Large Urban Cities In America

Large Urban Cities In America
Problem Statement
Global Warming is quickly becoming a growing issue for large urban cities in America. As we
expand our urban areas with the growing population, cities use more energy for air conditioning,
water, and lighting (). Although air conditioning is powered by electricity, many urban cities rely on
the combustion of coal for energy (). Combustion of coal emits CO2 and deadly gases into the
atmosphere which leads to Global Warming (). Buildings in urban areas use conventional roofs as
their main aesthetics. Conventional roofs are generally comprised of tar and gravel. On hot summer
days, conventional rooftops can be 27–50°C hotter than the surrounding air temperature. This
happens because the albedo of tar and gravel is extremely low which allows for the sun's energy to
be absorbed instead of reflected (). The increased temperature leads to urban heat islands ().
Increasing higher albedo surfaces on roofs will result in more reflection of solar energy away from
the urban areas (). Rooftops covered in plants, also known as Green Roofs have grown popular
tremendously in the last decade. These rooftops are covered in natural greenery like small trees,
bushes, flowers, grass, etc. Green roofs are cost effective way to solve many problems with global
warming in urban areas (). Environmentalists could use data from satellites and compare the number
of green roofs and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I plan to use images from the satellite in a study aimed at comparing the number of green roofs and
conventional roofs from two different time periods in (insert city). In order to accomplish my goal
and differentiate the images accurately, I will develop a program using Python, opencv, and
Raspberry Pi. I will use a (Insert design method here) to compare the two types of data and
determine if there is significant change in the green roofs in the (insert city
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Modeling The Agrometeorological Indices Of The Surface...
. Modeling the agrometeorological indices
The surface temperature (T0) product was not used because with a lower spatial resolution (1000
km), there were cloud contaminations in some parts of the Minas Gerais state along the years.
Instead, T0 was retrieved by residue in the radiation balance after having estimated the atmospheric
and surface emissivities (Teixeira et al., 2016a,b).
Cleugh et al. (2007) pointed out that the use of instantaneous measurements of the radiometric
surface temperature to calculate time–averaged fluxes led to errors. They emphasized uncertainties
in models which use the MODIS 8–day that is a composite of once–daily overpass at ~ 10:30 h local
time. In this case, the radiometric temperature is determined under a view angle at the satellite
overpass time, using emissivities based on vegetation classes at a 1–km grid that differs from that of
the MODIS pixel location.
The parameterizations involved in the agrometeorological indices by using the SAFER algorithm in
this chapter were done in Brazil with simultaneous satellite and field measurements, under strong
contrasting agro–ecosystems and thermohydrological conditions throughout different years (Teixeira
et al., 2008, 2014a). In addition, acquiring T0 as residue in the radiation balance gives mutual
compensation, reducing possible errors in this model input parameter, and as in the upward and
downward longwave fluxes, they are self–canceling. Moreover, a correction factor is applied to
ET/ET0

Decreasing Albedo in European Cities
Earth is currently in transition from a mostly rural to a mostly urban planet. In 2030 the urbanized
areas will be nearly tripled compared to 2000 (Seto et al. 2012). The use of dark building materials,
such as asphalt and concrete, leads to a lower albedo in urbanized areas than in natural environment.
Lower albedo increases ambient and global temperature. Inversely, the substitution of rooftops'
membranes and pavements' traditional materials with bright ones and a wise planning of future
urban development can increase albedo and support climate stabilization efforts. Here we investigate
the potential effect of the increase in albedo on the instantaneous change in radiative forcing in a
representative set of European cities. We find a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Responsiveness was accounted considering the climatological characteristics of each city. Low
cloudiness and high solar radiation make the responsiveness in southern European cities two times
higher than in other regions (Figure 1). Figure 1 shows that the mean responsiveness in
Scandinavian cities is higher than in north–central European ones. A unitary increase in urban
albedo in Scandinavian countries and north–central European ones respectively decreases IRF by 46
and 45 Wm–2. This is explained by the observation that even though the mean incoming solar
radiation is lower in Scandinavian cities than in north–central European cities, the clearness index is
higher in the firsts than in the seconds.
The effect of the potential increase in urban albedo on IRF is also dependent on the urban areas can
be enhanced. In Figure 2 we reported both the responsiveness (indicated by the color bar) and the
area of the cities (see also table 1) of the 125 most populous cities.
Second, we calculated the potential increase in average urban albedo (see Methods) understanding
the urban morphology – the amount of urban surface for transport and for housing that can be
enhanced – of 55 of the cities. Figure 3, including geographical, climatological and morphological
information, reports the potential increase in average

What Factors Influence Earth 's Climate?
Lewis, Emily
What factors influence Earth's climate?
Earth's climate, or the particular weather patterns over an extended period of time, has many
contributing factors and has varied over the course of the planet. The planets' global climate can also
be broken down into regional climates based on the weather patterns of a specific area of land.
These differing regional climates are averaged together and all contribute to the overall global
climate of the planet. The Earth's global climate effects factors such as temperature, amount of
rainfall, glacial melting, and rising and downfall of sea level, along with many more aspects of
planet Earth. Affected by both natural and man–made elements, Earth's climate is constantly
changing. These climatic changes have been taking place for 4.6 billion years and are now studied
by using satellite–derived and thermometer–based temperature records and trends. However, these
methods only allow scientists to study the global climate as far back as the 17th and 18th century,
just a small fraction of Earth's lifespan. In order to extend our understanding of Earth's climate
beyond this instrumental record of just a few centuries, scientists use proxy data, or natural clues
that are buried in sediments, coral reefs, tree rings, fossil pollen, and glaciers. Methods such as
paleomagnetism, tephrochronolgy, and radiocarbon dating assist in the extended understanding of
Earth's changing climate over the course of time.
Planet Earth's

The Flaws Of The Gaia Hypothesis
Back in the 1970's a NASA scientist came with an interesting hypothesis. This scientist, James
Lovelock, suggested that Earth is a self–regulating system thanks to its biosphere. The Gaia
hypothesis was born. This hypothesis got many supporters when Lovelock went public with articles
in the New Scientist (1975) and published books like Gaia, a new look at life on earth. (Lovelock J.,
1979). But it was not only praise what Lovelock got. In his books Lovelock suggests that organisms
work together and regulate their surroundings to help each other to survive. According to
evolutionary biologist this would mean that organisms sacrifice their own fitness to help regulate the
planet, which is against the thought of natural selection where survival is very harsh, resources spare
and every species on its own. Dr. Ford Doolittle was one of those biologists. He claimed that natural
selection would never favor a species with a behavior pattern that would put energy into helping a
species which it cannot interbreed with. (Doolittle, 1981) Richard Dawkins joined this argument in
his book The Extended Phenotype (1982) where he exposed two major flaws of the Gaia hypothesis.
First, Dawkins took the process of creating energy trough photosynthesis as an example. According
to the Gaia hypothesis the production of oxygen is intended and aimed to help and support life of
oxygen consuming organisms. Dawkins says that if this indeed is done by purpose, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Certainly not. First of all the Gaia hypothesis helped people understand that humans and all other
creatures are connected to each other. Maybe not in the way Lovelock thought, but our actions
affects the life of the other species often.
As for the Daisyworld. The purpose of the Daisyworld was to give and mathematical explanation to
the Gaia hypothesis. It served its purpose and even handled more complex situations, proving that a
higher species density is better for the

The Effects Of Air Pollution On The World
Throughout the last 200 years, there have been a plethora of inventions such as the combustion
engine. Other such inventions include the steam engine, typically driven by coal, and propellants
used to spray chemicals. The Industrial Revolution left an impact on the world far greater than just
inventions and set forth a world of change. Although the Industrial Revolution brought many great
devices in to the world, it also could have caused the accelerated climate change and warming that
we saw throughout the 21st century. In fact, over the 900 years before the Industrial Revolution
began, the average world temperature was in decline and the 1990s was the warmest decade on
record. The introduction of the combustion engine characterizes the Industrial revolution more than
any other invention because it was used for anything from textiles to automobiles. Not only does the
combustion engine characterize the Industrial Revolution, but it also characterizes pollution. Air
pollution is in direct relation to air quality, for which we have certain standards (Vallero, 2007, p. 3).
These standards can be interfered with, and a large amount of the pollutants that cause the
interference come from combustion engines. In the combustion cycle of an internal combustion
engine, a fire is created which burns fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline. Although the fire is
contained well, not all of the fuel is burned off and in turn is exhausted with the same chemicals that
were

Essay On LED Lighting
THE EFFECTS OF ALBEDO LED LIGHTING ON RETAIL SPACES
Opposite to some popular wisdom, retail stores are not dead, and they will not be replaced by online
operations. People (who use a product or service) continue to spend money at retail establishments,
if for no other reason than to see the physical products that they might later order online. The store's
goal in this competitive (surrounding conditions) is to make the retail outlet and its products so
attractive that the (related to people who use a product or service) (instances of buying things for
money) the product right then and there, rather than ordering it electronically. LED lighting for retail
outlets has made strong toward this goal.
Large retail stores in the past depended ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A store can install a variety of LED lighting options to backlight products or to create indirect or
quiet lighting in different parts of a store. Display cases for smaller items, such as jewelry of
personal fashion can be lit with brighter LED's that draw attention to fine patterns and textures.
Since LED lights operate at low temperatures and without creating the excess heat that is just like
traditional display case lighting, the store's products that are bought and sold will not be harmed by
any excess warmth in display cases.
Many stores operate on thin (how much money is being made), which forces them to reduce
operating costs wherever possible. LED lighting for retail has the possible ability to reduce a retail
store's electrical utility costs by more than half. Modern LED lighting is so (producing a lot with
very little waste) that it can create the same or better lighting as a traditional lighting fixture with
less than half of the electrical energy input. LED bulbs also last longer than other forms of lighting,
and the store's lighting maintenance costs will be reduced. LED lighting for retail therefore has the
possible ability to increase a store's sales and to reduce overhead costs, all of which gives directly to
a store's (money made/good things received).
Stores that operate stand alone locations that are separate from large malls and other shopping
outlets can make their stores more inviting with bright exterior LED lighting. A shopper will

Paint the World White: Global Warming
Global Warming is a serious problem affecting everyone. The earth's temperature increases, the ice
melts and therefore the sea level rises. Lately, increases in natural disasters are causing more
damage and devastating millions of victims and scientist predict that Global Warming may be the
cause. What causes global warming is a build–up in greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide,
water vapour, nitrous oxide and methane; which contributes to the 'greenhouse effect'. This effect is
when the sun rays come through the atmosphere, but then the heat is trapped in the atmosphere, by
these gasses. However, without these gasses the earth would not be able to sustain life as it would be
freezing, because the planet would not be retaining heat, and during the day it would be boiling as
there would be no gasses to filter the sun's rays; but unfortunately over the years humans have
created too many of these gasses, gradually increasing the earth's temperature. (Orcale, 2002)
Global warming causes much devastation to our planet: plants die, animals die, there is a decrease in
food, and low lands are flooded, from melting glaciers. Humans are the major cause of global
warming. We use electricity all the time; electricity is made by burning fossil fuels, when this is
burnt greenhouse gasses are sent into the air. We are chopping down trees that absorb CO₂
(greenhouse gas.) The world needs to do something about global warming fast, before it is too late.
Scientist have suggested many

Global Warming And Enhance Indoor Environment Quality
Since urban rapid expansion and highly developed, buildings and constructions became intensive.
CO2 and Green House Gases (GHG), which have caused the climate change in urban areas, are
emitted to the atmosphere caused by the increasing of building constructions. The temperature in
urban areas become higher than the rural areas, which is Urban Heat Islands (UHIs). The
phenomenon of urban warming degrades environmental quality and would further cause the global
climate change. In order to create a comfortable living environment for humans, understanding the
construction process which involves the building material selection is essential. Researchers have
studied on the building materials and indicated that material choice has long–term ... Show more
Such materials are used inside the buildings to protect the structure. The indoor temperature rising
or falling is determined by construction and exterior materials' reflection as well as the absorption
rate of solar radiation. Ecological materials should possess three characteristics–advanced,
environment harmony, and comfort–defined by a scholar of Tokyo university (as cited in Wang,
2011).
On the basis of studies on exterior materials, the surface colors and roughness affected the living
environment conditions by reasons of different heat capacity of a substance and then permeate the
heat through the walls. As for the color selection of exterior materials, choosing the ones with high
reflectance of solar radiation and emissivity that are called cooling materials can remarkably cool
down the building surface temperature (Santamouris et al., 2012). Not only can the outer surface
temperature, but indoor air and inner surface also can be reduced by 8°C to 10°C. The inner surface
heat flows could reach more than 30% reduction (Meng et al., 2016). That is to say, when designing
the building envelopes, architects could choose light and colored materials––white marble or light
grey concrete –– helps surface retain less solar heat. As long as combining with other designing
methods, heating load can be lightened so as to save the energy and raise the comfort level.
Additionally, the surface texture of outer materials which is related to the albedo

Albedo Effect Lab Report
Investigating the Relationship Between the Albedo effect and Rate of Melting Purpose: The purpose
of this lab is to examine the Albedo effect by examining the rate at which ice melts on surfaces with
different albedos. An albedo is the fraction of light an object sends back. The higher the albedo the
more light is sent back. This lab will use black paper, white paper and a mirror. The mirror has a
much higher albedo than that of the black paper. Hypothesis: If the albedo is increased it will take
longer for the ice to melt. This is because the surface will reflect most of the light that hits it. This
will make the surface not heat as fast as it will take in less light energy. By this reasoning if the
surface has less albedo it will take ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The average results for the 5% and 60% albedo follow the trend set by the hypothesis however the
average of the 95% albedo does not follow this trend. Instead of melting less than the others it
melted more. This may be caused by many variables. The light could have gotten brighter or hotter.
Or the light was bouncing off of the mirror and hitting the ice cube effectively making more light hit
it not less. The white paper is representative of the snow and ice in the poles. It takes longer for it to
melt when above freezing the black is representative of the water surrounding the ice, it melts much
quicker with the black than the white. This is the same as what is happening at the poles, before it
wasn't melting as fast because there was a lot of white snow and ice, but as the ice and snow melts
more water is revealed. As more water is revealed the ice starts to melt faster and more water is
revealed creating a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback loop is a set of actions that reinforce
each other. Another example is population growth. As more people are born more people grow old
enough to have kids and more people are born. This usually follows a exponential growth curve.
This can only be stopped by a catastrophic event like a war or

The Effect Of Plate Tectonics On Global Climate
While plate tectonics may have direct effects on the amount of carbon sequestered into the deep
carbon cycle, they may also have other, less well known effects. According to Climatic Variation in
Earth History (Barron, n.d.) plate tectonics can effect global climate through continental
distribution, which can affect the planet's albedo, transfers of latent heat, thermal inertia, and restrict
ocean currents; and continental elevation, which can affect regional climate and large–scale
circulation of weather and air. Potential differences in albedo and high latitude land area can have a
substantial effect on the amount of solar energy reflected back into the atmosphere instead of being
absorbed by the surface of the Earth. Albedo refers to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Approximately 60 to 80 percent of the Earth's upper mantle is composed of a mineral called Olivine.
When this mineral is exposed to carbon dioxide under conditions of extreme pressure and heat it
reacts to form carbonate minerals. In the past, olivine was extracted from the ground, ground up into
fine powder, mixed with water, and combined with carbon dioxide in large pressure tanks at power
plants to attempt to lower their carbon emissions. Unfortunately, this method is not very efficient in
terms of cost and energy. Researchers have now turned their focus on more efficient methods of
utilizing this olivine and its carbon sequestering properties. Due to the abundance of olivine in the
upper mantle and the difficulty in extracting large amounts, researchers have attempted to invent
techniques in which the olivine can be left in the ground (in situ) and the carbon dioxide can be
brought to it. The most promising method for accomplishing this involves the oceanic thermohaline
circulation of carbon–laden water and the relative thinness of oceanic crust. Using this process,
machines would drill boreholes through the crust of the ocean floor and into the mantle where the
carbon absorbing rock is located and there is sufficient heat and pressure to provide the proper
conditions for the carbonation of the olivine. Once

Demographic Transition From Rural to Urban Areas
From 2000 until 2030 the urbanized areas will be nearly tripled1 because of the demographic
transition from rural to urban. The use of dark building materials, such as asphalt and concrete, leads
to a lower albedo in urbanized areas than in natural environment2, fostering local and global
warming. In turn, the increase in urban albedo might support climate stabilization efforts3. Here, we
investigate the potential effect of the increase in albedo in a representative set of European cities
relying on instantaneous radiative forcing (IRF), urban cooling and the consequent effect on
mortality, ozone formation and energy use. Apart from any geographical distinction, cities show that
the increases in albedo in compact cities have a cooling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, we use the effect of the local variation in temperature on the heating and cooling
degree days (HDD) (CDD) as a proxy for the effect on energy use and on the related greenhouse–
gas emissions. Although these indicators are not representative of all t, they cover the most
important ones. We calculate the potential effect of the local unitary increase in albedo on IRF –
responsiveness (R) – for a sample of 145 cities and urbanized areas in three geographical areas:
southern; central; and northern Europe (see Methods). Low cloudiness and high solar radiation make
R in southern European cities two times higher than in other regions (see SI Table 1). The mean R in
northern European cities is slightly higher than in central European cities – with values of 46 and 45
Wm–2 respectively (Fig. 1) – since cloudiness is lower in northern Europe. This result shows that
climatological features would potentially make southern cities more effective that central and
northern European ones in counteracting climate change.
Apart from any geographical and climatological distinction, the peculiar size and the morphological
characterization of each city may play a role in affecting IRF. We calculate the potential increase in
average

The Importance Of Formal And Informal Performance...
Understanding performance management
The value of assessing performance
Describe the value of formal and informal performance assessment in the workplace
An appraisal is one of the most commonly used methods of formal assessment and is used to
evaluate and assess the performance of an employee against agreed targets and objectives, with the
aim of improving employee performance. Where an employee has been able to achieve their targets,
the appraisal can be used to recognise successes. This often helps to increase an employee's
confidence and motivation and can lead to better organisational performance. Many organisations
will use the outcomes of an appraisal to identify potential candidates for promotions or even an
increase in pay. At the same time, an appraisal meeting may include discussions on
underperformance, identifying why this has occurred and how this can be avoided in the future.
An important element of the appraisal process is the setting of targets and objectives for the next
period. An employee cannot be expected to perform well if they do not have a clear understanding
of what is expected.
Performance management is a process which should happen on a continuous cycle. Managers must
communicate with employees on a regular basis, ensuring they do not limit discussion to an annual
appraisal meeting. Informal communication ensures that an employee can let a manager know if
they are having difficulties completing a task, allowing the manager to offer support and

Notes On ' Blue Terms '
DEFINITONS: BLUE TERMS
Albedo
The amount of solar radiation that is reflected by a surface or object. If something has a high Albedo
it reflects more of the Sun's radiation, whereas a low reflection then reflects less. Snow and ice, both
have a high albedo as they both reflect high proportions other Sun's radiation. A couple examples of
a substance having a low albedo would be vegetation (grass or trees) and oceans. Though the albedo
of soils and earth does vary as factor such as cloud cover, snow, ice, leaf cover, and land use affect
how much radiation a surface can reflect from the Sun.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic energy that comes from a source and is made up of electric and magnetic fields. Tis
energy travels through a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Earth's climate has always been changing, though the change that is being observed now is such a
concern due to certain factors. The thing that is concerning about climate change is the rapid rate at
which it is occurring. Changes in climate are happening at a very fast speed, changes in the past
were dramatic but gradual at the same time, over a time span of thousands of years. Also, the
possibility of climate change to continue at the same speed is very likely as many factors both
natural and human activities affect it.
Although the media often refer to "Global Warming," a more appropriate term is "Global Climate
Change." Why does it matter, and what is the difference?
A more appropriate term for the change we are witnessing in climate is Global Climate Change
rather than Global Warming. The term Global warming means that the climate of the Earth is
increasing in temperature, globally. Yes, the world is getting warmer although there are many factors
that take a part in this change in climate. These factors such as precipitation, and evaporation are all
part of this global change and in order to include all these changes a better term is needed rather
than Global Warming. The term that can be used to modify the understanding of these changes is
"Global Climate Change." Global Climate Change

Melting Planet Melting
Carter Eckhardt
GEOG 101! 02
Prof. Rhett Mohler
Writing Milestone #3
The Melting Planet
Do you wonder why each summer lasts longer and gets hotter and hotter? Do you wonder why our
sea levels are rising? Do you wonder why animals are going extinct? Global Warming is to blame
for all of this. Especially the melting of the polar ice caps and ice sheets as a result of global
warming. The polar ice sheets are where the vast majority of Earth's ice is stored including the main
ice sheets covering Antarctica and Greenland. These ice sheets are dome–shaped and cover solid
land masses and are estimated over 50,000 square kilometers (12 million acres) in size (National
Snow and Ice Data Center). Polar ice caps on the other hand are smaller than ice sheets covering
less than 50,000 square kilometers. However, taking both into consideration they are both melting
faster than ever before according to scientists and climatologists which is causing problems
throughout each corner of the globe for people and animals. Even though these large bodies of ice
are mainly located in Antarctic, Greenland, and inside the Arctic Circle (Rignot & Thomas 2002),
they wreak havoc for many areas including but not limited to the coastal areas.
The ice that is melting is important to Earth for many reasons like ice having high Albedo feedback
effect, it impacts human activities and biological habitats and it insulates the ocean from the cold
atmosphere. The amount of sea ice cover influences heat and water to atmosphere and may affect
local clouds and preciptation as well (https://www.vets.ucar.edu/vg/seaice/importance.shtml ).
Melting ice is caused by greenhouse gases which come together to create global warming and
causes drastic effects for humans but can be slowed down through a couple of solutions that scientist
have proposed.
Global warming is a very talked about subject in today's society dealing with climate change and the
Earth's overall environment. Global Warming is the general warming of the Earth's atmosphere due
to greenhouse gases. A greenhouse gase is a gas trapped in the atmosphere that absorbs infrared
radiation which traps in heat from the sun rays that bounce off the surface of the Earth and stores the
radiation

The Pros And Cons Of Solar Energy
Earth's energy budget is the net measurement of incoming radiation from the sun that is being used
and distributed throughout the climate system and later being reradiated back into space. The sun is
the prime source of energy and behaves like a 'black body' where it will emit energy proportional to
absorbing it, this can be supported through Planck's law where it describes that a black body will
emit maximum energy at a given length at a given temperature (Roger G Barry,200).
Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion reactions within the sun and creates a surface temperature
of 6000.c (Alan Strahler, 2011) Solar radiation output is 8% UV, 40% visible light, and 52% of near
infrared
Shortwave radiation passes through the atmosphere and is either absorbed or reflected back. Solar
radiation is scattered and absorbed by varying wavelengths as it passes through the atmosphere.
Atmospheric particles and molecules collide and intersect with solar rays, causing them to divert
back into space or down to Earth, or scattered even further.
Atmospheric absorption directly warms the surface as it emits longwave radiation back to Earth as
counterradation.
(as seen in figure 1) earth gives back long wave radiation, the radiation of the earth as a blackbody is
around 300k at 3–30 μm. Beneath the black curve is a series of upwelling energy by the earth and
the atmosphere. Some wavelengths are missing(6–8 um, 14–17um, and above 21um) as it is
completely absorbed by the atmosphere

How Annual Planetary Albedo Is Affected By The Forcing...
In this section, we will look at how each factor was affected by the forcing boundary conditions set
in the six experiments we ran. The results section will be organized in sections by factor.
Annual Planetary Albedo
First we will address results about how annual planetary albedo was affected by altering the forcings
in the simulations. Overall, when comparing Control Experiment (Modern Specified SST) to
Primary Experiment 3 (Ice Age 21kya run), we observed a relatively higher planetary albedo during
the Last Glacial Maximum, with an average of 2.37% increase. In areas with known ice sheets, such
as the Laurentide Ice Sheet over the upper section of North America or the Scandinavian Ice Sheet
over Northern Europe, there was a much more drastic change in albedo. In these regions, the albedo
was significantly higher during the LGM, up to 27% higher in certain areas. Albedo was also higher
south of the equator in the oceans surrounding the Antarctic. Some parts of the earth had a near–
neutral change in planetary albedo, mostly in low latitude areas like the tropics. This can be seen in
Figure 1. When put side by side, Figure 1 shows little resemblance to Figure 2, the map comparing
annual planetary albedo of Primary Experiment 1 and the Control Experiment. This comparison
shows little to no consistent change in albedo between the two eras, with a planetary average change
of 0.02%. There are clusters of regions with a very high increase in albedo between the modern

Bradon S Review Essay
Bradon's review Tuesday, September 23, 2014 1. 7:14 PM Explain the distinction between climate
& weather. Using this concept, explain why an individual hurricane or summer heat wave is not in
of itself proof of global warming? a. Climateis: a measure of the average pattern of variation in
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and
other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time. b. Weather:the state of
the atmosphere at a place and time as regards heat, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc c. Individual
weather changes does not mean that it was affected by the global climate ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
hemispheres with precession Low Ecc More circular orbit Less extreme seasons, lower hemisphere
contrast Precession–
‐ 22 years Spin axis wobble that changes position of seasons around orbital
ellipse, relative to aphelion and perihelion Amplifies temperature extremes of seasons for one
hemisphere Solstices and equinox varies in time–
‐ when? Obliquity–
‐ 41,000 years Why we have
seasons What is the difference between a positive and a negative feedback? Be sure that you are
familiar with the several examples of each that we covered in class. a. b. c. 6. Positive feedback:
initial change reinforced by another process. i. ice–albedo feedback ii. Water–vapor feedback iii.
Cloud feedback Negative feedback: initial change counteracted by another process. i. Cloud
feedback ii. Chemical weathering Note: Positive/negative feedbacks have no relation to 'good versus
bad', but are about how a system responds to a change. Why is there a latitudinal heat gradient
(increase or decrease)? What effect does this have on atmospheric circulation? a. Latitudinal heat
gradient b. Atmospheric circulation is driven by global heat distribution i. ii. 7. Circulation cells &
topography are primary controls on location of cloud cover &

Impacts of Climate Change on Australia Alps’ Ski Industry
The changing nature of snow cover as a result of alpine climate change is a modern phenomenon
that climate scientists are beginning to understand. Declining snow depth and duration have serious
implications for Australia's ski industry, in particular the longevity of the industry. This essay
discusses the impacts of alpine climate change on snow cover, adaption strategies to sustain the
industry's economy as well as the unsustainable nature of snowmaking as a long term solution.
Limitations on water and energy resource make snowmaking problematic as a substitute for natural
snow. The essay highlights the unsustainability of snowmaking as a short–term solution, and raises
concerns of the longevity of the ski industry.
Currently, the Australian ski industry comprises of ten operational ski resorts (Figure 1) with "0.15%
of the continent" (Green and Pickering 2009, p. 271) regularly receiving snow due to the low
attitude of mountains. Consequently, decline in snow cover on top of limited snow availability pose
significant difficulties to the longevity of the ski industry.
Effects of Climate Change Impact on ski industry Possible solutions
Decreased snow cover ↓ snow depth and duration ↑ snowmaking to substitute natural with artificial
snow
Temperature ↓ snow cover – cascading cycle
Biodiversity & vegetation Affects winter & summer tourism Opportunity for summer tourism
Water scarcity ↓ efficiency of snowmaking;
↑ cost and competition Use summer tourism to balance the

Informative Essay: The Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is just one of the many controversial topics being discussed by almost
everyone today. Some believe that it is just a myth made up by the government to control its
population while others avidly believe that it is a fact and try to incorporate it in how they live their
everyday lives. But there have been a few scientists who have deliberated on this topic for years,
Svante August Arrhenius, Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier and Horace–Bénédict de Saussure are just a
few for example.
The greenhouse effect put simply is gases in the atmosphere trapping heat causing the average
temperature on the earth to slowly increase over the year. The reason why it is such a hot topic is
because this not only effects ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From there the gases in the atmosphere reabsorbs it and lengthens the waves even more and
redirects them to go in every direction, both leaving the earth and towards the earth. The radius of
the earth is about 6378 kilometers, making the total surface area 510 million kilometers. Out of all
of this area to hit, the sun sends out around 12.2 trillion watt–hours per square mile per year. The
location of where the light hits the earth and its albedo is another major factor on how much energy
will reflect and absorb. Near the poles of the earth snow covers most of the land, snow reflecting the
most light causes very little of the energy to be absorbed by the surface. On the other hand, the
equator being directly hit by light and having a lot of light absorbing water, causes more energy to
be absorbed and heat the surface. The most accepted estimate on how much energy is being
absorbed at the equator is around 70% being absorbed while the other 30% is being reflected back
into the atmosphere and beyond. With the average albedo being around .35 we can estimate the
amount of energy being absorbed by the earth is around 4.27 trillion watt–hours per square mile per
year and 7.93 trillion watt–hours per square mile per year being sent back

Last Glacial Maximum
Each response was affected differently by the orbital variations, and similarly by greenhouse gas
levels. Orbital variations had little affect on annual planetary albedo, while the addition of altered
greenhouse gases recreated the albedo pattern found during the LGM more accurately. Changes in
both greenhouse gases and orbital variations least effected the annual precipitation. Because the
response of precipitation was most similar between the Control Experiment and Primary Experiment
3 it is likely that precipitation is not as heavily influenced by the conditions of the Last Glacial
Maximum as the other factors. Annual snow and ice cover patterns could be recreated by altering
present day levels of orbital variation and greenhouse gases to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Bouttes et al (2011). We compared maps presenting our main factors (planetary albedo,
precipitation, snow and ice cover, surface air temperature) with doubled levels of carbon dioxide
alone, or doubled levels of carbon dioxide and methane together. Each and every comparison
revealed what little impact methane has compared to carbon dioxide. Globally, surface air
temperature average lowered 0.07 degrees C, snow and ice coverage average increased 0.7%,
precipitation did not change at all, and average planetary albedo increased 0.02%. These minute
changes were nothing compared to the vast changes caused by doubled carbon dioxide, which
models we ran to compare the see the effect of extreme variations in greenhouse gas levels. Our
research led us to discover that greenhouse gases had a strong impact on the Last Glacial Maximum,
and carbon dioxide was the greenhouse gas that specifically caused most of this impact in both
warming and, more importantly, in

Assignment On Climate Change
Bekah Hendrix
10/26/17
Science 101
Opening Statement: Climate change is a negative adjustment that is caused by humans we should
make the change to more renewable energy to make electricity in order to help save the planet.
Section 1: How Climate works Weather is the state in which the atmosphere is acting like in a
specific place and time (Hewitt, 2014, 294). Climate, on the other hand, is the general pattern that
weather is doing over a time period of decades (Hewitt, 2014, 295). Climate and weather are not the
same, but they are similar because climate is the documentation of weather patterns in specific areas
over long periods of time. The Earth's atmosphere contains nitrogen at 78%, oxygen at 21% and
other gases make up the last remaining 1% but this one percent is very important to the climate of
the world (Hewitt, 2014, 295). The other gases consist of carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and
other gases. These gases are also called the greenhouse gases. They reflect the inferred radiation that
comes into the Earth's atmosphere from the sun. Carbon dioxides role in the atmosphere is it traps
the radiant energy from the sun between the Earth's atmosphere and its surface. There it is either
absorbed into the ground as thermal energy or it reflected back out into space. The absorbing and
reflecting off the Earth's surface is called albedo. The more a surface reflects the radiant energy back
into the more albedo the surface has, this would be an example of ice caps

Paris
PARIS – A WASTE OF TIME OR A WAY FORWARD?
Research has indicated that a warming climate, caused by net greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions is
contributing to changes in environment, suggesting that a large average temperature increase could
produce irreversible environmental impacts. At the twenty first Conference of the Parties (COP21),
195 international Governments made the first formal universal collaboration, which aims to end
what has been dubbed 'the fossil fuel (Goldenberg & Neslen, 2016). It focuses on circumstantial
policies, conceding that developing countries might require emission producing industry to remove
poverty, while promoting investment into renewable energy and funding for poorer countries, so that
renewably fueled growth may occur. This essay considers the governmental, economic, scientific,
and environmental ramifications of the agreement, whilst also discussing potential improvements, to
therefore determine the extent of the agreements success. To evaluate the significance of the Paris
agreement, it is necessary to acknowledge the science of climate change. For Earths' climate to
remain stable, an equilibrium of solar radiation (heat) entering and leaving the atmosphere must
occur, known scientifically as the Albedo Effect ("The Albedo effect," 1981). An Albedo Effect of
100% provides a climate with stable temperatures. Historically, there have been natural changes in
Earth's Albedo due to events, such as volcanic eruptions, which deposit atmospheric

Essay Case 11-3
Case 11–3
Master of the Universe
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Statement of facts...................................................... 3 Question
1.............................................................. 5 Solution........................................................ 5 Question
2.................................................................... 6 Solution........................................................ 6
Question 3.............................................................. 7 Alternatives................................................... 7
Solution........................................................ 8
STATEMENT OF FACTS Saturn and Venus, form Jupiter, a joint venture. Saturn owns 51 percent
of Jupiter and Venus owns 49 percent of Jupiter. The purpose of Jupiter is to own and operate
organic clothing design and manufacturing facilities and sell organic ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Equity interests with or without voting rights are considered variable interests if the legal entity is a
VIE and to the extent that the investment is at risk..." Also, ASC 810–10–55–19 states as a general
rule, assets and operations of an entity create its variability, meanwhile its liabilities and equity
interest absorb the variability. It also states that the variable interest absorb or receive the expected
variability created by those assets, liabilities, or contracts of a VIE that are not variable interests.
Because Saturn Inc. and Venus Inc. have investments in the residual interest and debt securities of
Jupiter, both companies are variable interest holders of Jupiter.
QUESTION NUMBER 3
Who, if anyone, is the primary beneficiary and why?
ALTERNATIVES
Alternative 1 – Venus is the primary beneficiary of Jupiter.
The distribution of clothing and decisions related to distribution could be the most significant impact
on the economic performance of Jupiter. Venus has the obligation to absorb losses of Jupiter or the
right to receive benefits from Jupiter and has the power to direct distributing activities of Jupiter that
could affect significantly Jupiter's economic performance.
Alternative 2 – Saturn is the primary beneficiary of Jupiter.
Saturn has the power to direct operating

Climate Changes And Climate Change Essay
Two significant patterns which have occurred due to climate change are temperature and
precipitation dispersion. These two patterns strongly correlate which each other and help us to
explain processes and therefore implications both socially and economically which are caused from
climate change. The earth's temperature due to climate change is rising; however this temperature
rise is not evenly distributed throughout the earth. Inland regions of continental lands masses
(excluding the Arctic and Antarctic) heat up far more so than coastal regions, this is because
radiation from the sun is these places are high and rock is a poor conductor of heat. Meaning the
radiation is only absorbed by the surface. Coastal regions suffer far less from this effect because the
ocean conducts heat much more effectively, allowing much more even heating of the ocean and
therefore a smaller overall heat increase. The higher levels of heat experienced in the equator due to
high sun radiation are an example of how the ocean regulates heat. Through ocean currents this heat
is dispersed and is eventually ends up flowing all the way to the poles where its heat energy is
released. This means the temperature of coastal regions is far less extreme than inland regions in
general. However, because of this temperature regulation throughout the oceans the arctic,
Greenland and Antarctic are heating up more rapidly than they otherwise would have. Currents
which lead heat energy from the equator are a key

Albedo Research Paper
Ice, like other reflective surfaces, absorbs and reflects light. Different colors of light emits different
wavelengths. Lighter colors of light such as red, yellow, and orange have longer wavelengths
ranging from 500 nanometers to 700 nanometers. Darker colors such as blue, green, and purple have
a shorter wavelength, ranging from 380 nanometers to 500 nanometers. Anything above 700
nanometers are considered infrared and anything below 380 is considered ultraviolet. Ultraviolet
lights are so powerful to the point that extensive exposure would knock off electrons from the atom
causing alters the DNA. Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and is produced in
wavelengths. Photons excites atoms causing them to vibrate, the vibration that the photon causes in
the atom is what we consider heat. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Albedo always has a reflection coefficient ( the amount of electromagnetic wave reflected) of less
than 1, that goes from 0 (no reflection) to 1 (perfect reflection) (Coakley, 2003). Factors that go into
the amount of albedo is the angle the light and the wavelength of the light shone on the ice. The
absorption of solar energy causes surface temperatures to increase, evaporating water and melting
ice and snow (Coakley, 2003). Hence making albedo one of the leading causes of climate change.
Sea ice is classified in many ways. There are many variations of sea ice that differ from ice
thickness to growth rate and to age of the ice (Light et al., 2003). Sea ice that has no more than one
year of growth from fall to winter are considered first–year sea ice (FYI), also known as young ice.
Multi–year sea ice (MYI), also known as old ice, is ice that has survived more than one summer
melt. It is also much thicker than first year ice, but throughout the years there has been an increase
in first–year sea ice and a decrease in multi–year sea

Albedo's Effect On Atmosphere And Temperature
Prompt 1: Since the climate would be cooler and less warm in general if the ice is melting, the
albedo would decrease.
If the ice is melting it is assumed that the climate will become cooler.
If there is more heat there will be more albedo. The earth's temperature would then decrease if the
ice was melting since that ice will eventually turn into a cooler form. I would expect the temperature
to decrease if the climate was cooler. The albedo of glacial ice according to the table is .80. The
albedo of the ocean's surface is .07 according to the table. I believe that the ocean's surface does
affect the overall temperature in an area. The ocean's surface is less reflective than the ice. I am
wondering how this relates to the albedo of the ocean. The albedo of the glacial ice is much higher.,
even though I would assume that glaciers are much colder than the temperature of the ocean's
surface. The glaciers/ice are the structures that are keeping the area very cold. In a glacial climate I
would guess that the glaciers have more effect in keeping the temperature colder in comparison to
the ocean. I wonder what has more affect on the temperature and albedo of the area, would it be the
temperature of the ocean's surface or the temperature of the glaciers? ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
We know that a desert is much hotter than a grassland ecosystem. So since the temperature increased
over thousands of years the albedo increased as well.If the climate was to change so dramatically in
an extreme climate (ex. Grassland ecosystem to a desert) we can assume that the temperature
increased at least slightly in other areas. Grassland ecosystems are warm but less warm than a desert
climate.
Prompt

State of Research on the Snowball Earth Hypothesis Essay
State of Research on the "Snowball Earth Hypothesis"
The "Snowball Earth Hypothesis" also known as the "Varangia glaciation" is a hypothesis presented
in 2001 by Geologist Paul Hoffman. (Wikipedia, 2002)
The hypothesis purposes that 540 million years ago during the Neoproterozic, a meter thick of ice
covered the oceans and glaciers the continents for 100 million years. Albedo; when ice and snow
reflect solar radiation into space, in absents of greenhouse gases, which don't exist within the
atmosphere, heat therefore escapes the planet. A condition of temperature disequilibrium occurs,
when freezing cold reaches a state, the climate never warms to normal, and cold freezes the
hemisphere and buries it under massive glaciation. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Knoll)
In 1998 the team of geologists had culled clues from Namibia and fashioned the Snowball
hypothesis. (monastersky, 1998)
Source and Nature of research
The research into collecting data proving or disproving Snowball Earth was conducted by geologists
who had collected Neoproterozoic rock samples in Australia, China, western U.S., Arctic Islands of
Svalbard and the Namibia coast. (Hoffman, et al. 1998)
Research included conducting a geologic survey of the Congo craton, facies of Ghaub formation fill
valleys. Rock specimens were taken from the lower glacial intervals (Chugs Formation) to just
beneath the unconformity at the base of Mulden group, Southern Damara margin of the craton and
Kaoko craton, Kalahari craton, Amadeus basin. These rock specimens were microdrilled and the
elements Sr, Mn, Fe, Ca, Mg were measured for abundance using inductively coupled plasma
emission spectoscopy to assess diagenetic alteration. These sample were analyzed offline for
DELTA 13 CARBON AND DELTA 18 OXYGEN after digestion for 3 hours in H2po4 at 50'C to
insure complete reaction of dolomite: the evolved gas was measured on a finnigan mat, other
research consisted of fisions secter mass spectrometer, graphite –furnace atomic absorption
spectoscopy, leached in NH4CH3COO, digestion in weak acetic acid. (Hoffman, et. al. 1998)
Analysis of "Snowball Earth Hypothesis"
The data obtained from cap carbonates deposited where

Global Warming Is The Global Average Temperature Increase
Global warming is the global average temperature increase that was observed over many centuries.
Scientist have determined that global warming is a result of the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse
effect occurs when greenhouse gases are present in the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapors, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons. Most of
these gases come from natural sources like evaporation, respiration, volcanic eruptions, and
decomposition. Some gases like chlorofluorocarbons are manufactured and have been widely used
as refrigerants, propellants (aerosol), and solvents. These gases absorb the sun's light energy and
then reradiate this energy. These gases absorb radiation in a unique way. A CO2 molecule absorbs an
incoming infrared photon emitted from the sun. The energy from the photon causes the CO2
molecule to vibrate. Then the molecule gives up this extra energy by emitting another infrared
photon. Once the extra energy has been removed by the emitted photon, the carbon dioxide stops
vibrating.
The more of these gases present, the more they reradiate the sun's energy. Because the sun's energy
is reradiated the energy is spread in all directions. This causes the surface temperature to stay in a
constant range of temperature. This is the reason the temperature fluctuations are not as drastic as a
planet with no and little atmosphere. The greenhouse effect only absorbs about fifty percent of the
suns light energy. The rest is

The Role Of Tropical Rainforest And Water Cycle
The role of tropical rainforest in water cycle
The tropical rainforest plays a significant role in regulating the water cycle on earth, through
transpiration and evaporation process. Transpiration is the water vapour loss from plants through
stomata, and evaporation is the water loss from all other part of plants but leaves and other living
things in the forest. Evapotranspiration are the accumulation of transpiration and evaporation in the
forest. During transpiration, trees suck water from soil through the root system and transport the
water to leaves through xylem, and then release the water to the air through stomata. Transpiration
happens simultaneously with photosynthesis.
The soil loss water due to evapotranspiration process and the water level will be recharged through
precipitation. In the tropical rainforest, precipitation rate are high due to high evapotranspiration
rate. High evapotranspiration rate plays a significant role in cloud formation above the rainforest
area and its surroundings. Water vapour that is released into the air will be condensed as it moves to
a higher altitude. The condensed water vapour form the clouds above the forest. The more water
vapour being released into the air, the more clouds would be formed.
Figure 1. Water cycle in forest Source: https://springbrookrescue.org.au/Images/Hydro05.jpg
The presence and density of cloud is one of the determiners of the earth's albedo. Albedo is the
fraction of solar energy reflected from the

Designing And Implementing A Technology Project Essay
Designing and implementing a technology project that spans the three different areas of the team
will take a considerable amount of time, energy, planning and resources. The system must
incorporate a balance between all areas as well as a mechanism that supports the growing demand
for output of quality product in a sufficient and efficient manner. Since all three areas (victim
correspondence, property acquisitions, and debt management) function under various rules and
procedures according to internal governance as well as Federal statutes and policies, the system
must be cross functional and multi–functional as well as legally compliant. In as much, a lot of
consideration is necessary when deciding which product, software, and system to choose. For
example, the current system used by the debt management section of the Team uses an Oracle
Business product that relies on dashboards to compile, sort, and analyze data. However, the victim
correspondence system uses a web–based system that relates case summary and detailed information
as well as downloads and links to system and case related inquiries and information. Legalities are
also to be taken into consideration. Most available products are legally owned by other corporations
and are likely leased on long term bases. Because these intellectual products are leased, the
corporation still owns the rights to the products and full access or manipulation or alterations to the
products is a topic for discussion prior to

The Intertropical Convergence Zone Plays a Large Role in...
The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is a permanent low–pressure feature that lies on the
meteorological equator. It is characterisied by lots of cloud cover and precipitation (Andrews et al.,
2003). The ITCZ plays a significant role in the climate and weather events in the tropics. The clouds
created by the ITCZ also provide an important form of albedo in the tropics (Waliser and Gautier,
1993),which has an effect on global climate. Tropical events such as monsoon and cyclones occur in
the ITCZ and are products of the unique convection system found around the ITCZ (Yancheva et al.,
2007, Ferreira and Schubert, 1997).The ITCZ is a product of humid trade winds from the northern
and southern hemisphere converging and then rising. This rising of humid air usually results in
precipitation over the tropics(Waliser and Somerville, 1994). This rising of the humid air acts as the
driving force in the Hadley Cell (Waliser and Somerville, 1994). The ITCZ is a product of high
levels of solar radiation and high amounts of latent heat released from the ocean (Andrews et al.,
2003). It is important to realize that the ITCZ moves throughout the year depending on the seasons,
it is likely to be found in the southern hemisphere in the southern hemisphere summer and in the
northern hemisphere during the northern hemispheres summer. However the ITCZ is more likely to
be found in the Northern hemisphere (Waliser and Somerville, 1994). The ITCZ plays a large role in
many of the climatic

High Albedo Lab
Introduction
The cryosphere consists of all frozen water on earth. It is found in the high northern and southern
latitudes of the planet. The components of the cryosphere include the following: sea ice, glaciers, ice
sheets, ice shelves, snow cover, freshwater ice, and frozen groundwater. The cryosphere plays an
important role in cooling the planet. The cryosphere, being ice, has a high albedo. The accepted
albedo of ice in the cryosphere is .6 or 60%, meaning ice reflects 60% of incoming shortwave
radiation. It is important that the cryosphere has a high albedo because it helps the planet to absorb
less coming radiation, thus helping to cool the atmosphere. Surfaces such as the open ocean or
asphalt roads have a lower albedo; these surfaces absorb more incoming radiation and ... Show more
The results of the Measuring Albedo lab are given in table 1. Accepted albedo value were obtained
from _____. The ice had the highest albedo, meaning is reflected the most incoming light. The
surface with the lowest albedo was the soil. The table shows the experimental albedos to be lower
than the accepted albedos of each surface. It is very likely that the experimental albedos were lower
than the accepted albedo due to human error in measuring the incident illuminance and the reflected
illuminance. The values for incident illuminance were higher than expected. They were likely
skewed by the distance the light meter senor was held from the heat lamp. Further effort should be
taken when repeating this method so that the experimental albedo accurately represents the accepted
albedo. This can be accomplished by taking care to hold the light meter sensor at the appropriate
distance from the heat lamp. It would have been better to get multiple recordings for the incident
illuminance rather than one so the incident illuminance can more accurately represent the

Short-Range Forecasts
1. Skin temperature (blank 1), moisture (blank 2). 2. Short–range forecast is assumed to be good
background for the analysis (blank 1), corrections to the short–range forecast are made into an
analysis that has been smoothed to the model resolution (blank 2). 3. Previous short–range forecast
(blank 1), the analysis increment fields (blank 2). 4. The first guess is a useful starting point for the
DA system. For one reason, because it has previous short–range forecasts to go off of. Short–range
forecasts are assumed to be good background for this analysis. This allows information from older
observations to be available, then permits combining observations of different parameters, sources
and quality for comparison. This also helps ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are different methods for models to emulate surfaces. Usually, the model will choose the most
common surface type in the particular grid box and that is the one that, "wins" or the model uses.
This means that the model is only represented by that particular type of surface. The other method is
the model finding the average albedo, soil types, surface roughness, and different characteristics to
average out to find what the surface is. However, we parameterize and the model uses the most
frequent type of surface of the year to represent. Initially we don't want to waste computing power
on the different types of surfaces, that is why these two types of methods for figuring model surfaces
is used. 8. Radiation models should be concerned with melting snow because of the different
albedos (shortwave radiation). New bright white snow has a high albedo, meaning it reflects more
incoming solar radiation. Old snow becomes darker and not as bright over time. This will cause a
low albedo where more energy is absorbed. Melting snow causes part of the ground to be exposed,
so this can affect the radiation differently for portions of the ground that do have snow on it vs.
portions of the ground that don't have snow cover. 9. There are complications when it comes to
models dealing with vegetation as one large plant being the entire surface for the grid box. First of
all, this causes effects on the surface and boundary layer temperatures, moisture, and other forecast
factors.

Social, Political And Economic Repercussions Of A Rising...
ESS : 91411 What are the potential social, political and economic repercussions of a rising sea level.
Abstract Sea level rise is a phenomena observed recently due to the effects of global warming on the
state of water on our planet, the increase in temperature causes glaciers to melt and less water being
trapped on land in the form of snow or ice, and the rising temperature causes the oceans themselves
to expand, due to the decrease in density from the increased vibrations of the molecule causing each
H2O molecule to take up more space. This warming and subsequent rise in sea level can cause
extreme poverty and social upheaval in regions reliant on delicate deltas. "Contrary to many other
"normal" coasts, deltas are difficult and expensive to protect, due to the very dissected nature of the
coastline."(2) where due to the ability to feed many people from the increased agricultural capacity
and productivity from the highly rich soils caused by the contraction and expansion of the waters
rejuvenating the soils with new minerals and nutrients. Which can be completely upset by a rise in
sea levels, disrupting the natural cycle and leading to flooded agricultural and urban lands that could
cause mass migration and famine. In this report I seek to analyse the potential scale of the threat
caused by rising sea levels relating to how societies across the world will be affected by the
disruption of agricultural centers, rising sea levels enveloping property and preventative

Impacts of Climate Change on Australian Alps' Ski Industry
Impacts of Climate Change on Australian Alps' Ski Industry
The changing nature of snow cover as a result of climate change is a modern phenomenon that
climate scientists are beginning to understand. The negative impact of climate change on snow cover
has serious implications for the Australian alpine ski industry, in particular the longevity of the
industry. This essay discusses the impacts of climate change on snow cover and the alpine
landscape, social attitudes, changes in the ski industry's economy, as well challenges and adaptations
facing the ski industry. The essay highlights the danger of short–term solutions resulting in
permanent damage to our environment.
The ski industry comprises of ten operational ski resorts (Figure 1) (NIER, 2006) worth over A$906
million. Yet, only "0.15% of the total continent" (Pickering, 2009) regularly receives snow as a
result of low attitude mountains. Consequently, the limited area of snow is not the only limiting
agent to skiing seasons with growing concerns of climate change.
Impact of climate change on snow cover
Australia's ski industry is significant challenged by the effects climate change on snow cover.
Declining of snow cover, amongst numerous issues (Figure 1), limits the growth of the ski industry.
Snow cover is based on the concept of accumulation and ablation (Thompson, 2012). The drivers of
snow accumulating and ablation are solar radiation and warmer temperatures from climate change.
Increased temperature results in

Roof Roof Research Paper
Any homeowner knows how important their roof is in protecting their home from the elements, but
many may not realize the effect it has on their summer cooling costs. With energy prices on the rise
in many areas, more homeowners are turning to energy efficient roofing options as a way to keep
costs down. There are options both for new roofs and for existing roofing, and a quick call to a
Wilmington roofing expert is a great place to start on the road toward energy savings.
Anyone who has ever stood on a traditional asphalt shingle roof on a warm day can quickly see why
it may not be the best choice for managing home cooling costs. When summer temperatures soar
into the 90s, as they so often do, a typical asphalt roof absorbs so much solar energy ... Show more
The amount of solar radiation a material reflects is called its albedo, and a high albedo roof surface
causes more solar energy to be reflected rather than absorbed. For an existing roof, this is most
easily accomplished with a "cool roof" coating. These coatings come in a light color and are
specifically designed to increase the albedo of a roof surface. For roofs that may need new shingles,
choosing a lighter shade of color is another option.
The best option for energy efficiency, however, is an entirely new cool roof. Cool roofs are specially
constructed to not only reduce the amount of solar energy absorbed with a high albedo, but also to
have a very high emittance, meaning that they quickly release any energy that is absorbed. The net
effect is a roof that may be up to 50 degrees cooler than a traditional asphalt roof during the summer.
High albedo, high emittance surfaces create a roof that transfers very little energy to the living space
below, and the effect can be further enhanced by ensuring that the proper amount of insulation is
used under the roof. A cool roof with proper insulation can make a tremendous impact on cooling
costs, and over the long term the savings may more than pay for the initial

Martian Moons Research Paper
The Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos were discovered in 1877 by American astronomer Asaph
Hall who was working for the US Naval Observatory at the time. Using the largest telescope at the
time, the USNO 66–cm refracting telescope, he was able to visually see Phobos and Deimos. Hall
on the suggestion of Henry Madan, Science Master of Eton College, used Homer's Illiad, to name
the two moons Phobos meaning Panic or Fear and Deimos meaning Terror or Dread. Phobos and
Deimos being the attendants or sons of the Greek god Ares the counterpart to Roman god Mars. Hall
had seen an object orbiting close to the planet mars on the 10th but could not identify it clearly
because of bad weather. Hall discovered Deimos on the 12th of August and over the course ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The moons of Mars were found to actually be potato shaped. This is one of the reasons for the
theory that they may actually be captured asteroids. The radii of Phobos was found to be about 2.76
Mars Radii and Deimos about 7 Mars radii. The moons are 23 km and 6 km with Phobos being the
bigger of the two, and like our own moon are tidally synchronized to Mars (always presenting the
same side to Mars). Phobos is gradually losing orbital energy and as a decaying orbit. Which means
eventually it will fall into and collide with Mars in about 45 million years. Deimos on the other hand
is just beyond Mars geostationary orbit, so it is gradually gaining orbital energy and will only
increase its orbital distance over the years. Even though Phobos and Deimos have low self–gravity
they themselves are deep within the mars gravity well. Meaning with a little work you could escape
the gravitational pulls of the moons but you would still be pulled by mars gravity. Phobos is so close
to its planet that the apparent size of Mars from Phobos is 42.5 degrees which is about 6400 times
larger than our moon from

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