparing these actions tomorality of actions by comparing these actions to
social rules and expectations.social rules and expectations.
Stage Three: Interpersonal Concordance ("GoodStage Three: Interpersonal Concordance ("Good
boy/girl")boy/girl")
Stage Four: Law and OrderStage Four: Law and Order

22. Heinz Moral DilemmaHeinz Moral Dilemma
CONVENTIONAL LEVELCONVENTIONAL LEVEL
 Stage Three (Stage Three (conformityconformity): Heinz should steal): Heinz should steal
the medicine, because his wife expects it.the medicine, because his wife expects it.

23. Conventional levelConventional level
Stage Three (Stage Three (conformity orientationconformity orientation))
Individuals seek approval from other people.Individuals seek approval from other people.
They judge the morality of actions byThey judge the morality of actions by
evaluating the consequences of these actionsevaluating the consequences of these actions
for a person's relationships.for a person's relationships.

24. Socrates dilemmaSocrates dilemma
 Socrates should not die because…Socrates should not die because…

25. Heinz DilemmaHeinz Dilemma
Stage Four (Stage Four (law-and-orderlaw-and-order): Heinz should not): Heinz should not
steal the medicine, because the law prohibitssteal the medicine, because the law prohibits
stealing.stealing.

26. Conventional levelConventional level
Stage Four (Stage Four (law-and-order mentalitylaw-and-order mentality).).
In stage four, individuals think it is importantIn stage four, individuals think it is important
to obey the law and conventions of society.to obey the law and conventions of society.

27. Socrates DilemmaSocrates Dilemma
 Socrates should die because…Socrates should die because…

28. Kohlberg’s StagesKohlberg’s Stages
Level 3 (Post-conventional)Level 3 (Post-conventional)
(Most people do not reach this level of moral(Most people do not reach this level of moral
reasoning)reasoning)
 Stage Five: Human RightsStage Five: Human Rights
 Stage Six: Universal Ethical PrinciplesStage Six: Universal Ethical Principles
(Principled Conscience)(Principled Conscience)

29. Heinz moral dilemmaHeinz moral dilemma
Stage five (Stage five (human rightshuman rights):):
Heinz should steal the medicine becauseHeinz should steal the medicine because
saving his wife is more important than obeyingsaving his wife is more important than obeying
the law.the law.

30. Post-conventional levelPost-conventional level
Stage Five (Stage Five (human rights orientationhuman rights orientation))
 People have certain principles to which theyPeople have certain principles to which they
attach more value than laws, such as humanattach more value than laws, such as human
rights.rights.
 An action is wrong if it violates certain ethicalAn action is wrong if it violates certain ethical
principles.principles.
 Laws that do not promote general socialLaws that do not promote general social
welfare should be changedwelfare should be changed

31. Socrates dilemmaSocrates dilemma
 Socrates should not die…?Socrates should not die…?
We are at level 3!!!!We are at level 3!!!!

32. Post-conventional levelPost-conventional level
 Stage six (Stage six (universal human ethicsuniversal human ethics):):
Heinz should steal the medicine, becauseHeinz should steal the medicine, because
saving a human life is a more fundamentalsaving a human life is a more fundamental
value than respecting the property of anothervalue than respecting the property of another
person.person.

33. Post-conventional levelPost-conventional level
Stage Six (Stage Six (ethical principle orientationethical principle orientation).).
Moral reasoning is based on the use of abstractMoral reasoning is based on the use of abstract
reasoning using universal principles.reasoning using universal principles.
(People rarely, if ever, reach stage 6 of(People rarely, if ever, reach stage 6 of
Kohlberg's model)Kohlberg's model)

34. Socrates’ DecisionSocrates’ Decision
Socrates chose to dieSocrates chose to die
because….because….

35. SocratesSocrates
Should we return the weapon then (accordingShould we return the weapon then (according
to Socrates)?to Socrates)?

36. SocratesSocrates
Socrates maintains that protecting others fromSocrates maintains that protecting others from
harm is the norm that takes priorityharm is the norm that takes priority